Fam exam 1

Family Functions

1)Raising children responsibly 2)Providing economic and other practical support 3)Offering emotional security The form a family takes, and varies according to the social environment in which it is embedded: Extended Family Nuclear Family Postmodern Family

The Exchange Perspective: Rewards, Costs, and Equality in Sexual Relationships

In the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction, satisfaction depends on the costs and rewards of a sexual relationship, and the participant's comparison level (what the person expects out of the relationship). Comparison level for alternatives: What are alternative options and how do they compare? Expectations include some degree of equality.

Pansexuals

Have the potential to be sexually attracted to various gender expressions, including those outside the gender-conforming binary

The 1980s and 1990s: Challenges to Heterosexism

Heterosexism: The taken-for-granted system of beliefs, values, and customs that places superior value on heterosexual behavior and that denies or stigmatizes nonheterosexual relations Gays and lesbians have become increasingly visible and have also challenged the notion that heterosexuality is the one proper form of sexual expressions Homophobia: Viewing of homosexuals with fear, dread, aversion, or hatred Microaggressions: Commonplace and subtle verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities

asexuality

A small number of Americans referred to as asexuals do not experience sexual attraction to others. It is not clear if asexuality is a sexual identity. Asexuality is distinct from celibacy, abstinence, or lack of sexual desire. The latter is associated with older age, obesity, smoking, drug use, and diabetes.

Postmodern: There is No Typical Family

Only about 5% of families fit the 1950s nuclear family ideal of married couple and children with a husband-breadwinner and wife-homemaker

Family-Change Perspective

Others argue that change represents historically expected adjustments to changing conditions in society. Advocates argue that we need to view the family from a historical standpoint. Families in the past experienced similar challenges regarding the consequences of illness, death, social class, and race/ethnicity. Economic trends as well as cultural change accounts for subsequent changes in the family. Family is an "adaptable institution" and, as such, changes in response to larger social change. Recent trends appear to suggest an emergent "truce in the war over family" may be emerging

The Double Standard

Despite the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, numerous studies indicate that a double standard still exists which stipulates that women's sexual behavior must be more conservative than men's. Hooking up exists within a power imbalance; men frequently disregard the woman's pleasure in a hookup, and equality is not expected.

Families of Individuals

Families create a place to belong, providing both a family identity and an individual self-concept.

Familistic (Communal) Values

Familistic values such as family togetherness, stability, and loyalty focus on the family as a whole. They are communal values and emphasize the needs, goals, and identity of the group.

family as a social institution

Family is understood to be a social institution. Social institutions are patterned and largely predictable ways of thinking and behaving that are organized around vital aspects of group life and serve essential social functions.

Family Policy: A Family Impact Lens

Family policy involves all the procedures, regulations, attitudes, and goals of programs and agencies that affect families. The family impact lens perspective advocates for thinking about public policies in terms of how they affect whole family units.

Breadwinner and Caregiver Roles Today and in the Future

Ideas about gender are changing, so much so that some argue we have entered a "postfeminist" era in which gender no longer matters. On one hand, examples of females in nontraditional roles abound. On the other hand, many Americans continue to see women and men as fundamentally different.

Economics

In 2015, women who were employed full time earned 79% of what men earned. Sex, race, and ethnicity all converge into wage disparity. Overall, the earnings gap between men and women narrowed in recent decades, but that gap is widening slightly again. Some employers presume that women will leave the workforce to raise children, making it less likely for them to promote women.

Sexual Responsibility

Principles of sexual responsibility that may serve as guidelines for sexual decision-making: Risk of pregnancy Sexually transmitted infections Responsibility to sexual partners Responsibility to oneself

Theoretical Perspectives on Human Sexuality

The Exchange Perspective: Rewards, Costs, and Equality in Sexual Relationships The Interactionist Perspective: Negotiating Cultural Messages

Sexual Identity

Whether an individual is drawn to a partner of the same sex or opposite sex. Affectional orientation encompasses emotional and physical attractions beyond sexual attraction

Education

Women have been the majority of college students since 1979 and now surpass men in the proportion of the total population that are college graduates. Women are about half of college faculty today, compared with about one-third in 1995. Although women students outnumber men in colleges and universities, there is still gender differentiation in their choice of majors. There is evidence that some traditionally "male" disciplines foster a culture of "invisible masculinity" that marginalizes women.

Gender differentiation

is apparent in our cultural expectations about how people should behave. Masculine people are often thought to have instrumental (or agentic) character traits-confidence, assertiveness, and ambition-that enable them to accomplish difficult tasks or goals. Feminine people are thought to embody expressive (or communal) character traits-warmth, sensitivity, the ability to express tender feelings, and placing concern about others' welfare above self-interest.

American Households

most common: child free or post child rearing married couples, then people living alone least common: male-headed single-parent families

Sex Education

"Abstinence-only" programs focus on abstention from sexual relations unless in a monogamous marriage and argue this is the only protection against sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. There is no evidence that abstinence only programs are effective in delaying sex or preventing pregnancy. The most effective sex education programs are comprehensive and discuss STDs. Sex education needs to account for the teen propensity to engage in oral sex and consider it risk-free. Girls receive more sex education than boys. Most adults believe sex education should be shared between parents and schools. Nevertheless, parents provide the least amount of information about sex to their children relative to other sources (e.g., school, friends, sexual partners).

Family

"Any sexually expressive, parent-child, or other kin relationship in which people—usually related by ancestry, marriage, or adoption—(1) form an economic or otherwise practical unit and care for any children or other dependents, (2) consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group, and (3) commit to maintaining that group over time."

Older Spouses and Partners

Although sex is usually associated with youth, older adults place a high degree of importance on a satisfying sexual relationship.

Traits in Men and Women

How females and males differ on aggressiveness, conceptualized as overlapping normal distribution curves.

Ever-New Biological and Communication Technologies

Assisted reproduction technologies (ART) allow increased opportunity for creating families. Infertile, single, and homosexual couples can now experience biological parenthood. Such advancements raise important relationship and ethical questions (for example, the parental rights and responsibilities of sperm donors) Communication technologies allow greater opportunity for support and connection. The Internet has also been a source of conflict for families (e.g, cyberinfidelity, online addictions, cyberbullying). Communication technology also creates a digital divide between the poor and wealthy.

Nuclear Family

Husband, wife, children.

Making Informed Decisions

Deciding versus sliding Three components : Recognizing as many options or alternatives as possible Recognizing the social pressures that may influence personal choices Considering the consequences of each alternative rather than gravitating toward the one that initially seems most attractive

Gender expectations

refers to societal attitudes and behaviors associated with an individual's anatomical sex assigned at birth.

Feminist Theory

Feminist Theory Basic Perspective: Male dominance in relationships, culture and society oppressing women Rebels against Patriarchy (male domination of females) Aimed at rectifying issues such as rape, domestic violence, issues related to birthing among others

Sex Without Affection and Recreational Sex

Friends with benefits and hooking up refer to casual sexual relationships. This is a growing trend among adolescents and young adults. Dating used to be something that led up to sex; in the hookup era, the sex happens first, which may (or may not) lead to a relationship.

Historical Periods and Events

World events impact family values, attitudes, and arrangements. Great Depression and World War II Optimistic 1950s and tumultuous 1950s Economically constricted 1970s and 1980s Time-crunched 1990s Terrorist threats of the 2000s

Hispanics and Gender:

Young Hispanic women experience ambivalent sexism—tension between expectations of academic success and traditional domestic expectations.

Gender identity

refers to the degree to which we see ourselves as feminine, masculine, transsexual—or perhaps even non-gender.

Developmental Tasks in a Given Stage

1. Newly Established Couple-Courtship of romantic partner 2. Families of Preschoolers-Arrival of first baby, beginning stages of parenting 3. Families of Primary School Children- Increasing independence, more advanced, cognitive relationship, increases in peer socialization 4. Families with Adolescents- Adolescents forming on social identity, decreased reliance on parents, increased importance of peers and romantic partners 5. Families of the Middle Years- Help children become almost fully independent (e.g. job, college ect) 6. Couple Focused -Awareness of time, money, retirement, empty nest syndrome, Refocus on self 7. Aging Family -Consideration of health related problems, retirement, death of a spouse, grandchildren

Marriages and Families: Four Themes

1. Personal decisions must be made throughout the life course. Decision making is a trade-off; once we choose an option, we discard alternatives. No one can have everything. The best way to make choices is knowledgeably. 2.People are influenced by the society around them. Cultural beliefs and values influence our attitudes and decisions. Societal or structural conditions can limit or expand our options. 3.We live in a changing society, characterized by increased ethnic, economic, and family diversity; by increased tension between familistic and individualistic values; by decreased marital and family permanence; and by increased political and policy attention to the needs of children. 4.Personal decision making feeds into society and changes it. We affect our social environment every time we make a choice. Making family decisions can mean choosing to become politically involved in order to affect family-related social change. Making family choices according to our values gives our family lives greater integrity.

Postmodern

Acknowledges that families today exhibit a multiplicity of forms and that altered family forms continue to emerge and develop.

The Cost of Traditional Gender Expectations

Biases and gender stereotypes thwart both males' and females' career opportunities, men's confidence in nontraditional family roles, and both genders' ability to communicate supportively with one another. The male death rate is generally higher than that for females. Can masculine gender identity expectations be lethal? Poverty levels for women are higher than for men. How much can traditional gender identity expectations explain this?

Government and Politics

Although slightly more than 50 percent of the population, women are still significantly underrepresented in high government positions. Men of color are also underrepresented in high government positions. Individuals of different races, ethnicities, and genders have different opinions about important issues (e.g., immigration policy, police tactics).

Men's Movements

Antifeminists believe that the women's movement has caused the collapse of the natural order, one that guaranteed male dominance, and they work to reverse this trend. Pro-feminists support feminists in their opposition to patriarchy. Masculinists tend not to focus on patriarchy as problematic, but work to develop a positive image of masculinity, one combining strength with sensitivity.

Biology-Based Arguments

Are gender differences anchored in biology? Some researchers argue that gender differences are anchored in hereditary biology. However, biological predisposition to certain behaviors does not mean that a person's behavior cannot be changed by social structure (nature vs. nurture).

Interaction-Constructionist Perspective: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Describes that nothing is natural and given but socially created by humans Socially constructed discourse can be challenged through altered interactions In families, it focuses on the interactions between family members and the resulting consequences Critiques Little explanation is provided if everything is socially constructed Methodological and Measurement troubles if there is no consensus on social narratives, meanings and discourses How do you study domestic violence when there are so many discourses involved?

Social Exchange or Exchange Theory

Basic Premise: Based on utilitarianism where individuals rationally weigh the rewards and costs of their behavioral choices Based on individual perception Choose options based on critical thinking (think back to chapter 1 in deciding and sliding) More resources (e.g. education) leads to better options and even decision making processes Emotional investment within the relationship leads to a one up position or one down position. Less invested leads to more power Principle of least interest More alternatives (more choices) leads to more power Fewer choices leads to deferring to the choices of others Social Networks: everyday exchanges between people that accumulate over time. Social Capital: social resources (e.g. exchanging favors) resulting from social contacts Social capital is analogous to economics and wealth. Belonging to social networks affords us more social capital Having the ability to ask 5 friends for a favor instead of 1 Access to household resources shapes communication, intimacy, division of labor, parenting ect. Relationships based on equal exchanges

Family Ecology Perspective

Basic Premise: Explores interactions between the varying levels of the external environment and the family Example: Non-Standard Work schedules impact on family behavior Social structures do not dictate (cause) behavior rather influence behavior through constraints and opportunities What are some common social structures constraining or affording opportunities for families (think back to chapter 1) How do these social structures directly impact families? Goal is to identify factors important to societal and community support for families, thus family policy Every family is embedded in a set of nested structures (structures each inside the next) Each nested structure encompasses events, social rules and policies, social characteristics and culture. All parts of the model are interrelated (interdependent). Example: Earths physical environment impacts the availability of food, which impacts jobs, which impacts economy, which impacts finances and ability to eat

The Family Ecology Perspective:contributions and critiques

Contributions Challenges assumption of individual effort being the determining factor in the success and failure Turns perspective to family policy and what can be done at the larger levels to enhance families Critiques Too broad Difficult to adequately test

Interaction-Constructionist Perspective

Basic Premise: Focus on the interactions and relationships among individuals Often times exploring micro level exchanges such as day to day interactions, gestures and behaviors occurring within a family Meanings are often commonly shared among groups of people Family identity, culture, and traditions emerge through interactions Rituals: Recurring practices marked by special occasions and are different from the everyday workings Role Making: Process of adopting culturally understood roles Plays a significant role in understanding cultural differences Focuses on the creation of family forms rather than assuming them as a given (in comparison to the structural-functional approach) Families are a product of socially created discourses and narratives Embedded within cultural and historical contexts Domestic Violence typically seen as a male perpetrator and female victim What are the problems with this narrative? Also discusses interactions with larger societal constructs Examples: Decisions on having children, if and when to marry Theory is a part of postmodern theory Social discourse (or narrative): commonly accepted and widely practiced behaviors (e.g. getting married) Examples of social constructions: Gender and Race There isn't a universal reality rather subjective and shaped realities Disagreement on the extent to which individual's are free Some suggest individuals are free to make choices Others suggest we are actors manifesting socially created narratives and discourses Reality is formed through interactions with others, or are constructed Creation of meaning, symbols and definitions Meanings can be changed over time through interactions Meaning Making Process Individuals put out, or externalize meaning Externalizing meanings are reified or made to seem real Once the externalized meaning appears to be real, it becomes internalized and taken for granted to be real Examples: Honeymoon following weddings Going on a honeymoon is a socially constructed idea that is reinforced (thus, a common occurrence) and taken for granted (the honeymoon is a part of the wedding that shouldn't be foregone).

Structure-Functional Perspective

Basic Premise: Investigates how a given social structure functions to fulfill basic needs Social structures refers to the way that families are patterned or organized (form families take on) Social Structures shape our lives meeting biological and social needs Each structure has a consequence, or outcome, associated with it Inquires about how the family structure (e.g. cohabitation, single parenthood) allows families to fulfill the basic needs. Example: What are child mental health outcomes across the stats of non-residential parents (e.g. separated, remarried, cohabitating). Encourages thinking of non-traditional alternatives resemebling functions of a nuclear family Emergence of the term "dysfunction" Opposes the three functions of a family (child rearing, emotional support, economic stability) Some argue dysfunction is too broad (sociologists) whereas others believe it to be a description of the family dynamics (psychologists) Functioning is relative to the family Some dynamics are functional for some members and not for others (e.g. power) Functions Manifest Functions: Outcomes of social functions that are expected (e.g. increasing knowledge by going to college) Latent Functions: Unsought social consequences (e.g. increasing independence in college)

Biosocial Perspective

Basic Premise: Linking psychosocial factors to physiology, genetics and evolution Physiology, genetics and evolution predispose certain individuals to specific behaviors Biology interacts with our environment affecting human behavior Evolution can account for family patterns Non-biological parents are more likely to abuse children, invest less time and money Parents naturally protect those that carry their own genetic material Certain human behavior can be difficult if not impossible to manage because they serve a biological function Traditional gender roles parallel those of mammals

Attachment Theory

Basic Premise: Over the course of childhood, children develop a basic sense of their ability attach to others Once a style is established (secure, anxious, avoidant, disorganized) they apply this schema to all relationships Disorganized is less talked about than others because it represents a vast minority of children (5-10%) and often is a outcome of trauma, chaos and abuse Childhood attachment is highly correlated to adult attachment Attachment styles lead to behaviors in romantic and parent-child Increases in insecure attachments styles in recent year

Family Life Course Development Framework

Basic Premise: The family is the unit of analysis Families change in predictable ways over time 1. Addition or subtraction of members 2. Varying developmental stages occurring 3. Changes in connection with social environment Each Stage has a developmental task associated with it Developmental task must be mastered before family can move on as a unit Families are assumed to function better when there is successful completion of the previous developmental stage Assumption: Starts with coupling/marriage stage: Family Life Course Developmentalists examine/research pathways to family formation What factors lead to specific family behavior? Elongation of development into a fully functional adult is largely based on economic issues, particularly a longer process in the ability to be economically independent, successful and sustainable What other possibilities may explain this? Delays in emotional maturation and independence (overparenting, babying) Beginning to study alternative conceptualizations of family Hooking up, internet based dating, cohabitation, non-marital child birth

Family Systems Theory

Basic Premise: The family is viewed as a system containing interrelated parts A system is a combination of elements or components that are interrelated and organized into a whole. Behaves fairly consistently Seeks equilibrium (stability and balance) but can be positive or negative Examples of Positive and Negative forms of equilibrium? Changes in one part of the system lead to changes in function of other parts in the system Behavioral changes attempt to maintain equilibrium as much as possible For lasting change to occur, the family system must change as a whole Establish a new equilibrium Family members are often overtly or covertly encouraged to retain their old behaviors Systems often pathologize one member (scapegoating) when the problem is based on a larger, systemic scale Family systems also have subsystems with different types of boundaries Subsystems: A group of members who exist in the larger system but also exist within a smaller group (e.g. parental subsystem, sibling subsystem). Can be a part of many subsystems Boundaries: Clear, Rigid, Enmeshed

African Americans and Gender:

Black couples experience high levels of role flexibility and power sharing. Yet, traditional male-female gender relationships are often desired.

Relaxed Institutional Control over Relationship Choices

Choices in regard to family have become less predictable, and individuals have differing ideas about one's obligations to family and society. We are witnessing an ongoing social trend that involves increasingly relaxed institutional control over relationship choices

Conflict Theory

Conflict Theory Basic Premise: Not all family practices are positive and not all contribute to well being. Examples of positive and negative interactions can include traditions and domestic violence Focuses on power in the family Behavioral manifestations (problems) in families extends from unequal distribution of power Within family power distribution is reflected from external (societal) perspectives on power Extended from Karl Marx

Social Exchange or Exchange Theory: contributions and critisims

Contributions Draws on the alternative possibilities Inequality quickly or over time erodes the quality of the social relationship Criticisms Unrealistically rational Discounts personality structure and socialization processes Men and women process information different Example: My text conversation with a friend What happens when an overall quality relationship goes through a "rough patch" (e.g. great recession and costs are high and rewards are low.

Attachment Theory: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Encourages investigation in how interpersonal relationship impact personality development How parenting practices and behaviors impact children cross sectionally and longitudinally Critiques Arguments that environment could dictate attachment style rather than the secure base

Structural-Functional Perspective: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Encourages thoughts on how different family formations allow for effective family functioning given the importance of family functioning in society Thoughts of alternative formations Criticisms Assumes values of families are shared across different family formations Pushes for specific roles (e.g. gender roles) Assumes a nuclear family as the baseline (or normal)

Family Systems Theory: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Illuminates the non-independence of members and describes that change is based on the family changing rather than the individual (de-pathologies) Critiques Does no adequately address economy and financial variables, gender stratification and other features of larger society Diffuses responsibility across the system for an individual's actions

Biosocial Perspective: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Integrates biology, genetics and physiology into human behavior (very often overlooked) For example, there is a "trauma" gene and therefore can be passed down to future generations Critique Believes in modern gender roles rather than post-modern Non-reproductive sexual relationships are unexplained

The Family Life Course Development Framework: contributions and critiques

Contributions Underscores importance of specific relationships, their change over time, and important milestones and tasks that need competition during that stage Emphasizes transition between tasks and how they impact family interactions Criticisms White middle class bias (traditionally speaking) Lack of explanation of heterogeneity of families within the same developmental stage Popularity has decreased over time

Conflict and Feminist Theory: contributions and criticisms

Contributions Called attention to widespread inequality Women's contribution were empirically non-existent prior Critique Not an academically derived theory Is too political, value laden and adversarial Vague description of patriarchy

Overall SE Tenets

Costs Benefits Profit Perception Motivation Self-interest Rationale Comparison level Comparison level alternative Principle of least interest

Designing a Scientific Study: Some Basic Principles

Cross-sectional versus Longitudinal Data Deductive versus Inductive Reasoning Quantitative versus Qualitative Research Defining Terms Samples and Generalization

Structural-Functional Perspective: Clinical Example

David presents to session following "coming out" to his parents several months. He reports that his parents are devoutly religious and have no been supportive at all. Instead of seeking emotional support from them, he seeks out support groups in the LGBTQ community Friends are a functional alternative to not getting support from his family (fulfilling his social and biological needs). Distress following disclosure is a function of religion; other families may have different reactions if their religious views are different

The Interactionist Perspective: Negotiating Cultural Messages

Emphasizes the interpersonal negotiation of relationships in the context of sexual scripts. Cultural messages provide reasons for having sexual contact, who should take the initiative, how long it should last, how important experiencing orgasm is, what positions are acceptable, and whether masturbating is appropriate. More recent cultural messages are concerned with what sexual interactions or relationships are appropriately conducted over the Internet. Sexual scripts influence women and men, and are learned from their culture. Sex partners assign meaning to their sexual activity. Sex is symbolic of something, e.g., affection, communication, recreation, or play. Sex has different cultural meanings in different social settings.

Socialization and Gender Expectations in Families

Encouragement of gender-typed interests and activities continues: Toys considered appropriate for boys encourage physical activity and independent play; those for girls elicit closer physical proximity and talk between players Parents who encourage nonsexist child raising for daughters are often concerned if their sons are "too sensitive" or insufficiently competitive. Parents more often allow girls to express a wider range of feelings than boys.

A Sociological Imagination

Ever-New Biological and Communication Technologies Economic Conditions Historical Periods or Events Demographic Characteristics Family Policy

Gender identities are changing dramatically in two ways:

Gender fluidity has become apparent in U.S. society Breadwinner and caregiver roles continue to change

Socialization and Gender Variance

Gender socialization assumes that gender is binary. Some toddlers display gender variance, which is sometimes encouraged by parents but discouraged by other institutions (e.g. schools). Colleges and universities sometimes recognize and adapt to gender variance (e.g., gender neutral restrooms and housing; preferred pronouns such as "they" or "xe").

Gender Socialization—The Process

Gender socialization involves two components: Socialization to masculine or feminine gender identities in a binary system Socialization to appropriate gender attitudes and behaviors appropriate for one's gender identity.

Gender Identities in Social Context

Institutional structures are gendered and have profound implications for influencing the ways that people enact gender. Every society has a gender structure that shapes the roles individuals are expected to follow. Institutions in virtually every society have been characterized by patriarchy and masculine dominance.

Gender Socialization Theories

Interactionist-Constructionist Perspective Children develop self-concepts based on feedback from those around them. Social Learning Theory Children learn aspects of gender roles as they are taught by parents, schools, and the media. Self-identification theory Children categorize themselves by age 3 and identify behaviors in their families, the media, and elsewhere that are appropriate to their sex and adopt these behaviors. Gender Schema Theory Children develop a frame of knowledge about what girls and boys typically do, and then use this framework to interpret and think about gender.

The Relative Values of Masculinity versus Femininity

Mainstream culture values masculinity more highly than femininity. A woman lives with bifurcated consciousness—a divided perception suggesting that caregiving is most important for her, yet not as highly valued as career success

Asian Americans and Gender

Male dominance continues to characterize recent Asian immigrants, but increased independence is noted among Asian women in the U.S.

Facts About Families: American Families Today

Marriage is important to Americans—but not to the extent that it was sixty years ago. A smaller proportion of people is married today Young people are postponing marriage. With some usually religion-based exceptions, cohabitation has become an acceptable family form as well as a transitional lifestyle choice. Fertility has declined. Particularly among college-educated women, parenthood is often postponed. Compared to 4 percent in 1950, the nonmarital birthrate is high (44.3 percent of all U.S. births). Same-sex-couple households increased by 80 percent between 2000 and 2010. Though it has been falling since 1980, the divorce rate is high. The remarriage rate has declined in recent decades but remains significant.

Sexual Frequency

Married couples have sex more often than single individuals, though less often than cohabitating couples. 74% of married women under age 25 reported having had sex a few times a month or more. Though sexual activity declines over time, married couples are sexually active longer than in the past.

Masculinities

Men are culturally obligated to be involved in 1) group leadership, 2) protecting group territory and weaker or dependent others, and 3) providing resources. In Western societies, a complementary cultural message emerged: that of the "new man" who was both financially successful and emotionally sensitive. Some masculine traits are positive: bonding with and protecting others; self-reliance, courage, and heroism; and banding together toward common goals.

Sexual Values for Committed Relationships

Monogamy and Sexual Infidelity The proscription against extramarital sex is stronger in the U.S. than in other parts of the world; 89% consider it "morally wrong." Over a lifetime, approximately 15-25% of married men and women are going to cheat on their partner. Risk factors include relationship and sexual dissatisfaction, childhood sexual abuse, and spousal violence. "Digital infidelity" has become more common in recent years

Religion

Most U.S. congregations have more female than male participants, yet men hold more positions of authority. Growth in conservative religions has taught a traditional family ideal of male headship and female domesticity. Conversely, actual practice among religious people often is more egalitarian than strict religious teachings.

Responsibility to Sexual Partners

Partners must realize that sex is something they do with each other, not to or for each other. Each partner is equal in the sexual union; this necessitates communication. Each partner is responsible for his or her own sexual response.

Early America: Patriarchal Sex

Patriarchal sexuality is characterized by beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors developed to protect the male line of descent. Men are to control women's sexuality. Has been challenged, but persists to some extent.

Demographic Characteristics: Age Structure

People live dramatically longer than they did a century ago, resulting in more years to invest in education and a longer period for family interactions but also a growing elderly population that must be cared for.

The Freedom and Pressures of Choosing

People make choices even when they are not aware of it. The best decisions are informed ones. Structural constraints, economic and social forces, limit personal choices. But just as society influences individuals, so individuals can create social change.

The Blinders of Personal Experience

Personal experience provides a certain way to "know" family. Personal experiences regarding family may limit the ability to study and understand the experience of family. Science provides norms for transcending the blinders of personal experience. The central aim of scientific investigation is to find out what is actually going on, as opposed to what we assume is happening. Science: "a logical system that bases knowledge on...systematic observation" and on empirical evidence—facts we can verify with our senses.

Spouses and Partners in Middle Age

Physical aging is a significant explanation for declining sexual activity. Marital satisfaction is the second largest predictor of sexual frequency. Declining frequency appears to be offset by an increase in the quality of sexual experiences.

Sexual Relationships and Pornography

Pornography has become so commonplace online that many are no longer disturbed by it. More men than women find pornography morally acceptable. Some couples report that viewing pornography enhances their sexuality and gives them ideas. Conversely, pornography may contribute to gender inequality and misogyny. It may also alter people's understandings of what normal bodies look like, as well as decrease the ability to enjoy sex in real life.

Demographic Characteristics: Race and Ethnicity

Race how people view varied social groups. Ethnicity has no biological connotations; it refers to cultural distinctions. Minority group persons in non-white race/ethnic categories experience some disadvantage. The United States is becoming more racially and ethnically diverse. As a result, there is greater variation in the structure, form, and experience of family life. Racial/ethnic stratification exacerbates issues of social class that forms a person's habitus.

The American public greatly overestimates the percentage of men and women who are gay and lesbian.

Recent studies indicate that between 3 to 4 percent of adults identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or "something else." Compared to whites, nonwhites are more likely to identify as LGBT, as are women compared to men.

Demographic Characteristics: Religion

Religious affiliation and practice is a significant influence on family life. Religion offers rituals to mark important family milestones (e.g., birth, marriage) Religious practices outside of the mainstream present special challenges to families.

To what extent do women and men follow cultural expectations?

Research suggests that there are fewer behavioral gender differences than we think. Women seem to have greater connectedness in interpersonal relations. Men tend to be more aggressive and competitive. But there is great individual variation; situational context accounts for much of the difference.

Scientific norms govern the process of research and help scientists transcend personal bias:

Researchers must be honest. Scientists should publish their research. Publishers ensure validity of research, via "blind" submissions and peer review. Publishing allows continued inquiry and cumulative understanding. Objectivity is a key norm.

The Ethics of Research on Families

Researchers must have their plans reviewed by an institutional review board (IRB). The IRB scrutinizes research proposals for adherence to professional ethical standards. Informed Consent Lack of coercion Protection from harm Confidentiality Compensation of participants Sharing of research results with participants and other appropriate audiences

Moving Through Stages in The Family Life Course Development Framework

Role Sequencing: Order in which major life course transitions take place (very important) Normative Order Hypothesis: work-marriage-parenthood sequence is through to be best for mental health and happiness "On-Time" Transitions from one stage to another also contribute to mental health, happiness, and role performance Delayed Exists or boomerang: children have not left the home in an timely fashion How does this theory hold up through the changes in child launching in young adulthood over the past 70 years?

Sex with Affection

Sexual intercourse between unmarried men and women is now widely accepted, provided they have a fairly stable, affectionate relationship. Most unmarried teens and adults engage in serial monogamy, with most partners demonstrating sexual exclusivity.

The Twentieth Century: The Emergence of Expressive Sexuality

Sexuality is seen as basic to the humanness of both women and men; there is no one-sided sense of ownership. Sex is an important means of enhancing human intimacy.

Adolescent Sexuality

Teen sexual intercourse has declined since 1991. This predates an emphasis on "abstinence-only" sex education programs. The decline is attributed to comprehensive sex education and fear of sexual disease. Many teens do not consider oral sex to be "sex." A "virgin" is widely seen as someone who has not had vaginal intercourse.

Abstinence

Teens today are less likely to be having sex than in the past. Generally, teens who do not engage in sexual activity give absence of love; conservative values; or fear of pregnancy, disease, or parents as their reasons

The Women's Movement

The 19th century saw a feminist movement develop, but from 1920 until the mid-1960s, there was virtually no activism regarding women's rights and roles. The civil rights movement provided a model by which the second wave of the women's movement challenged accepted traditional roles and strove to increase gender equality. Some women of color and white working-class women find the women's movement irrelevant to their personal and social struggles and experiences. Media sometimes suggest that younger, "postfeminist" women do not support feminism or believe women's rights goals have been achieved. "Postfeminism" seems to be a myth. Instead, the broader goals of feminism seem to have become relatively accepted in society at large.

Gender—No Longer Binary

Some cultures offer individuals a third or even fourth gender option along the male-female continuum. Intersexed individuals have ambiguous genital anatomy. Transsexual and transgendered individuals are uncomfortable with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Transgender refers to persons who change gender identity. The concept transgender includes both transsexuals and transvestites, or cross-dressers. Transsexuals change their physical anatomy and/or physiology through sex-reassignment surgery (SRS).

Socialization and Gender Expectations in Schools

Students engage in borderwork—maintaining "acceptable" gender norms. Teachers may reinforce the idea that males and females are more different than similar. Teachers pay more attention to males than to females. Male students tend to dominate learning environments from nursery school to college. Boys have poorer study habits and are less concerned about their schoolwork than girls; they also exhibit more emotional and behavioral problems. Girls are beginning to catch up in STEM classes. The relative lack of male role models in educational settings may be harming boys.

Science: Transcending Personal Experience

The Blinders of Personal Experience Personal experience must be combined with scientific inquiry.

The 1960s Sexual Revolution: Sex for Pleasure

The availability of birth control and changes in laws allowed intercourse to become separate from pregnancy, and helped reverse the idea that the state held sway over sexual and reproductive decisions. Attitudes and behavior regarding sex changed: In 1959, about 80% stated disapproval of sex outside marriage. In 2015, only 29% said it was "morally wrong." The rate of nonmarital sex and the number of partners rose, while age at first intercourse dropped—today the average age of first sexual intercourse for both boys and girls is 17. Perhaps the most significant change resulting from the sexual revolution concerns marital sex. Married couples today have sexual intercourse more often and report greater pleasure and variety than in the 1950s.

People as Individuals and Family Members

The changing shape of the family has meant that family lives have become less predictable than they were in the mid-twentieth century. Family relationships need to be flexible enough to allow for individual changes while maintaining the benefits of family living.

Habituation hypothesis

The decreased interest in sex that results from the increased accessibility of a sexual partner and the predictability in sexual behavior over time

Extended Family

The family structure involved whole kinship groups in traditional societies.

Society-Based Arguments

These arguments examine how gender expectations and behaviors have been structured by societal conditions. Foraging and Hoe Societies Agricultural Societies Industrial Societies Postindustrial Societies

Native Americans and Gender:

The matrilineal tradition of many tribes, in which women owned houses, tools, and land, is re-emerging. Women are reclaiming leadership roles in many tribes.

Economic Conditions

The overall long-term trend in U.S. household income has been upward; however, that pattern masks increasing economic inequality between families. The recent recession caused uncertainty and change in virtually all families. Life chances depend on family economic resources.

Socialization

The process by which society influences members to internalize attitudes and expectations.

Family-Decline Perspective

The relaxation of institutional control over relationships and families = "family decline" or "breakdown." Claims that cultural change toward excessive individualism and self-indulgence has hurt relationships, led to high divorce rates, and undermines responsible parenting.

Individualistic (Self-Fulfilment) Values

These values encourage people to think in terms of personal happiness and goals and the development of a distinct individual identity. Gives more weight to the expression of individual preferences and the maximization of individual talents and options.

The Relationship Between Theory and Research

Theory directs research questions and suggests useful concepts. Theoretical perspectives help interpret data and explain facts. Subsequent understanding from research can be used to modify, support, or challenge existing theory.

Gender Fluidity and Family Relationships

Though some parents allow their children to explore gender identity, most are not tolerant of gender ambiguity. Transfamilies face typically painful transitions. Sometimes it is the parents, not the children, who need to find their true gender identity. This can be difficult for children. There is a slow but growing acceptance to gender fluidity in society.

Race/Ethnic Diversity and Gender Expectations

Traditional gender stereotypes were based on a white, middle-class, heterosexual experience. Until about 20 years ago, researchers saw women as a homogenous category disadvantaged compared with men, also a homogenous category. It is now recognize that men are not equally privileged, nor are women equally disadvantaged; gender is examined in relation to linkages to race/ethnicity and class (intersectionality). Marriages of more recent immigrants tend to be less equal than those of similar couples whose families have been in the U.S. longer.

Femininities

Traditionally, the pivotal expectation for a woman requires her to offer emotional support. The ideal woman was physically attractive, not too competitive, a good listener, and adaptable. She was considered fortunate if she had a man in her life and was expected to be a good mother and put her family's and children's needs before her own. New cultural models for women emerged as more women entered the workforce: the professional woman (independent and self-confident) and the superwoman (able to "do it all").

Effects of Sexual Infidelity

Trust is eroded between partners Research is mixed about whether infidelity "causes" divorce Recovering from an Affair Recovery is possible but not always likely

Sexual Development and Identity

We are sexual beings throughout our lives. In prenatal ultrasounds, male fetuses grab their penises, and infants may touch their genitals. Young children often exhibit overtly sexual behaviors. Most children play with their genitals fairly regularly by age 5 or 6. By age 15, almost 100 percent of boys and 25 percent of girls have masturbated to the point of orgasm. Children do not usually associate this activity with sexuality until later. Physically, both boys and girls mature about two years earlier than 100 years ago. As the age of puberty has declined, the age at marriage has risen, leaving a more extended period during which sexual activity may occur.

Responsibility to Oneself

We must each make decisions about our sexuality according to our own values. Values may change over time, and behavior that seems right at one time may not appear to be later.

Examples at different ecological levels

World: Changing prices of food, 9/11, Great Recession Country: Policy, law and programs such as struggles of returning military, minimum wage. State: LGBTQ marriage, immigration laws, Community, Town, City: Public transportation, access to parks and recreation, discrimination/racism/misogyny Workplace: Hours, scheduling, benefits, sick days, maternity and paternity leave Neighborhood: Violence, accessibility to resources, poverty, food desserts

Young Spouses and Partners

Young couples have sex more frequently than older couples. Over time, the demands of day-to-day life erode the frequency of intercourse

Sexual Values Outside Committed Relationships

Young people generally do not marry until into their late twenties, which means they have a decade or longer to experiment sexually.