Feralis Biology Pt. 1
systolic blood pressure
top number in blood pressure reading (in mmHg)
epicotyl
top region (shoot tip).
sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume:
total lung capacity is the sum of
integrin
transmembrane prptein that facilitated ECM adhesion and signals to cells how to respond ot teh extracellular env (growth, apoptosis, etc)
vessels
transport blood to and from the heart in a closed circulatory system.
transport vacuoles
transport material b/w organelles
types of vacuoles
transport, food, central, storage, and contractile
vascular tissue
transports materials from a source to a sink (source to sink theory). The stele is formed by xylem, phloem, and the pith (made of parenchyma) in the center of the plant for transport.
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
transports most of the oxygen traveling in the blood.
phloem
transports sugars from leaves (source) to roots and other areas (sink). Made of sieve cells (long cells, lacking organelles, connected to form a tunnel for transport) and companion cells (connected to sieve cells, contain organelles for metabolic functions). - vascular tissue
mucous membrane
trap pathogens
Klinefelter's syndrome
trisomy of the sex chromosomes in males, giving them XXY (each diploid cell has 47 chromosomes total). Individuals usually have disorders in intellectual, physical, and reproductive development. when an XY or XX from nondisjunction combine with a normal X gamete
homologous pairs
two different copies of the same chromosome in a diploid organism. One from each parent. Each copy is very similar, except for minor nucleotide variations that generate unique alleles.
Pr and Pfr
two forms of phytochrome that are photoreversible
lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation
two most common types of fermentation
symporters
two substances in same direction
antiporters
two substances opposite directions
euchromatin and heterochromatin
two times of chromatin
lysogenic cycle or lytic cycle
two viral life cycle types
septate hyphae or coenocytic hyphae
two ways mycelium can grow
A antigen
type A blood
A and B antigens
type AB blood
B antigen
type B blood
neither A or B antigens
type o blood
Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM):
type of SEM where sample is frozen in liquid nitrogen instead of dehydrated to create a 3D image in its more natural form fixation kills samples. Costly and produces artifacts.
Automated cell counting
type of cell counting that includes electrical resistance and flow cytometry
proteoglycan
type of glycoprotein that has a high proportion of carbohydrates; exist in teh ECM between cells
mitosis
type of karyokinesis (nuclear division) that involves a diploid parent cell dividing into two diploid daughter cells.
dideoxy chain termination or Sanger sequencing (older) and next generation sequencing (newer)
types of DNA sequencing
heat fixation and chemical fixation.
types of fixation
unshaded
unaffected individuals
cancer
uncontrolled growth and division
favorable
under ______ conditions, fungi reproduce asexually
unfavorable
under _______ conditions, fungi reproduce sexually producing genetically different offspring with greater chance of survival.
mitosis
used to increase the number of cells in an organism
one-gene cross ratios
used to solve gene questions faster crosses
pedigree charts
used to track traits over many generations to see how they are inherited.
enzyme kinetics plot
used to visualize how inhibitors affect enzymes
Punnett squares
used to visualize these crosses but are too complex for dihybrid cross.
pulse chase experiments
useful for studying gene expression and the fate of proteins by viewing how a protein moves through a cell. During the pulse phase amino acids are radioactively labeled and then incorporated into proteins. Next, an abundance of non-radioactive amino acids will be added to the cell during the chase. The **chase phase** prevents *every* protein a cell makes from being radioactively labeled, which makes it easier for researchers to identify the proteins they are interested in studying. Using simple staining, the radioactive proteins can be tracked.
alcohol fermentation
uses the 2 NADH from glycolysis to convert the 2 pyruate into 2 ethanol, thus NADH is oxidized back to NAD+ so that glycolysis may conntinue
SA node (pacemaker)
usually initiates the cardiac cycle.
recognizes different antigens Y part with light chain
variable region
gametophyte (n)
vascular plants spend Majority of life cycle spent in _________ stage and have a reduced sporophyte which depends upon and is attached to the gametophyte.
increases
vasoconstriction ______ TPR
decreases
vasodilation ______ TPR
R wave
ventricular depolarization
gram positive
very minor periplasm
capsid
viral protein coat that is made of subunits called capsomeres.
provirus/prophage
virus integrated in teh genome in dormant stage
lytic cycle
virus takes over host to replicate and does harm the host. The viral particles produced can lyse the host cell to find other hosts to infect.
inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
vital capacity is the sum of
cardiac output
volume of blood being pumped by the heart in 1 minute.
spiracles
w/ insects oxygen enters through these opennings
homeothermic
warm blooded
what is required for seed germination and the breaking of dormancy
water, oxygen, temperature, fire, required photoperiod, scarification (cuts or damage to the seed coat), and gibrellins
cuticle
wax covering that reduces transpiration; ticker in plants that grow in hot/dry habitats
pores on the end walls of phloem cells
what allows for the movement of organic materials between cells
positive charge of histone and negative charge of DNA
what allows proper binding of chromatin
tubulin
what are MTOCs made of (what are microtubules made of)
wavelengths at which they absorb their max amount of light
what are P680 and P700 named for
desmosomes and gap junctions
what are intercalated discs made of
histones
what are nucleosomes wrapped around?
a sigma factor combines with a prokaryotic core RNA polumerase
what combines together to form the RNA polymerase holoenzyme giving it the ability to target specific DNA promoter regions. before prokaryotic transcription
veins
what contains more blood by volume, arteries or veins?
nothing
what do UAA UAG and UGA code for
leave enterocytes and enter lacteals
what do chylomicrons leave and enter
RNA polymerase II
what do eukaryotes use to transcribe genes
H2O and energy from sunlight to generate ATP, NADPH, O2
what do noncyclic and cyclic photophosphrylation use and produce
glucose
what does photosynthesis produce after an input of solar energy
nine doublets and two singles in the center
what does the (9 + 2 array for cilia and flagella microtubular structure mean
fixes carbon dioxide that enters the stomata into a organic molecule that can be used in biological systems
what does the calvin cycle do
uses CO2 and the energy from ATP and NADH to make glucose
what does the calvin cycle use and produce
Lac I
what encodes the lac repressor protein
rubisco fixes oxygen
what fixes what in photorespiration
single-stranded messenger RNA (mRNA)
what is DNA transcribed into
allolactose
what is lactose converted to with the lac operon
a promotor sequence
what is located next to the gene that is going to be transcribed into a protein next to the gene that attracts RNA polymerase to transcribe the gene.
net loss of fixed CO2 and no new glucose is made
what is lost duirng photorespiration
PGA
what is phosphoglycolate transformed into during photorespiration
lipoproteins or as free fatty acids bound by a protein called albumin
what is released back into ciruclation when the hormone sensitive lipase enzymes in adipocytes release triglycerides back into circuation
differences in partial pressure
what is required for external respiration and internal respiration
four protein complexes 1-IV
what is responsible for moving electrons through a series of redox reactions in the ETC
where karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur
what is the M phase
ATP bc of its high energy bonds b/w the phosphate groups which is released upon hdrolysis
what is used as cellular energy currency?
sieve cells and companion cells
what makes up phloem
actin and myosin filaments
what makes up the contractile ring of the cleavage furrow
electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
what produces ATP in oxidative phosphorylation?
it can undergo a conversion to enter glycolysis or make new glucose via gluconeogenesis at the liver
when a glycerol molecule enters the liver, what can it do?
hypersensitive response (HR)
when a plant recognizes an invading pathogen, it initiates the death of plant cells at and around the invasion sight. dead tissue serve as a blockage against the pathogen spreading to other parts of the plant; plant needs a resistance (R) gene that can bind to the protein of the pathogen
translocations
when a segment of a chromosome is moved to another chromosome ______ of 21 -> 14 can have the same effect of trisomy 21 resulting in down syndrome
point mutations
when a single nucleotide in the DNA of a gene is incorrect (substitution, insertion, or deletion)
S phase
when centrosome replication occurs so that each daughter has one centrosome
S phase
when do centrosomes replicate so that each daughter cell after dicision has one centrosome
glycolysis
when do other carbohydrates enter cellular respiration
prophase I
when does crossing over occur
late anaphase with cleave furrow formation
when does cytokinesis begin in animal cells
metaphse I
when does independent assoirtment of alleles occur
secondary law of thermodynamics
when energy is converted from one form to another, some energy is "lost" in that some of it becomes unusable in the form of heat and disorder/randomness increases
plasmodial slime molds
when food sources are depleted or when the env becomes dry, the cells show "group behavior" by aggregating Into a single unit, which migrates as a slug. The individual cells of the slug then in mobilize to form a stalk with the capsule at the top similar to the spore bearing bodies of many fungai. spores or then released which repeat the cycle when they germinate under improved environmental condition
is high and binds to catabolite activator protein (CAP)
when glucose is low, cAMP.... (level and what does it do?)
calvin cycle
when is ATP consumed
light dependent reactions
when is ATP produced during photosynthesis
during elongation
when is the 7-methylguanosine cap added?
stomata closed to minimize water loss, oxygen accumulates inside leaf wile CO2 is used up. Rubisco binds to O2 and photorespiration occurs
when it is hot and dry what happens
decreases
when lung volume increases, air pressure in the lungs ______, creating ap ressure difference and causing air to rush into the lungs by bulk flow
polygenic inheritance
when many genes are responsible for one trait. This gives the trait continuous variation. (Ex. height, a single trait affected by many genes).
increases
when the volume of the lungs decreases, the pressure on the air _____, causing the air to rush out
krebs cycle
where do fatty acids enter
thylakoids
where do light dependent reactions occur
from the matrix to the inner membrane space
where do the H+ ions flow
nucleus
where does eukaryotic transcription occur. loop will cause termination of transcription. In this way, the structural proteins for tryptophan synthase are not made.
RBCs bc they do not have mitochondria for aerobic respiration
where does lactic acid fermentation continuously happen & why
muscle cells
where does lactic acid fermentation frequently occur
palisade mesophyll cells
where does most of photosynthesis occur
nucleus
where does post-transcriptional modification occur
in the chloroplast stroma of plant mesophyll cells
where does the calvin cycle
the matrix
where does the krebs cycle occur
flowers
where gametes are produced;
cytoplasm
where is Pr synthesized in plant clels
spindle apparatus
which guides chromosomes during karyokinesis.
two-hit hypothesis
which states that a loss-of-function mutation in both copies of the gene are needed to make it cancer-causing.
lymphocytes
white blood cells found mainly in the lymphatic organs (T cells, B cells, natural killer cells) and originate from the bone marrow.
bc the processes to get them into cellular respiration take considerable energy and proteins are needed for many essential functions in the body
why are proteins the least desirable energy source
when the replication fork reaches the end of a chromosome, a small segment of DNA from the telomere is not replicated and lost (no RNA primer to help produce another Okazaki fragment).
why are telomeres necessary
their association with various nearby pigments
why are the chlorophyll molecules P680 and P700 different than other chlorophyll molecules
must infect living cells to multiply.
why are viruses not living
bc DNA are negative and the anode at the top is positive
why do DNA travel towards the top of the
RNA replication lacks the rapir mechaisms associated with DNA replication
why do RNA viruses have more frequent mutations than DNA viruses
bc DNA polymerase can only add to an already existing strand
why do we need primase
hydroxyl group on the ribose sugar's 2' carbon
why is RNA is called ribonucleic acid.
bc of the protons (H+) pumped into the innermembrane space during ETC and oxidative phosphorylation
why is the inner membrane space highly acidic
anucleate
without a nucleus
reproductive cloning
technology that produces genetically identical individuals
hemaglobin
tetrameric and has a heme cofactor in each of its four subunits.
foramen ovale.
the blood in its heart does not need to go to the pulmonary system - it is not exposed to air. Instead, the oxygenated blood in the right atrium goes directly to the left atrium through a hole in the heart called
cohesion-tension theory: transpiration
the driving force causes water to evaporate from the stomata and leads to a transpirational pull. This cohesive force (between similar substances, e.g. the water molecules) pulls the water column upward.
cork
the outermost protective layer. of woody plants
pseudocoelomates
the coelom is partially surrounded by mesoderm
F1 generation (first filial generation)
the first generation cross between true-breeding parents with different alleles. The offspring are all heterozygous.
lac repressor protein
the first way that the lac operon is controlled.
hemolymph
the fluid that circulates through the body of an animal that has an open circulatory system; equivalent to blood
non-recombinant gametes
the gametes that receive parental chromatids (alleles match parental).
Nondisjunction
the improper segregation of chromosome pairs during anaphase and produces daughter cells with an incorrect number of chromosomes.
protein denaturation
the loss of protein function and higher order structures. only the primary structure is unaffected
lymph nodes
the lymph is filtered through _______ , which are centers for the immune response system to eliminate infections.
gene migration
the movement of genetic material within a population and among diverse populations
contant region straight part with heavy chain
the same for antibodies within the same class.
total peripheral resistance (TPR)
the total amount of resistance that blood faces when flowing through the vasculature of the body.
tryptophan
the trp operon is always active unless the presence of ________ in the environment represses the operon.
biotechnology
the use of biological systems to modify organisms or produce desired products
gram positive
thick peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall;
gram negative
thin peptidoglycan layer
LacZ, lacY, and lacA
three genes contained within the lac operon that encode proteins
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of platyhelminthes
yes
to archeae have introns
1) e- transport chain 2) pyruvate decarbox 3) krebs cycle 4) oxidative phosphorylation
4 catabolic processes involved in aerobic cellular respiration
radicle, hypocotyl, plumule, epicotyl
4 parts of the embryo
bulk flow
Blood travels to the lungs through bulk
Monocotyledons (monocots)
Floral parts in multiples of 3. mono or di?
dicotyledons (dicots)
Floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5. mono or di?
centrioles
hollows cylinders made of nine triplets of microtubules (9x3 array); give tise to the microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus used during cell division
general characteristics of birds - chordates
homeotherms, eggs in shells
general characteristics of mammalia (marsupials) - chordates
homeotherms, feed young with milk
general characteristics of mammalia (placental)- chordates
homeotherms, placenta supports fetus
horigen
homrone produced in leaves and then transported to apical meristems where it initiates flower development
secondary growth
horizontal growth occurring at lateral meristems (vascular cambium and cork cambium). Only occurs in woody plants.
annelida
includes earthworms that also use simple diffusion for respiration but have a closed circulatory system. They use a slimy mucus to facilitate the transport of oxygen into their closed circulatory system.
two nerve cords, anterior centralized ganglia, some planarians have eyespots.
nervous system of platyhelminthes
none
nervous system of porifera
2 ATP
net ATP of glycolysis
DNA fingerprinting
identifies individuals through unique aspects of DNA such as RFLPs and short tandem repeats (STR's). Used in paternity and forensic cases.
polyploidy
if all the chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with twice the number of chromosomes
G0
if conditions are not favorable for growth, what phase does the cell go into
cause frameshift mutations
if duplication occurs on the same gene
fight it off and reject it through antibodies
if given wrong blood type your body will what?
during the 2nd pregnancy
if the mother is Rh (-) and she has babies with Rh (+), when will anti-Rh antibodies pose a problem
O blood type
ii
monocytes
immature form of phagocytes in innate immunity in blood vessels
epitope
important part of the antigen that is recognized by the immune cell.
ribosomes and tRNA
important players in translation,
p53
important tumor-suppressor gene that is known as the guardian of the cell . It is upregulated to prevent cells from becoming cancerous.
spatial isolation of CO2
in C4 photo synthesis, what occurs to prevent photorespiration
termination
in DNA replication a replication fork cannot continue, ending DNA replication.
elongation
in DNA replication producing new DNA strands using different types of enzymes.
initiation
in DNA replication: repeating origins of replication at A-T rich segments of DNA because A-T bonds only have two hydrogen bonds.
termination
in DNA transcription - a termination sequence (aka terminator) signals to RNA polymerase to stop transcribing the gene.
stomata
in the lower epidermis of leaves open and close, allowing for gas exchange.
hypoventilation
inadequate breathing
simple diffusion
net flow of small, uncharged, nonpolar substances across the cell membrane down their concentration gradient (high to low [ ]) w/o using energy or carrier proteins
acoelomates
no body cavity; mesoderm does not surround coelom on all sides
saturated fatty acids
no double bonds and as a result pack tightly (solid at room temp ; higher melting temperatures)
gram positive
no lipopolysaccharide
gram positive
no outer membrane
anaerobic cellular respiration
no oxygen needed, but less energy produced
lactose absent and glucose absent
no transcription. repressor is bound and CAP is bound
diastolic blood pressure
pressure in your arteries while the heart is relaxing between beats.
immunity function of proteins
prevention and protection against foreign invaders
1) CO-fixing efficiency is reduced 2) when oxygen combines with RuBP the products are broken down by peroxisomes and thus considerable effort of the cell is necessary to break down photorespiration products
problems with photorespiration
gel electrophoresis
procedure that separates restriction fragments as they diffuse through a gelatinous material under the influence of an electric field
bicarbonate buffer system equation gas exchange in lungs
proceeds in the reverse direction, producing carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide exits into the alveoli as gas while oxygen enters the blood, forming oxyhemoglobin.
diapedesis
process by which cells move from the capillaries to tissues in order to fight pathogens.
carbon fixation
process by which inorganic carbon (CO2) is converted to an organic molecule (glucose)
saphrocyte
saprotroph is an organism which gets its energy from dead and decaying organic matte
general characteristics of fish (bony) - chordates
scales, bony skeleton
Cnidaria
small invertebrates that use simple diffusion for respiration due to the lack of a circulatory system. Almost all cells must be in direct contact with the environment. Environment must be moist for diffusion to happen.
lacteals
small lymphatic vessels that take fats to the rest of the body
uniporters
single substance, single direction
pyrimidines
single-ringed nitrogenous bases
glucose
six-carbon sugar that organisms degrade as a source of energy during cellular respiration C6H10O6 isomer to fructose alpha glucose: Oh on bottom beta glucose: oH on top
prokaryotic ribosomes
small (30S) and large (50S) subunits form a 70S ribosome. They are also composed of rRNA and proteins, but are assembled together in the nucleoid.
what is allowed to go through the PM
small uncharged polar molecules (like water) and hydrophobic molecules (nonpolar molecules O2, CO2, and lipid-soluble molecules like hydrocarbons) large polar molecules and ions are impermeable
microfilaments
smallest and compost of a double helix of two actin filaments; involved in cell movement, able to quickly assemble and disassemble found in muscle cells and cells that move by changing shape like phagocytes
MHC Class II
surface molecule present on antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells, macrophages) and is used to present foreign antigens to activate immune cells.
MHC Class I
surface molecule present on all nucleated cells, and each genetically different individual will have a different _______ molecule.
guard cells
surround stomata and control their opening and closing
peripheral chemoreceptors
surround the aortic arch and carotid arteries.
pericentriolar material
surrounds the centrioles and is responsible for microtubules nucleation
memory B cells
survive for a long time and lay dormant until reactivated by the same antigen that triggered the original clonal expansion. After reactivation, __________ cause massive antibody production.
lichens
symbiotic autotrophs where a fungi is paired with either algae or cyanobacteria.
Aminoacyl-tRNA
tRNA bound to an amino acid.
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
technique that makes large numbers of DNA copies faster than the DNA cloning process
hemocytometers, colony forming units (CFUs), and automatic cell counting
techniques to count cells
fluidity of the membrane can be affected by
temperature, cholesterol, and degrees of unsaturation (unsat pack less tightly than saturated; trans unsat pack more tightly than cis unsat)
food vacuoles
temporarily hold endocytosed food and later fuse with lysosomes
metaphase I
tetrads randomly line up double file on metaphase plate, also contributes to genetic diversity.
transpirational pull
the driving force causes water to evaporate from the stomata and leads to a
F2 generation (filial 2 generation)
the second generation cross between the heterozygous offspring from the F1 generation. This is where Mendel's three laws can be studied.
mean arterial pressure
the average arterial pressure during one complete cardiac cycle.
active transport
the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane against their [ ] gradient (from low to high) -requires E ; does not result from random movement of molecules -transports small ions, amino acids, monosaccharides
goblet cells and ciliated epithelial cells
the nasal cavity contains
X-inactivation
the process by which one of a female's X chromosomes is inactivated, forming a Barr body and preventing excess transcription.
electroporation
the process of using electrical impulses to force bacteria to become competent.
photoperiod
the relative length of daylight and night
glycogenolysis
the release of glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen, a highly branched polysaccharide of glucose
cell membranes
the semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell (semipermeable = some substances can pass through, others can't) hold cellular contents and are mainly made up of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins
globin genes
the similaries among various globin chains of hemoglobin suggest that they each evolved from a common geme; multiple variations exist on the same chromosomes
incomplete dominance
the situation where one allele is not completely expressed over its paired allele. The heterozygous will have an intermediate state. (Ex. red x white = pink).
codominance
the situation where the heterozygous will express both alleles. (Ex. red x white = red + white spots).
atom
the smallest unit of an element that maintains the properties of that element
metaphase
the spindle apparatus guides the chromosomes to the metaphase plate (midpoint of cell) in single file.
lancelets (also known as Amphioxus), tunicates (also knonw as Urochordata), fish (lawless, cartilaginous, bony), amphibia, mammalia (monotremes, marsupials, placental), reptilia, birds
types of chordates
B cells (differentiation into plasma cells and memory cells), and T cells
types of lymphocytes
AB
universal acceptor
tidal volume
volume of air that moves through the lungs between a normal inhalation and exhalation.
harness light energy to produce ATP and NADPH for later use in the Calvin cycle
what do the light dependent reactions do
methionine
what does AUG code for
atrioventricular node
what does AV node stand for
temporal isolation of carbon dioxide
what does CAM photosynthesis use to prevent photorespiration in hot environments
sinoatrial node
what does SA node stand for
1. Nucleic Acid. 2. Capsid or protein coat. 3. Envelope.
what does a virus consist of
more proton pumped and more ATP production no NADPH
what does cyclic photophosphorylation produce and what does it not produce
2 of each histone: of each histone H2A, H2B, H3 and H4.
what does the central core consist of
light dependent reactions
when does non-cyclic photophosphorylation take place
arteries
where blood pressure is the highest due to the hydrostatic pressure from the heart.
host cell membrane
where do viruses pick up their phospholipid envelope
breaking the bonds of 2 of the phosphates on the nucleotides being added
where do we get the energy for elongation
the stroma
where does photorespiration occur
cytosol
where does prokaryotic transcription occur
atria to send blood to the ventricles V node to initiate contraction too.
where does the SA node send signals to
mitochondrial matrix and cytosol for proks
where does the TCA cycle occur?
in the eruthrocytes (RBCs)
where is hemoglobin contained
active site
where the substrate binds on an enzyme; it is specific for the substrate it acts upon
NADH directly to complex-I, regenerating NAD+
which electron carrier is more effective and where does it drop off electrons
maximize the amount of space they have to carry hemoglobin and oxygen.
why are mature RBcs anucleate?
hydrogen on the ribose sugars 2' carbon
why is DNA is called deoxyribonucleic acid,
means glycolysis can continue to make ATP
why is NAD+ regenerated in fermentation
first level of trp operon regulation.
When tryptophan is not present in the environment, the trp operon will undergo transcription because the trp repressor protein will be inactive.
meiosis 1
When homologous chromosomes separate into 2 haploid cells
growth factors
bind to receptors in the plasma membrane to signal for cell division.
bicarbonate anion (HCO3)
carbon dioxide is much more soluble in blood than oxygen, so most of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood as
Duplications, Inversions, and Translocations
chromosomal aberrations (3 types)
endogenous
circadian rhythm mechanism is _______ in that it is an internal clock that continues to keep time (although less accurately) even if external cues are obsent
plasmids
circular DNA pieces that are independent from a bacteria's single circular chromosome.
closed circulatory system, lacks heart, contains contractile blood vessels
circulatory system of Lancelets (also known as Amphioxus)- chordate
open, hemolymph
circulatory system of all arthopoda
three chambered heart
circulatory system of amphibia - chordates
close circulatory system, multiple pairs of aortic arches, distinct arteries and veins.
circulatory system of annelida
four chambered heart
circulatory system of birds - chordates
none (diffusion)
circulatory system of cnideria
open, no heart
circulatory system of echicnodermata
none (diffusion)
circulatory system of nematoda
none (diffusion)
circulatory system of porifera
three chambered hearts (exception - alligators and crocodiles = four chambered heart)
circulatory system of reptiles - chordates
both closed and open circulatory systems
circulatory systems of tunicates (also knonw as Urochordata) - chordates
four chambered heart
ciruclatory system of mammalia (marsupials) - chordates
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
classification King Phillip Came Over For Great Soup
bulk flow
collective movement of substances (solvent and solutes) in teh same direction in response to force or pressure example: blood moving through a vessel
rRNA
combines with proteins to form ribosomes (globular shape)
sex-linked traits
come from genes located on the sex chromosomes.
opsonization, amplifies inflammatory response, forms membrane attack complex
complement protein actions
S wave
completion of ventricular depolarization
nucleosomes
complexes of DNA wrapped around histone proteins.
promotor, operator, structural genes, regulatory genes
componants of an operon
skin
consists of a thick epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. Also mucous membrane to trap pathogens and lysozyme to break down bacterial cell walls. Has sebaceous glands to secrete oil (sebum) as a barrier. Sebum also has antimicrobial properties.
aerobic cellular respiration
consumes oxygen, more energy produced performed to phosphorylate ADP into ATP, by breaking down glucose and moving around electrons (redox rxns) involves 4 processes
centrosomes- centriol def
contain a pair of centrioles oriented at 90 degree angles to one another
structural genes
contain coding DNA, DNA sequences that code for various related enzymes that direct the production of some particular end product
granules
contain components which can lead to the lysis of neighboring cells
nucleosides
contain five-C sugar and a nitrogenous base
polysaccharides
contain many monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds into a long polymer
DNA microarrays
contain thousands of DNA probes that bind to complementary DNA fragments, allowing researchers to see which genes are expressed.
disaccharides
contain two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond
deoxyribose sugar
contains H at the 2' carbon
ribose sugar
contains a hydroxyl group at the 2' carbon
ovary
contains ovule or egg
gram negative
contains periplasm between inner and outermembrane
generative cell
contains spem
plasma
contains water, proteins, nutrients, hormones, and makes up most of the blood volume. Makes up ~55% of blood volume.
rough ER
continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope; embedded with ribosomes plays role in production of proteins (bc ribosomes carry out protein synthesis)
internal intercostal muscles
contract during a more forced expiration, closing the rib cage even more.
Purkinje fibers
contract the ventricles
cleavage furrow
contractile ring of actin microfilaments and myosin motors that pinches the cell into two.
plasmolysis
contraction of the cell away from teh cell wall
B cells
control antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity) by managing the production and release of antibodies. They can also act as antigen-presenting cells.
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
conver N2 to NH3 Through intensive energy consuming reactions. As indicated some cyanobacteria do this . Other ______ Have mutualistic relationships with plants . The bacteria live in nodules
glycogenesis
conversion of glucose into glycogen to be stored in the liver when energy and fuel is sufficient
nitrifying bacteria
convert ammonia and ammonium to nitrites (NO2 -) and then to nitrates (NO3 -).
denitrifying bacteria
convert nitrates back to atmospheric nitrogen
cristae
convolutions in the inner membrane (2nd membrane)
reverse transcriptase
enzyme which converts virus RNA into cDNA (complementary DNA). The cDNA can integrate into the host genome and enter the lysogenic cycle.
outer walls (skin, cilia, stomach acid, symbiotic bacteria)
first layer of innate immunity
cotyledons
first leaves to appear on seedling. Contain nutrients from seed to feed growing seedling.
innate immune system
first line of defense and is known as a nonspecific immune response (generalized).
radicle
first to emerge from plant embryo, develops into root, anchors the plant into soil.
2 chamber hearts (atrium and ventricle)
fish. Deoxygenated blood fills the heart and is pumped deoxygenated to the gills for oxygen exchange.
47, 45 chromosomes in diploid daughter cells
3. Single nondisjunction of sister chromatids during mitosis 46 chromosomes in diploid parent cell →
trpilet of microtubules and 9 of them
9x3 array of centrioles
mutagens
A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
coenzyme
A cofactor that is an organic molecule, like vitamins
imbibition
Absorption of water, causing an object to swell (seed does this)
telophase and cytokinesis I
- after tetrads have been pulled to opposite poles, nuclear membranes reform. In addition, nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin. Cleavage furrow formed in animal cells and cell plate formed in plant cells.
hemizygous
- only one allele is present. For example, men only have one X and one Y chromosome (not homologous), which contain hemizygous genes.
tetrads (bivalents)
- pair of two homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids.
neutrophils
- phagocytes in innate immunity and make up over half of all leukocytes.
synapsis
- the pairing up of homologous chromosomes to form tetrads (aka bivalents).
parasites
An organism that lives in or on another organism, deriving nourishment at the expense of its host, usually without killing it
prokaryotes
Bacteria and Archaea consts of DNA, PM, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and often a cell wall
dicotyledons (dicots)
Broad leaf Network of veins. mono or di?
recombination frequencies
By looking at _________, we can deduce the relative distance between these genes.
components of carbohydrates
C, H, O
pyrimidines
C,U,T CUT the Py
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)
Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes).
(homogenization).
Differential centrifugation: cells are first split open to release contents
46; 92
During anaphase of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes split up. This results in the same total numbers - ____ chromosomes and ____ chromatids
92; 92
During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids split. This produces ____ separate chromosomes which are also counted as ___ chromatids.
46; 92
During the S phase of the mitosis cell cycle, a human's 46 chromosomes are duplicated. Afterwards, there are ____ chromosomes but also ____ chromatids
focal adhesion
ECM connects via integrins to actin microfilaments inside the cell
hemidesmosomes
ECM connects via integrins to intermediate filaments inside the cell
mitochondrial inner membrane
ETC for eukaryotes
cell membrane
ETC for prokaryotes
pronuclei
Haploid aspect of sperm. Joins ovum to make the zygote.
fertilization
Pollen lands on stigma → tube cell elongates down style forming pollen tube → generative cell travels down pollen tube to ovary → splits forming two sperm cells (double fertilization); one meets ovule forming embryo and other combines with ovule's polar nuclei forming endospore
DNA fingerprinting
RFLPs produced form DNA left at a crime scene are compared to RFLPs form the DNA of suspects
central chemoreceptors
However, protons cannot exit through the blood brain barrier. As carbon dioxide accumulates, acidity increases and is directly sensed by ____ ________, which signal to the medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate.
A blood type
IAIA or IAi
operons
In prokaryotic cells, a cluster of genes under control of a promoter; regulatory mechanisms; multiple genes whose products work together to direct a single metabolic pathway
general characteristics of Lancelets (also known as Amphioxus)- chordate
Keep all the same developmental characteristics as other chordates, but lack vertebrae. Commonly used to study the origin of vertebrates.
halo effect
Large phase shifts can cause..
epidermal; cuticle
Leaves are covered by an _______ layer, covered by a waxy ___________.
gametes; zygote, zygote; sporophyte; spores , spore; gametrophyte; gametes
Two haploid _____ fuse producing diploid ______→ ________becomes _______via mitosis → in their sporangia, sporophyte undergoes meiosis to produce haploid ________→ _____ becomes _______via mitosis → gametophyte produces ________→ cycle repeats.
meiosis II
Two haploid cells divide into four haploid daughter cells.; sister chromatids separate
stereo microscopes, compound microscopes, bright field microscopes, phase contrast microscopes, fluorescence micrscopy, confocal laser scanning micrscopy, dark field microscopy
Types of Optical Microscopes
color change method in bacterial cloning
Vectors containing a gene that make cells blue will be used. Restriction enzymes that cut the blue-gene will also be used. If the target gene inserts into the blue-gene, the blue-gene will be inactivated and the cell will appear white. If the target gene does not insert into the blue-gene, the gene will re-attach, remaining active and blue.
guard cells
Water influx to the ___________ makes them turgid, opening the stomata. specialized leaf cells that control the opening and closing of stomata through water moving in and out of then; allow gas exchange, but close when excessive transpiration from high temps or low humidity threatens the survival of the leaf or plant
RB (retinoblastoma gene)
a tumor-suppressor gene that codes for a retinoblastoma protein, which prevents excessive cell growth during interphase.
Prokaryotes possess...
a cell membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes (eukaryotes have all of these)
Carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)
a form of hemoglobin that transports carbon dioxide. However, carbon dioxide is much more soluble in blood than oxygen, so most of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood as bicarbonate anion (HCO3).
complement system
a group of approximately 30 proteins that aid immune cells in fighting pathogens by attracting phagocytes to foreign cells and promoting their destruction by promoting cell lysis
haplotype
a group of genes that are usually inherited together because they are located in close proximity to each other.
inducible enzymes
a substance is required to induce the operon the enzymes the operon produces are said to be
vaccines
a substance used to stimulate the production of memory B cells. inactivated viruses or fragments of viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms
4 kcal/gram
abt of energy released from carbohydrates
Pfr
accumulates during daylight
centrosomes
act as MTOCs in animal cells
muscle contraction
actin microfilaments have directional, allowing myosin motor proteins to pull on them for muscle contraction
memory B cells
activated later in case of another attack
CAP activated by high levels of cAMP
activator regulatory proteins that enhance lactose metabolism when it is the only thing present
Pfr
active form of photochrome
specific transcription factors
additional proteins associated with regulating specific transcription activities--specific to cell type, specific to particular genes, or specific to the timing of the transcription; activators or repressors
staining
adds color to cells, making cell structures easier to visualize. often kills the cells
DNA polymerase
adds free nucleoside triphosphates to 3' ends.
shaded
affected individuals
23; 46
after meiosis II, each cell will have ____ chromosomes and ____ chromatids in each cell
capillaries
Nutrient and gas exchange occurs
gap junctions
allow passage of ions and small molecules between animal cells
conjugated protein compositions contain
amino acids + other components
A site
aminoacyl-tRNA, which first enters at this site.
Plant-like (algae-like) protists
among the most important primary producers.
4-6 less bc varying amount of ATP must be used to move the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix not the case for proks so they just produce 6 ATP
amount of ATP produced form 2 NADH from glycolysis
2
amount of ATP produced from 1 FADH2
6
amount of ATP produced from 2 NADH (NADH from glycolysis produces less)
3 chamber hearts (2 atriums and 1 ventricle)
amphibians and reptiles. Poikilothermic chordates. Alligators and crocodiles are exceptions, they have 4 chamber hearts.
alpha-amylase
an enzyme that contributes to the breakdown of carbohydrates in stored food
interleukins
any of a class of glycoproteins produced by leukocytes for regulating immune responses.
cytokines
any of a number of substances, such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells.
cytosol
aqueous intracellular fluid
Filamentous fungi
are multicellular, multinucleate (form hyphae), reproduce sexually, and are aerobic.
nonfilamentous fungi
are unicellular, reproduce asexually by budding, and are facultative anaerobes.
tumor-suppressor genes
are genes that become cancerous as a result of loss-of-function mutations because they are normally needed to suppress cancerous growth.
producing a haploid spore producing structure which produces haploid spores that grow via mitosis.
asexual reproduction in fungi
light
at daybreak, _____ rapidly converts the accumulated Pr to Pfr
P wave
atria depolarization
catabolite activator protein (CAP)
attaches near the lac operon promoter to help attract RNA polymerase, promoting transcription.
petal
attract animals to achieve pollination.
intramolecular forces
attractive forces that hold atoms within a molecule
differential growth
auxin accumulates in shady part when the plant is not equally illuminated and that side grows more
Arthropoda (Arachnida)
Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, four pairs of legs, terrestrial habitats.
too much protein to be made or production of an over-active protein.
Gain-of-function mutations cause
cell walls
carbohydrate-based structures that act like a substitute ECM bc they provide structural support to cells that either do not have, or have minimal ECM. present in plants (cellulose- beta glucose), fungi (chitin-differs from cellulose in that one -Oh group is replaced by N), bacteria (peptidoglycan), and archaea
peripheral chemoreceptors
carbon dioxide is high and oxygen is low, _________ signal to the medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate.
(H2CO3)
carbonic acid
bicarbonate buffering system
catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in both directions based on concentrations.
sicke-cell disease
caused by nucleotide substitution, resulting in the production of a defective hemoglobin to beocme sick shaped when low-oxygen conditions occur
Huntington's disease
caused by the insertion of multiple repeates of 3 nucleotides. mutant gene codes for a defective enzyme (duplication chromosomal aberration)
organelles
cellular compartments enclosed by phospholipid bilayers; located in the cytosol (jelly) membrane bound ____ are only in eukaryotes
pinocytosis
cellular drinking around dissolved materials (liquids); dissolved material enters the cell; folds inward -drinking PINO grigio wine
ATP
cellular respiration breaks down glucose to generate energy in the form of _____
middle lamella
cements plant cells together
cephalization
central nervous system- brain
cell walls of archaea
chemically diverse and may contain proteins, glycoproteins, and/or polysaccharides, but not peptidoglycans (bacteria), cellulose (plants), or chitin (fungi)
prophase II
chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). Also nucleolus and nuclear envelope will disappear. Spindle apparatus forms. No crossing over.
prophase
chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). The nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear. Spindle apparatus forms.
females
circles on pedigree
Me And Eve Dont Go IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD, IgG
class of antibodies
medusa
cnideria from that is (motile, reproduce sexually)
annelida, mollusca, srthropoda, echinodermata, chordata
coelomates
transpiratoin, adhesion, cohesion, and tensions
cohesion tension theory
snRNA (small nuclear RNA)
combines with proteins to form small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) which process RNAs before they leave the nucleus (globular shape)
null alleles
come from mutations that cause the alleles to lack normal function. example: tumor suppressor genes when they become cancer-causing
artifacts
decrease the overall resolution. They are created by fluorescent microscopes because they illuminate the entire specimen at one time. This causes the specimen's fluorophores to be excited simultaneously. While this helps to increase the brightness of the sample, it causes the background to be unfocused
Vitamin K
deficiency in _________ will lead to increased bleeding.
tRNA
delivers amino acids to ribosome for their addition into a growing polypeptide chain (up-side-down L shape)
pleiotropy
describes when one gene is responsible for many traits. (Ex. cystic fibrosis, disease with many symptoms caused by a single gene).
Haplosufficiency
describes when the remaining copy of the gene is sufficient for a normal phenotype when one gene is lost or nonfunctional
multiple alleles
describes when there are more allele options than just two. (Ex. ABO blood typing - A, B, O alleles).
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA):
determines if a person has a specific antigen. Important to diagnose diseases (e.g. HIV). Antibodies are placed on a microtiter plate and with antigens and change color.
peripheral chemoreceptors
directly sense oxygen, carbon dioxide, and proton levels to signal to the medulla oblongata.
griffith
discovered that genetic information can be trasnferred from dead bacteria to livin bacteria bacteria with pneumonia coats and mice
Watson, Crick, Wilkins, Franklin
discovered the structure of DNA
entropy
disorder or randomness; increases
cDNA (complementary DNA)
double-stranded DNA made in vitro from mRNA using the enzyme reverse transcriptase; complementary to previously spliced mRNA
while cell division is happening
during binary fission, when will organisms replciate their genome
chiasmas
during crossing over, Homologous chromosomes join together to form tetrads (bivalents), exchange genetic material at points referred to as ________
independent assortment of alleles
during metaphase I, the homologues of each pair of homologous chromosomes separate and go to opposite poles. depends on random orientation and subsequent seapration
a tetra consisting of 2 attached homologous chromosomes (total of 4)
during metaphase, the chromosomes double up, resulting in
crossing over
during prophase I, nonsister chromatids of homologous chormosomes exchange pieces of genetic material
protostome
embryonic development of annelida
deuterostome
embryonic development of chordates
blunt ends
ends that (have paired nucleotides).
sticky ends
ends that (have unpaired nucleotides)
system
energy conversions are usually discussed within the context of a _____
heat of vaporization
energy required to change water from liquid to a gas
glycogen
energy storage for humans and is alpha bonded polysaccharide (glycoGEN = Gen Z, humans)
starch
energy storage for plants ; alpha-bonded polysaccharide
operator
engaged by a regulatory protein to either block or promote the action of the RNA polymerase
granum
entire stack of thylakoids
epigenetic factors
environmental influences that change the expression of genetic material
enzyme: lipases process: lipolysis
enzyme and process that digest fats into 3 fatty acids and alcohols
Hershey and chase
established that DNA was the genetic material of phages & not protein radioactive sulfur for protein and radioactive phosphorus for DNA
gametocyte
eukaryotic germ cells that can either divide to form more gametocytes or produce gametes.
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
eukaryotic kingdoms
size similarities mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own circular DNA and ribosomes
evidence for endosymbiotic theory
dihybrid cross
examines the inheritance of two genes on separate chromosomes.
molds
example of Filamentous fungi
example of dihybrid cross
example of dihybrid cross
amphipathic molecules
example: phospholipids molecules that are both hydrophobic and hydrophilic and spontaneously assemble into a lipid bilayer component of the cell membrane
spider, scoprion
examples of arachnida arthopoda
lobster, crayfish, crab
examples of arthropoda crustacea
eagle, blue jay
examples of birds - chordates
hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, coral.
examples of cnideria
Starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber.
examples of echinodermata
1) DNA methylation 2) histone acetylation 3) Histone de-acetylation 4) histone methylation
examples of epigenetic changes
salmon, halibut
examples of fish (bony) - chordates
Agnatha, lamprey, hagfish.
examples of fish (lawless) - chordata
most have metanephridia
excretory system of annelida
Malpighian tubules or coxal glands
excretory system of arachnida arthopoda
green glands (aquatic), malpighian tubules (terrestrial)
excretory system of arthropoda crustacea
nephridia
excretory system of mollusca
protonephridia
excretory system of nematoda
malpigian tubules
excretory system of of insecta arthropoda
syngamy
fertilization
classifying protein based on structure
fibrous, globular, or intermediate
parenchyma
fillfiller tissue, makes up bulk of plant, thin cell walls. ground tissue
oxygen
final electron acceptor
Tissues → Blood → Air
flow of carbon dioxide
Air → Blood → Tissues
flow of oxygen
petals, stamen, and pistal
flower structures
tight junctions
form water-tight seals b/w animal cells to ensure sibstances pass through cells and not between them
stele
formed by xylem, phloem, and the pith (made of parenchyma) in the center of the plant for transport. - vascular tissue
Pharyngeal Gill Slits
forms pharynx, gills, other feeding structures. Provides channel from pharynx to other structures. In humans forms Eustachian tubes and other head and neck structures.
Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord
forms spinal cord - basis of nervous system and brain.
secondary xylem
forms wood along with pith)
chloroplasts
found in plants and some protists, carry out photosynthesis; incorporating energy from sunlight into carbohydrates
contractile vacuoles
found in single-celled organisms and works to actively pump out excess water
nuclei > mitochondria/chloroplast > ER fragments > ribosomes.
from density centrifugation from From most dense to least dense:
1) surface to volume ratio 2) genome to volume ratio
functional limitations
sum of the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.
functional residual capacity is the sum of the
nucleus
functions to protect and house DNA in EUkaryotes (membrane bound organelle)
lactose
galactose + glucose (disaccharide)
ethylene
gas that increases fruit ripening. plant homrone
hypotonic solutions
have lower solute concentrations than the cells placed in them, causing water to enter the cell (cell swells up).
desmosomes
provide support against mechanical stress. connects neighboring cells via intermediate filaments
fungi
heterotrophic saprophytes.; nonfilamentous or filamentous
positively charged
histone charge
nuclear pores
holes in the nuclear envelope that allow proteins ands RNA molecules to travel in and out NucleAR (RNA) PoRes (proteins)
centrioles
hollow cylinders made of nine triplets of microtubules (9x3 array).
schlerenchyma
provides main structural support, thick cell walls. ground tissue
cytoskeleton
provides structure and function within the cytoplasm
nematoda and rotifera
pseudocoelomates
diaphragm
pulls lungs downards
Right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary semilunar valve → pulmonary arteries → lung → pulmonary veins → left atrium
pulmonary circulation flow
open circulatory system
pump fluid called hemolymph into sinuses/cavities or hemocoel. Includes some mollusca, arthropoda, Echinodermata.
replenish NAD+ so that glycolysis can proceed once again
purpose of anaerobic respiration
hydrostatic pressure
pushes fluid out of the capillaries on the arterial end into interstitial space.
3
how many H bonds between Gand C
antigen
immunogenic foreign molecule and is the target of the immune response.
ammonia into urea and excreted as urine
in humans, what is ammonia converted into and excreted as
root hairs
increase surface area of roots for greater nutrient and water uptake.
passive transport rates
increase with higher concentration gradients, higher temperatures, and smaller particle size simple diffusion, osmosis, plasmolysis, facilitated diffusion, countercurrent exchange results from random movement
lac operon
inducible operon
SLIPER swelling, loss of function, increased heat, pain redness
inflammatory response
autosomal dominant
inheritance pattern of a dominant allele on an autosome
mast cells signs swelling, loss of function, increased heat, pain, redness
innate immunity; inflammatory responses
no circulatory system, open circulatory system, closed circulatory system
invertebrate circulation
humoral response (antibody-mediated response)
involves most cells and responds to antigens or pathogens that are circulating in the lymph or blood
lagging strand
is produced discontinuously because its 3' end is facing away from the replication fork.
cytokinesis
is the physical separation of the cytoplasm and cell membrane into two daughter cells.
repressible operon
is trp operon repressible or inducible
2 acetyl-CoA -> 4 CO2 + 6NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP
krebs cycle equation also known as the citric acid cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle
induced response
leads to the production of a chemical that is not usually present in the plant
triglycerol (triglycerides)
lipid molecule with a glycerol backbone (3 carbons and 3 -OH groups) and 3 fatty acids (long hydrocarbon tails) that are connected by ester linkages
chylomicrons
lipoprotein transport structures formed by the fusing of triglycerides with proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol
supernatant
liquid that forms on the from the less dense particles during centrifugation
antigen
little sugars and proteins on RBCs that mark our blood as a certain type.
central chemoreceptors
located in the medulla oblongata and contained within the blood brain barrier.
medulla oblongata
located in the brain and controls the diaphragm to regulate respiratory rate.
bundle of his
located in the interventricular septum between the ventricles. carries the signal to the Purkinje fibers which contract the ventricles.
AV node
located in the lower wall of the right atrium. The function is to add a brief delay between the contraction of the atria and the contraction of the ventricles. It also sends a signal to the bundle of His, located in the interventricular septum between the ventricles. The bundle of His carries the signal to the Purkinje fibers which contract the ventricles.
B cell receptors (BCRs)
located on B cells and bind to antigen epitopes either free-floating or on APCs. Each B cell has a unique ______.
poly A signal
located within the terminator sequence and stimulates polyadenylation
locus
location of a gene on a chromosome.
hyphae
long, branching filaments that extend out to form a network of fungi
abscission
loss of leaves or other plant parts
okazaki fragments
many RNA primers are needed to produce short DNA fragments called _____ on the lagging strand
vitamin K
many clotting factors are synthesized with _______
cytological map
map that portrays the true relative positions of genes
ubiquitin
marks nonfunctional proteins for destructure
mycelium
mass of hyphae
total lung capacity
maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation. It is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
Vmax enzyme kinetics plot
maximum reaction velocity
1) conjugation 2) transformation 3) transduction
methods of horizontal gene transfer
cytoplasmic streaming
microfilaments promote the movement of cytoplasmic materials through the cell in plants
1) kinetochore microtubules 2) astral microtubules 3) polar microtubules
microtubules in the spindle apparatus
maternal inheritance
mitochondria and chloroplasts assort randomly during cell division and are inherited only from mother as the male gamete delivers very little cytoplasm
lactose and glucose present
moderate transcription; CAP and repressor both not bound
silent mutations
no change in amino acid sequence. Due to "third base wobble", mutations in the DNA sequence that affect the third base of a codon can still result in the same amino acid being added to the protein.
gram negative
no teichoic acids
lactose absent and glucose present
no transcription, repressor is bound and CAP not bound
MHC I
organ systems that have different ______ may lead to failure and rejection, so immunosuppressants are given to transplant patients.
structure of mitochondria
outer membrane and an inner membrane with many infoldings called cristae w/ inner membrane space located in between; the mitochondrial matrix is located w/in the inner membrane
periplasm
outside plasma membrane
chromatin
overall packaging of DNA and histones.
electron carriers (NADH + FADH2_ + O2 -> ATP + H2O
oxidative phosphorylation equation
anther and filament
parts of stamen
catabolic pathways
pathways in which an inducible operon was associated
P site
peptidyl-tRNA, which carries the growing polypeptide.
thylakoids
phospholipid bilayer structured organelle suspended within teh stroma; individual membered layers of granum
primase
places RNA primers at the origin of replication to create 3' ends for nucleotide addition.
trichomes
plant hairs that can serve various functions: interfere with air movement or increase solar reflection, both of which reduce transporation. reduce predators or egg laying; glandular ones secrete toxins making leaf surfaces uninhabital
auxins
plant homrone cause cell growth. Work with cytokinins. Responsible for plant tropisms (growth in certain direction). _______ concentrated on one side of stem leads to asymmetric growth.
abscisic acid
plant homrone; functions during stress. Promotes dormant seeds, closes stomata (drought), inhibits growth.
dormancy
plant mechanism in response to conditions that are unfavorable
nonvascular
plants (e.g. mosses, hornworts, liverworts) therefore are small and short. Found in moist habitats and grow horizontally to remain close to water and nutrients. Contain rhizoids (hair-like projections) which aid in water absorption and minor anchorage.
Flatworms, trematoda, flukes, tapeworm, planaria.
platyhelminthes
DNA
polymer of nucleotides that have hydrogen on the ribose sugars 2' carbon
stomata
pores underneath the leaf for gas to enter and exit
practice questions of guessing genotypes on pedigrees
practice questions of guessing genotypes on pedigrees
cell determination
process that fixes a cell's fate
heterosporous plants
produce two types of spores; microspores (male) and megaspores (female).
parent cell
produces daughter cells
meiosis
produces four haploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell. It does this by repeating the steps of karyokinesis twice.
How do ROS damage cells?
production of free radicals
1. A scientist measures the baseline **fluorescence of a sample. 2. Then, an area of the sample is photo-bleached. **Photo-bleaching** causes pigmented molecules to irreversibly lose their fluorescence. 3. Due to cellular dynamics and the moving cytoplasm within the cell, the photo-bleached molecules are replaced by unbleached molecules over time. 4. This gradually restores fluorescence to the area.
protocol for Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP)
siRNA
regulates gene expression by blockking or degrading mRNA (siRNA) (linear shape)
repressor protein or activator protein
regulatory protein can be one of two kinds
Exocytosis
releasing material to the extracellular envelope through vesicle secretion (materials are EXITING the plasma membrane)
histone acetylation
removes positive charges, relaxing DNA-histone attractions and allowing for more transcription to happen.
splicing
removing introns from pre-mRNA using spliceosomes.
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of annelida
translocations
segments of the chromosome are deleted and inserted elsewhere, either within the same chromosome or another chromosome example: down syndrome
red light
shortens night length
cells walls, 70S ribosomes, DNA is organized in circular plasmids (horizontal gene transfer via pilli), flagellum for movement, reproduce via binary fission
similarities between eubacteria vs archaea
myoglobin
single peptide with one heme cofactor. It has a much higher affinity for oxygen than oxyhemoglobin and is found within cardiac and skeletal muscle cells to bring oxygen in.
alternative splicing
single pre-mRNA having various possible spliced mRNA products. Thus, the same pre-mRNA can produce many different proteins.
RNA structure
single stranded after being copied from DNA during transcription uracil instead of thymine
leaves
site for photosynthesis
tracheal tubes
site of gas excghane
reaction center
special pair of chlorphull molecules in the center of photosystem proteins
carotenoids and chlorophyll
special pigments contained in photosystems that absorb photons
amyloplasts
specialized starch containing cell organelles sink to teh bottom of cells in response to gravity and thus may be associated with teh detection of a gravitational field
adaptive immune system
specific immune response (targets specific antigens).
denaturation, primer annealing, elongation
steps of PCR
1) glycolysis 2) krebs cycle 3) oxidative phosphorylation
steps of aerobic respiration
1) decarboxylation- pyruvate molecules (3 C molecule) move from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix (stay w/ proks), producing 1 CO2 and one 2 C molecule per pyruvate 2) oxidation- the two carbon molecule is converted into an acetyl group, giving electrons to NAD+ converting it into NADH. 3) Coenzyme A (CoA)- CoA binds to the acetyl group, producing acetyl CoA
steps of pyruvate manipulations
1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
steps of transcription
sunken stomata
stomata that occur in depressions below the surrounding surface of the leaf; reduce rate of transpiration caused by air movement (wind) over the surface of a leaf
vertebrata
subphylum of fish (bony) - chordates
antibiotics, vaccines, passive immunity
supplements to natural body degenses
stems
support aboveground parts of plants and serve to transport water, minerals, and sugars between those parts and roots; have spines or thorns
bundle sheath cells
surround and protect the vascular bundle.
difference between starch and glycogen
the amount of branching in the polymer chains (glycogen has more)
heat of fusion
the amt of energy a substance must absorb in order to change from a solid to a liquid
what regulates substances travelling into and out of the cell?
the cell membrane
respiration
the exchange of gases between the outside environment and the inside of an organism.
endomembrane system
the group of organelles and membranes in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins that are entering or exiting a cell
memory B cells
the key to vaccinations because vaccines cause___________ production for later reactivation.
where are proteins that are made in the rough ER sent for modifications
the lumen; modifications include glycosylation; after they are sent out of the cell or become part of the cell membrane
macrophages
the mature form of phagocytes in innate immunity after diapedesis.
expiratory reserve volume
the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled further after a normal exhalation is already released.
9:3:3:1 (both dominant:one dominant one recessive:one dominant one recessive:both recessive)
the phenotype ratio of a dihybrid cross
barrier
the placenta provides an exchange of gas and nutrients across a _____. thus, there is no mixing of mother and fetus blood
why are ionic substances soluble
the poles of the polar water molecules interact with the ionic substances and separate them into ions
translation
the process of converting mRNA into protein products.
hydroskeleton
the pseudocoelom is a ______ (fluid pressure providing structural support) that helps with motility.
transcription bubble
the region of locally unwound DNA that allows for transcription of mRNA in prokaryotes
stroke volume (SV)
the volume of blood pumped from the heart with each beat.
thigmatropism
the way a plant grows or moves in response to touch (vines w/ wa;;)
38
theoretical amt of ATP produced
gram negative
thin peptidoglycan layer and a second outer membrane. Both are covered by a capsule (a virulence factor protecting the bacteria from drying out).
increased pH, lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide, fetal hemoglobin, decreased body temp
things that contribute to a left shift curve adn icnreased addinity for oxygen in hemoglobin
function of free-floating ribosomes
to make proteins that function in the cytosol
stigma
top part of the pistil
first law of thermodynamics
total amount of energy i the universe remains constant; energy cannot b created or destroyed
lower respiratory tract
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
xylem
transports water from roots (source) to leaves (sink) and provides structural support. Made up of tracheids (long and thin, water travels through pits in their tapered ends) and vessel elements (short and stout, water travels via perforations in cell walls).
receptor function of peripheral membrane proteins
trigger secondary responses within the cell for signaling
molecule
two or more atoms joined together
energy investment phase and energy payoff phase
two phases of glycolysis
next generation sequencing
type of DNA sequencing that is more often used now, because it is quicker and cheaper than dideoxy chain termination
osmosis
type of simple diffusion that involves water molecules. -water is polar but is small enough to cross the membrane from areas of high water concentration to areas of lower water concentration -going down its concentration gradient (substance is moving from a higher [ ] to a lower [ ])
monocots and dicots
types of angiosperms
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), cyro-scanning eletron microscopy (cyro-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron tomography
types of electron microscopes
chordates
vertebrates
primary growth
vertical growth occurring at apical meristems (located at tips of roots and shoots). Occurs before secondary growth.
ice floats
water expands as it freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form (H-bonds become rigid/more ordered and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).
trp repressor protein when bound with trypotophan
what attaches to the operator on the trp operon to prevent tryptophan production.
processed mRNA
what can exit the nucleus? pre-mRNA or processed mRNA
tRNA
what carries an amino acid to be added to the growing protein
generative cell and tube cells
what combines to form pollen
5'->3'
what direction does DNA polymerase synthesize in
beta-oxidation
what do free fatty acids undergo to be converted into acetyl coA requires initial investment of ATP but then is continuosly cleaved to yield twoC acetyl CoA molecules (can be used in krebs cycle for ATP gen) & electron carriers (NADH and FADH2- more ATP producers)
RNA polymerase holoenzyme
what do prokaryotes use to transcribe genes
degeneracy (redundancy) of translation
what do silent mutations rely on
lactose metabolism
what does the protein do that is encoded by the lac operon
tryptophan synthetase
what does the trp operon code for
trp repressor protein
what does tryptophan bind to for the trp operon
uric acid or urea depending on the species and is then excreted from the body bc ammonia (NH3) is toxic
what is ammonia converted into after oxidative demaniation of using proteins for cellular respiration and why does that occur)
C2 photosynthesis
what is photorespiration also called
night length and the flashes of red or far-red light during the night period (the last flash is the one that matters)
what is responsible for resetting the circadian-rhythm clock
the spindle apparatus
what is the MTOC responsible for forming
vesicles from the Golgi apparatus and ends up producing the middle lamella
what is the cell plate created by?
input of free energy
what is used to maintain order in opposition to entropy that increases as a result of chemical reactions
positive
what kind of feedback mechanism is blood clotting
woody plants
what kind plants undergo secondary growth
DNA polymerase
what proofreads the DNA for mutations
CO2 and H2O to H2CO3
what reaction takes place in the RBCs
DNA polymerase
what replaces the RNA nucleotides in the RNA primer that were laid down by primase
genetically unique chromatids
what results from crossing over
water
what the final electron acceptor gets reduced to
far-red light, wv=730 nm
when P fr is exposed to ______ it is converted back to Pr
red light, wv=600 nm
when Pr is exposed to _____ it is converted to Pfr
duplications
when a chromosome segment is repeated on the same chromosome
epistasis
when one gene affects the expression of a different gene. (Ex. baldness gene covers up the genes for hair color).
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
when platelets encounter damaged tissue, they release ____ which binds to the plasma membrane of fibroblasts ( a connective tissue) and sitmulates its cell division; new fibroblasts continue to healing of damaged tissue
chromosomes
when the cell begins to divide, the chromatin condenses into rod-shaped bodies made up of two long DNA molecules and various histone (protein)molecules
aqueous solution
when the solvent of a solution is water
cross
when two organisms are mated to produce offspring.
limited
when water availability is ____, inadequate supplies of water to cells may trigger plasmolysis and a reduction in cell turgor, followed by wilting and eventual death
cell lysis
when water moves into the cell by osmosis, teh cell volume increases adn the cell expands. swelling causes cell to burst (esp animal cells and other cells that lack a cell wall)
when glucose is not available as an energy source, so lactose must be used.
when will the lac operon be induced
dehydration (condensation) reaction
where a water molecule leaves and a covalent bond forms example: glycosidic bonds
zone of division
where apical meristem cells are located and divide.
near the nucleus
where are centrosomes located
from the mitochondrial matrix to the innermembrane space forming an electrochemical gradeint
where are protons pumped during the series of redox reactions and what is produced?
chiasmata
where chromatids physically crossover during synapsis, causing genetic recombination.
bone marrow
where do B cells (lymphocytes) mature? originate in bone marrow
cytosol
where does anaerobic respiration occur
stroma
where does the calvin cycle occur?
thymus
where to T cells (lymphocytes) mature; originate in bone marrow
FADH2 complex-II, regenerating FAD+
which electron results in less pumping of electrons due to bypassing of complex-I and where does it drop electrons
bronchi
which end up branching into smaller bronchioles and eventually into alveoli.
entropy increases, cells deteriorate, and death follows
without an input of free energy....
lenticels
woody stems) pores found in plants that allow gas exchange to occur.
mother centriole attaching itself to the cell membrane
basal body was originally formed by
pharynx
beginning of the throat after the nasal cavity. Under the control of the epiglottis, it diverts air and food into the larynx and the esophagus.
trachea
below the larynx and has reinforced cartilage along with ciliated epithelial cells to filter air.
intermediate filaments
between microfilaments and microtubules in size; more stabile than microfilaments, helping wiht structural support example: keratin in hair, skin, and nails lamins which helps make up the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filaments which support the nucleus
(HCO3-)
bicarbonate anion
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 - + H +
bicarbonate buffering system equation
single-strand binding proteins
bind to uncoiled DNA strands, preventing reattachment.
loss of function
body part with inflammation becomes less usable.
endosperm
The other sperm cell combines with ovule's polar nuclei forming .
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
generative cell; tube cell
Microspore undergoes mitosis to form _________ (contains sperm) and ______ which combine to form pollen.
1) MHC I PResentation 2) MHC II Presentation
There are two ways antigens may be presented to T cells:
left ventricle
Most muscular chamber of the heart. Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and systemic circulation.
embryo
One sperm cell meets ovule forming the seed or _______. Ovary develops into fruit which is eaten by animals and deposited in a new location (gene migration).
plasmogamy
Two hyphae fuse their cytoplasm
dicotyledons (dicots)
Two cotyledon. mono or di?
Nasal Cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli
Overall Pathway of Air
left atrium
Oxygenated blood is returned here from the lungs from the pulmonary vein. Blood passes through the left AV valve (or bicuspid, or mitral valve) to the left ventricle.
1) DNA is heated 2) DNa is cooled and ss-DNA primers are added 3) DNA polymerase is added 4) repeat
PCR process
monosomy
(1 chromosome copies)
trisomy
(3 chromosomes copies)
polyadenylation
(addition of adenine nucleotides to the 3' end of the mRNA to prevent degradation
complete digestive system
(alimentary canal and accessory glands),
seed-bearing tracheophytes
(all heterosporous); includes gymnosperms and angiosperms
N-terminus
(amino terminus) the end of a polypeptide that ends with the last AA's amino group
heparin
(an anticoagulant to prevent blood clotting)
microtubules nucleation
(anchoring tubulin to start microtubule extension).
cohesive force
(between similar substances, e.g. the water molecules) pulls the water column upward.
universal donor
(blood donor who can donate to anyone)
close circulatory system
(blood pumped through vessels by heart),
protonephridia
(bundles of flame cells
C-terminus
(carboxyl terminus) the end of a polypeptide with the last amino acids carboxyl group
pinocytosis
(cell drinking)
septate hyphae
(have septas dividing hyphae in different sections)
cardiomyocytes
(heart muscle cells)
sigmoidal
(hemoglobin's curve is ).
stomata
(in leaves and green stems) pores found in plants that allow gas exchange to occur.
nitrogen fixing bacteria
(in root nodules of legumes) fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4 +).
coenocytic pyphae
(one long continuous multinucleated cell; cytokinesis does not occur during cell division).
nephridia
(pairs of osmoregulatory 'kidneys' in invertebrates).
teichoic acids
(polysaccharide connecting peptidoglycan layer and plasma membrane for rigidity and structure).
SDS PAGE sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(proteins denatured and given negative charge proportional to their mass).
book lungs
(sheets of vascularized tissue on either side to increase surface area).
meiosis II
(sister chromatids separate).
anther
(site of microspore formation)
5' capping
- 7-methylguanosine cap is added to the 5' end of the mRNA during elongation, protecting the mRNA from degradation.
eukaryotic ribosomes
- small (40S) and large (60S) subunits form a 80S ribosome. They are composed of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and proteins, which are assembled together in the nucleolus.
cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic , using chlorophyl a to capture light energy, using C 02, Splitting H2O , and releasing 02 as do plants. Some also fix inorganic nitrogen In convert it into ammonia Which can then be used for making nitrogen containing amino acids and nucleotides
purple sulfur bacteria
Photosynthetic but split H2S instead of H2O To obtain electrons And H+ For non cyclic photo phosphorylation, and produce sulfur.
translation
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced
chemosynthesis
Process by which some organisms, such as certain bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates use H2S, NH3, or NO2 as a source of free energy
3' side of carbon
-OH group attached
activator protein
Promotes attachment of RNA polymerase to promoter region characterize positive regualtion bc they must in active in order for transcription to occur
integral proteins
-use detergent to penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer to allow the polar and big molecules to pass across the membrane which are restricted by the phospholipid bilayer (signaling / transport) -transmembrane proteins (existing across a cell membrane) -completely embedded in the phospholipid bilayer; so they have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions (amphipathic) (INTEGRATE themselves into the bilayer)
facilitated transport (facilitated diffusion)
-when integral proteins allow larger, hydrophilic molecules, solutes or water to cross the cell membrane through carrier proteins or channel proteins -type of passive transport (no E required)
4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP
1 acetyl coa molecule produces (bc 1 glucose -> 2 pyruvate -> 2 Acetyl coA_
Types of membrane transport
1. passive transport (moves down/with the concentration gradient aka from high to low concentration, no energy required) 2. active transport (moves against concentration gradient aka from low to high concentration, energy required) -also diffusion (simple diffusion, osmosis)
right ventricle
Pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve to the pulmonary artery. Blood enters pulmonary circulation. When the ventricle contracts, the AV valve is closed and the pulmonary semilunar valve is open. When the ventricle relaxes, the AV valve is open to refill the ventricle, and the pulmonary semilunar valve closes to prevent the backflow of blood.
ribozyme
RNA molecule that can act as an enzyme (non-protein enzyme)
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
RNA nucleoside triphosphate contains adenine nitrogenous base linked to a ribose sugar and 3 P groups connected to the sugar
less than 50%
Recombination frequencies of__________ mean that the two genes are linked.
homologous chormosomes pairs
2 different versions of the same chromosome number; one from th emother and one from the fater
how many AAs are there?
20 each with a different R group
20% chance of recombination.
20 map units would mean 0.2 crossover events occur between the two genes per generation, or ______ %
autosomes
22 pairs in the human body and are nonsex chromosomes.
Attenuation
2nd level of trp operon regulation
triploblasts
3 germ layers
1. Law of dominance 2. Law of segregation 3. Law of independent assortment
3 laws proposed by gregor mendel
skin, nonspecific defenses, immune response
3 lines of defense
1) base substitutions (point mutations) 2) insertions 3) deletions
3 main types of DNA mutations
1) silent mutations 2) missense mutations 3) nonsense mutations
3 types of base substitutions/point mutations
parenchyma, collenchyma, schlerenchyma
3 types of ground tissue
cohesion-tension theory, capillary action, and root pressure
3 ways that contribute to movement of water
zones of division, elongation, and maturation
3 zones of the root tip
Structure of cholesterol
4 fused hydrocarbon rings
prokaryotic ribosomal subunits
50S and 30S assemble in the nucleoid and form the complete ribosome in the cytosol (70S)
nucleotides
5C sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group (nucleoside + P group)
Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
6 kingdoms
eukaryotic ribosomal subunits
60S and 40S assemble in the nucleoplasm and form the complete ribosome in the cytosol (80S)
interphase
90% of the cell cycle
the placenta through the umbilical cord
A fetus gets the oxygen and nutrients it needs from
epiglottis
A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering.
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
autophagy
A process in which lysosomes break down damaged organelles to reuse them (self-eating)
unlinked
A random assortment of _______ genes have 50% recombinant progeny.
genomic library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
fructose
A six-carbon monosaccharide that usually exists in a ring form; found in fruits and honey; also known as fruit sugar. C6H12O6 isomer to glucose
phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which a cell wraps around & engulfs large solid particles or whole cells; undissolved material enters the cell -"cell eating"
DNA bonding
A--T (held together by 2 H bonds) G---C (held together by 3 H bonds)
RNA binding
A--U (held together by 2 H bonds) G---C (held together by 3 H bonds)
endergonic condensation reaction
ADP + Pi-> ATP
nucleotides in DNA
AT , CG
primary active transport
Active transport in which ATP is hydrolyzed, yielding the energy required to transport an ion or molecule against its concentration gradient.
purines
Adenine and Guanine PUR As Gold
alpha vs beta bonded
Alpha linkage has the oxygen (on the aldehyde or ketone) below the ring and the beta has it above the ring.
cnideria
Aquatic habitats, some have nematocysts, some have life cycles that switch from polyp to medusa forms
electrical resistance
As cells show electrical resistance and impede conductance, the number of cells in a solution can be estimated by observing the flow of electricity.
chemoautotrophs (chemolithoautotrophs)
Autotrophs that obtain energy from inorganic sources Some of these used nitrifying bacteria because they convert nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-)
central chemoreceptors
Since carbonic anhydrase is present in the cerebrospinal fluid, carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonate ions and protons here.
Monocotyledons (monocots)
Single cotyledon. mono or di?
24, 24, 22, 22 chromosomes in haploid daughter cells
Single nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I 46 chromosomes in diploid parent cell →
24, 22, 23, 23 chromosomes in haploid daughter cells
Single nondisjunction of sister chromatids during meiosis II 46 chromosomes in diploid parent cell →
antigen receptors called antibodies
B cell receptors on their surface
open
Stomata are ________ when CO2 concentration is low (allows for CO2 intake and photosynthesis)
recognition sites for molecules displaced by nonself cells
T cell receptors on their surface
MHC II presentation
T cells differentiate into CD4 T cells (helper T cells), which release cytokines to boost both innate immunity and adaptive immunity. These cytokines help attract innate immune cells and increase proliferation of other T and B cells.
MHC I presentation
T cells differentiate into CD8 T cells (cytotoxic T cells), which directly kill infected cells through perforin (poke holes) and granzymes (cause apoptosis). However, T cells are different from natural killer cells because they are more specific and require antigen presentation.
opsonization
Tags antigens for phagocytosis in a process; performed by complement proteins
cell cycle control
Cancerous growth occurs as a result because proto-oncogenes are normally involved in
cytochromes
Carrier molecules embedded in the cristae membrane include nonprotein parts containing iron
some of the main integral proteins are
Carrier proteins and channel proteins
secondary xylem; secondary phloem
Cell produced inside ring of vascular cambium become _________ (forms wood along with pith) and cells outside become _____________ (forms bark with cork and cork cambium).
antibiotics
Chemicals derived from bacteria or fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms
cell-mediated response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
The immune system recognizes self proteins from non-self proteins using the __________ which is found on the surface of cells.
inner membrane of chloroplast
The inner plasma membrane composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
anti-Rh antibodies.
The issue is during labor, the fetal Rh (+) blood will enter the mother's system of Rh (-) blood type and she will develop....
negatively charged
DNA charge
eubacteria
DNA lacks introns and histones.
cloning vector
DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.
recombinant DNA
DNA segments or genes from different sources
transposons
DNA segments that insert themselves throughout the genome after copying or deleting themselves from another area
enhancers
DNA sites that activator proteins can bind to and help increase transcription of a gene.
silencers
DNA sites that repressor proteins can bind to and decrease transcription of a gene.
chromatin
DNA spread out within the nucleus as a thread-like matrix; how it normally is
semiconservative replication
DNA undergoes _____ each new double helix produced by replication has one "new" strand and one "old" strand.
Right atrium
Deoxygenated blood is returned here from the upper superior vena cava and the lower inferior vena cava. Blood passes through the right atrioventricular valve (AV valve, or tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle. AV valve is attached to papillary muscles, which contract to close the AV valves and prevent backflow of blood.
lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, like fats, oils, and waxes -made up of C,H,O -have long hydrocarbon tails, making them very hydrophobic
colocalize
Enhancers and silencers can be far upstream or downstream from the gene, so DNA from these sites are thought to loop around to ______ with RNA polymerase
transpiration
Evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant
arhtropoda insecta
Exoskeleton of chitin, jointed appendages, three pairs of legs, more species than any other phylum combined, metamorphosis
1:2:1
F2 generation, the genotype ratio of a monohybrid cross genotype ratio
3:1
F2 generation, the genotype ratio of a monohybrid cross phenotype ratio
1⁄4 AA, 1⁄2 Aa, 1⁄4 aa
Heterozygous x heterozygous =
gram negative
LPS present in outer membrane
cytosol
Where does glycolysis take place?
purines
double-ringed nitrogenous bases
desiccation
drying out
cleavage furrow
during cell division, actin microfilaments form contractile rings that split the cell
competent
a bacteria is ______ if it can perform transformation
affected
a female carrier may become an ______ individual for a disease if her unaffected X chromosome with a normal wild-type allele is inactivated, leaving behind a recessive allele that is not covered up.
anticodon
a group of three tRNA bases that base pairs with a codon.
four
each hemoglobin can carry up to ____ oxygen molecules.
membrane proteins
either integral or peripheral
tracheids and vessel elements
elements of xylem
protostome
embryonic development of all arthopoda
traits
end products of metabolic processes regulated by enzymes
LPS (lipopolysaccharide)
endotoxin released when bacteria is destroyed
holoenzymes
enzymes that are bound to their cofactor
apoenzymes
enzymes that are not bound to their cofactors
6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + H+ → 18 ADP + 18 Pi +12 NADP+ + 1 glucose
equation for calvin cycle
Colony Forming Units (CFUs):
estimates number of cells plated on growth medium assuming that one cell gives rise to one colony.
HIV
example of a retrovirus
shark
example of fish (cartilaginous) - chordates
binds to mast cells for increase histamine release
example of how complement proteins amplify the inflammatory response
ant, grasshopper
example of insecta arthropoda
frog, toad, salamander, newt
examples of amphibia - chordates
earthworm, leech
examples of annelida
kangaroo, opossum
examples of mammalia (marsupials) - chordates
duckbill platypus, spiny anteater
examples of mammalia (monotremes)- chordates
bat, whale, mouse, human
examples of mammalia (placental)- chordates
Clam, snail, slug, squid, octopus, cephalopod, gastropod.
examples of mollusca
Round worm, hook worm, trichinella, C. elegans, ascarcis.
examples of nematoda
turtle, snake, crocodile, alligator
examples of reptiles - chordates
none (diffusion)
excretory system of of echicnodermata
-dG
exergonic= releases energy + spontaneous
down syndrome
a trisomy of chromosome #21 (each diploid cell has 47 chromosomes total).
mosaicism
failure of two chromids to separate during anaphase often occurs during embryonic development and results in _____ - a fraction of the body cells, those descendent of a cell where nondisjunction occurs, have an extra or missing chromosome
convergent evolutions
features arose among the groups independently
pistil
female plant sex organ. Composed of stigma (top), style (tube leading to ovary), and ovary (contains ovule or egg).
megaspores
female spores
F plasmid
fertility factor
ribose
five carbon monosaccharide (RI-bose = FI-ve) C5H10O5
RuBisCo
fixes CO2 into RuBP and causes oxygen to bind to RuBP in a process called photorespiration
9+2 microtubule arrays
flagella and cilia in eukaryotes made of
globular protein flagella
flagella in prokaryotic cells made of
pleural space
fluid-filled space in between the parietal and visceral layers. This space is at a lower pressure than the atmosphere, and creates the intrapleural pressure.
Fluorescence microscopy:
fluorophores (fluorescent chemicals) are used to visualize different parts of the cell. A dichroic filter is used which allows certain wavelengths of light to be reflected and others to pass through. Distortions or artifacts decrease the resolution.
46; 92
for meosis 1 DNA replication in S phase results in ___ chromosomes and ___ chromatids
intermolecular forces
forces that exist between molecules and affect physical properties of the substance
Pr
form of cytochrome synthesized in plant cells
intercalated discs
function to transmit the signal to contract in a coordinated, rhythmic fashion.
stomach acid
gastric acid that kills microbes due to low pH.
proto-oncogenes
gene defect that follows the one-hit hypothesis
tumor-suppressor genes
gene defect that follows the two-hit hypothesis
linked genes
genes that are found close together on the same chromosome and cannot physically separate from each other and are inherited together example: wing structure and body color of flies
sex linked
genes that develop in one sex or the other, can be on autosomes due to SRY genes
genotype
genetic composition of an organism
Anueploidy
genome with extra or missing chromosomes, most often caused by nondisjunction
heterotrophs
get energy from the food they ear
sucrose
glucose + fructose (disaccharide)
maltose
glucose + glucose (disaccharide)
DNA ligase
glues separated fragments of DNA together.
glycocalyx
glycolipid/glycoprotein coat found mainly on bacterial adn animal epithelial cells; gels with adhesion, protection, and cell recognition)
R plasmids
group of plasmids that provide resistance against antibiotics
trans-unsaturated fats
have straighter hydrocarbon tails, but have a little bend, so they pack tightly
isotonic solutions
have the same solute concentrations as the cells placed in them
tachycardia
heart rate above 100 bpm
bradycardia
heart rate less than 60 bpm
Taq polymerase
heat resistant DNA polymerase used in PCR
CD4T cells
helper T cells; stimulate the proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells through releasing interleukins (communication b/w leukocytes)
mutation
heritable change in DNA
scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
high resolution 3D images of the surface of a dehydrated sample.
high-density lipoproteins
high density of proteins considered healty bc htye bring cholesterol to teh liver to make bile
reasons a protein will denature
high or low temperatures, pH changes, and salt concentrations
high density lipoproteins (HDLs)
high protein density and take cholesterol away from peripheral tissues and deliver it to the liver. the cholesterol can be used to make bile acids which aid in fat absorption and reduces blood lipid levels. "good cholesterol"
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
high resolution 2D images of the sample's internal structures. costly like all types of electron microscopy
lactose present and glucose absent
high transcription. repressor not bound and CAP is bound
decreased pH right shifted curve
higher number of protons (H+ (H +Hb) has a lowered affinity for binding oxygen, resulting in less HbO2.), which produces reduced hemoglobin. Reduced hemoglobin
systolic blood pressure
highest pressure in your arteries when your ventricles contract.
ethylene, auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid
hormones in plants
dG = -7.3 kcal/mol
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP
what are waxes mainly used for?
hydrophobic protective coatings leaves coated with wax so water beads off of them
apoptosis
if DNA repair at the G1 checkpoint fails what happens
a promoter sequence (aka promoter) next to the gene attracts RNA polymerase to transcribe the gene.
in DNA transcription a promoter sequence (aka promoter) next to the gene attracts RNA polymerase to transcribe the gene.
elongation
in DNA transcription transcription bubble forms and RNA polymerase travels in the 3' → 5' direction on the template strand. However, it extends RNA in the 5' → 3' direction.
antiparallel
in DNA, the 5' end (terminal phosphate group) of one strand is always next to the 3' end (terminal hydroxyl group) of the other strand and vice versa.
ostia
in an open circulatory system, the hemolymph returns to the pumping mechanism of the system, the heart, through holes called
cellular respiration
in an overall reaction, what is photosynthesis a reverse of
countercurrent exchange
in fish, occurs between the opposing movements of water and teh underlying blood through blood vessels maximizing the diffusion of O2 into the blood and CO2 into the water
operculum
in fish, water enters through the mouth, passes over the gills, and exists through the gill cover or ______
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
in humans ______ serve as markers for disease causing genes.
telophase with the formation of a cell plate
in plant cells, when does cytokinesis begin?
cAMP
in some species the signalling molecules used by plasmodial slime molds to stimulate aggregation; stimulated by the individual cells that experience food deprivation first
purpose of vasodilation in immune response
increases blood supply to damaged areas and allows for easier movement of WBCs etc through blood vessel walls; additioonal blood causes redness, increase in temp, and swelling. increase in temp stimulates WBCs making the env inhospitable to pathogens
visceral layer
inner layer of the lung
genes
instructions within DNA that code for proteins.
thylakoid lumen
interior of the thylakoid and H+ ions accumulate here making it acidic
secondary structure
intermolecular forces between the polypeptide backbone (not R-groups) due to hydrogen bondings. forms alpha-helices or beta-pleated sheets
flame cells
involved in osmoregulation
inspiration/inhalation
involves the contraction of the diaphragm (pulls lungs downwards) and the external intercostal muscles (expands the rib cage). These contractions cause the pressure of the intrapleural space to decrease and the volume of the lungs to increase, bringing air into the lungs.
endocytosis
involves the cell wrapping around an extracellular substance, internalizing it into the cell via a vesicle or vacuole
mutant allele
is a variant that arises when a gene undergoes a mutation, or change.
spontaneous and exergonic
is cellular respiration spon or nonspon and is it ender or exer
nonspontaneous and endergonic
is photosynthesis spon or nonspon and is it ender or exer
protists
kingdom of (mostly unicellular) eukaryotic organisms.
megakaryocytes
large bone marrow cells that are the precursor to platelets
microtubules
largest in size and give structural integrity to the cells; hollow and have walls made of tubulin protein dimers function in cell division, cilia, and flagella
proteins
least desirable energy source
mitral or bicuspid, oxygenated
left AV valve
phytochrome
light abosrbing protein
photons
light energy; used to synthesize sugars in photosynthesis
amylose
linear starch
phospholipids
lipid molecules that have a glycerol backbone, one phosphate group, and 2 fatty acids
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
low protein density and deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissues they can deposit cholesterol in the heart and major blood vessels, leading to atherosclerotic blockages and heart disease. LDLs are the "bad" cholesterol.
respiratory acidosis
lowered blood pH occurs due to inadequate breathing
veins
lowest blood pressure of all vessels
mismatch repair
machinery that checks uncaught errors.
spindle apparatus
made of microtubules; guides movement of chromosomes during cell division
autotrophs
make their own food
monocots
monocotyledons
neturophil
most common WBC
collagen
most common structural protein and organized collagen fibrils (fibers of glycosylated collagen secreted by fibroblasts)
water
most important env condition
endergonic
most metabolic reactions are (endergonic/exergonic)
arteries
move blood away from the heart,
veins
move blood toward the heart.
joining of gametes
new and variable combinations are created when teh gametes of two individuals join which sperm fertilizes which egg is also random
replaces
new phloem ______ old phloem
breast milk (IgA)
newborn gains passive immunity through
topoisomerase
nicks the DNA double helix ahead of helicase to relieve built-up tension.
cilia and flagella
nine doublets of microtubules wiht two singles in the center (9+2 array)
chemoautotrophs
able to use inorganic substances as a sourve of energy to generate organic molecules
enterocytes
absorbs the digested pieces of fatty acids and alcohols from lipolysis in the small intestine, reforming triglycerides
Pr
accumulates at night
2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) aka 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG): right shift curve
accumulates in cells that undergo anaerobic respiration as a result of the loss of oxygen. This compound decreases oxygen binding affinity so more oxygen is released from hemoglobin to fuel aerobic respiration.
lysosomes contain
acidic digestive enzymes that function at a low pH (hydrolytic enzymes)
endosymbiotic theory
aerobic bacteria were internalized as mitochondria while the photosynthetic bacteria became chloroplasts
to break down carbohydrates for energy, cells utilize
aerobic cellular respiration or anaerobic cellular respiration
dG = -686 kcal/glucose
aerobic respiration energy produced
genome
all the DNA in a cell
dichroic filter
allows certain wavelengths of light to be reflected and others to pass through.
wobble pairing
allows the antiocodon of some tRNAs to base-pair with more than one kind of codon
t cells
also undergo clonal selection just like B cells. apparent by presence of TCRs
C3 photosynthesis, C4 photosynthesis, and CAM photosynthesis
alternative pathways to photosynthesis
4
amount of protons required for production of 1 ATP
36
amount produced due to NADH in the cytoplasm moving into the matrix and only being able to produce 2 NADH
1
amt of atp produced from cyclic photophosphorylation
1.5
amt of atp produced from non-cyclic photophosphorylation
capillary action
an adhesive force (between dissimilar substances) due to attraction between water and xylem vessels causing water to climb upwards.
decrease
an increase or decrease of G/V leads to cell division?
decrease
an increase or decrease of S/V leads to cell division?
fermentation
anaerobic pathway that only relies on glycolysis by converting the produced pyruvate into different molecules in order to oxidize NADH back to NAD+
Porifera, Cnideria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Ritofera, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata
animal phyla privileged children play nicely radidly and maturely, arther ensures cooperation
amoeba and paramecium
animal-like protists
familiar heterotrophs
animals that eat other plants and animals
Phospholipid envelope
another protective layer that not all viruses have
Rhesus factor (Rh).
another surface protein on the surface of erythrocytes either have Rh (+) or you don't have Rh (-). If a donor is Rh(+) , they cannot donate to someone who is Rh(-), because the donor has antigens on the surface of the blood cell.
p21
another tumor-suppressor gene that inhibits phosphorylation activity in order to decrease rampant cell division.
plasma cells
anti-body secreting cells
humoral immunity
antibody-mediated immunity
dendritic cells and macrophages
antigen presenting cells
matter
anything that takes up space and has mass
heritable
are epigenetic changes heritable or nonheritable
capillaries
arterioles branch into _______, vessels that are 1 cell thick and diffuse gas and nutrients to the interstitial fluid. collect waste and CO2. enter a venule, which then connects to a vein, which brings the blood back to the heart.
PCR
automated process creating millions of copies of DNA in 3 steps:
bilforms
bacteria respond to signals from quorum sensing and affregate to form ____ dense populations of bacteria linked by their adhesive films
F+
bacteria that contain an F plasmid
F-
bacteria that do NOT contain an F plasmid
conjugation
bacteria use a cytoplasmic bridge called a pili to copy and transfer a special plasmid known as the F plasmid (fertility factor).
Why did DNA later become a more reliable way of storing genetic info?
bc RNA is reactive and unstable
mesophyll
between upper and lower epidermis
allolactose
binds directly to the repressor and removes it from the operator, allowing transcription to occur.
fetal hemoglobin left shift curve
binds oxygen better than adult hemoglobin to give oxygen to the fetus.
carrier proteins
binds to molecule on one side and changes shape to bring it to the other side; facilitate movement of ions and larger organic molecules like AAs or glucose
enzyme function of proteins
biological catalysts
enzymes
biological catalysts that bind to substrates (reactants) and convert them into products most are proteins
repressor protein
blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter, thus preventing transcription of the genes into messenger RNA. characterize negative regulation bc they must be inactive in order for transcription to occur
O (-)
blood type that is a universal donor bc it has neither A nor B surface antigens, nor does it have an Rh surface antigen. meaning no immune clearance would be sitmulated
bilateral
body symmetry of nematoda
benthic habitat
bottom of body of water
catabolic
breaking down larger molecules for energy
lysis
bursting of a cell when too much water enters
inversely
cAMP levels are ______ related to glucose levels
multipotent cells
can give rise to some of the three germ layers - not all.
oncogenes
cancer-causing genes
histone-deacetylation
causes gene suppression and formation of heterochromatin
DNA methylation
causes gene suppression through the addition of methyl groups, recruiting methyl-binding proteins (MBDs) and preventing transcription factors from binding.
coelom
cavity
surface to volume ratio
cell division occurs when volume is too large because cells rely on the surface area of their cell membrane for transport of material. Decrease in S/V leads to division.
phagocytosis
cell eating
heat fixation
cells are placed on top of the slide and then the underside of the slide is run over a bunsen burner. This heats the cells, preserving and sticking them to the slide.
Bohr effect
change in hemoglobin affinity. hemoglobin has decreased oxygen affinity when carbon dioxide is high. Carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate anions and protons, which produce reduced hemoglobin (H +Hb).
gibbs free energy
change of free energy that occurs as a result of a conversion; represented by dG
chromosomal aberrations
changes in the chromosome structure or in the makeup of the genome
ATP synthase
channel protein taht provides a hydrophillic tunnel to allow protons to flow down their electrochemical gradient (from the innermembrane space back to the mitochondrial matrix)
eukaryotic, diploid, multicellular heterotrophic aerobes.
characteristics of animals
multicellular, heterotrophic, dominant generation is the diploid generation, motile during at least some part of their life cycle
characteristics shared by all animals
multicellular, autotrophic, rooted in the ground
characteristics shared by all plants
prophase I
chromatin condenses into chromosomes (X-shaped dyads). Also nucleolus and nuclear envelope will disappear. Homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs.
metaphase II
chromosomes line up single file at the metaphase plate just like in mitosis.
two chambered heart
circulatory system of fish (bony) - chordates
two chambered heart
circulatory system of fish (cartilaginous) - chordates
two chambered heart
circulatory system of fish (lawless) - chordata
four chambered heart
circulatory system of mammalia (monotremes)- chordates
four chambered heart
circulatory system of mammalia (placental)- chordates
mainly open, hemocoel
circulatory system of mollusca
bacterial cloning
cloning eukaryotic gene products in prokaryotic cells. Used to produce medicine.
spongy mesophyll
closer to lower epidermis, loosely-packed allowing for gas exchange.
palisade mesophyll
closer to upper epidermis, tightly packed cells that carry out photosynthesis.; where photosynthesis occurs
agglutination
clumping of red blood cells
polyp
cnideria form that is non-motile, reproduce asexually)
prosthetic groups
cofactors that are tightly or covalently bound to their enzymes
Poikilothermic
cold blooded
plasma, white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes)
components of blood
fluid mosaic model
components that make up the cell membrane can move freely within the membrane (fluid). the cell membrane contains many different kinds of structures (mosaic)
brihgt-field microscopes
compound microscopes with a bright light.
intercalated discs
connect adjacent heart cells (cardiomyocytes).
cell-matrix junctions
connect ECM to the cytoskeleton
cell-cell junctions
connect adjacent cells
phosphodiester bonds
connect the phosphate group of one nucleotide (at the 5' C) to the hydroxyl group of another nucleotide (3' carbon)
lysogenic cycle
considered dormant because it inserts its own genome into the host's genome and does not harm the host. Each time the host genome undergoes replication, so does the viral genome.
lymph
consisting of interstitial fluid, bacteria, fats, and proteins.
hydrolysis reaction
covalent bond is broken by addition of water
root cap
covers roots protecting the apical meristem.
cytoplasm
cytosol + organelles
detritus
dead decaying plants and animals provides soil with nitrates.
closed circulatory system
Use a pumping heart to move blood through vessels. Includes annelida (earthworms)
Monocotyledons (monocots)
Vascular bundles scattered. mono or di?
dicotyledons (dicots)
Vascular bundles in a ring. mono or di?
primary xylem; primary phloem
Vascular cambium is a ring of meristematic tissue located between____________ (closer to center) and _______________ (closer to outer edge).
leukocytes
WBCs
general characteristics of mammalia (monotremes)- chordates
Warm blooded (homeothermic), feed young with milk, leathery eggs, mammary glands with many openings (no nipples).
post-transcriptional modification
describes the conversion of pre-mRNA into processed mRNA, which leaves the nucleus.
clonal selection model
describes the development of one type of BCR for every B cell.
plumule
develops into leaves.
dicots
dicotyledons
1) no S phase for DNA replication 2) no spindle apparatus
differences between mitosis and binary fission
partial pressure
differences in _______ allow gases to flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure through simple diffusion.
countercurrent exchange
diffusion of substances b/w 2 regions in which substances are moving by bulk flow in opposite directions water flow in gills of fish is opposite from blood flow allowing diffusion of O2 from water to blood is maximized bc relative motion is increased and concentration gradients remain constant
alimentary canal, mouth, and anus
digestive system l of annelida
one-way digestion some have salivary glands
digestive system of all arthopoda
complete, mouth and anus
digestive system of echicnodermata
complete, mouth and anus, radula
digestive system of mollusca
alimentary canal, mouth, and anus
digestive system of nematoda
gastrovascular cavity
digestive system of of cnideria
intracellular digestion via amoebocytes
digestive system of of porifera
gastrovascular cavity (except tapeworms which absorb food)
digestive systemof platyhelminthes
histamine
dilates blood vessels
germ cells
diploid cells that divide by meiosis to produce gametes.
Karyokinesis
division of the nucleus
interphase (G1, G0, S, and G2) and the M phase
divisions of the cell cycle
symplastic pathway; apoplastic pathway
Water uptake in the roots occurs via the _______ (inside the cell's cytoplasm) or the ________ (outside the cell through cell walls).
1. Prophase 2. Metaphase 3. Anaphase 4. Telophase
What are the four phases of mitosis?
calvin cycle
What is another name for light independent reactions? can only occur if the light dependent reactions are providing ATP and NADPH
no
do eubacteria and archaea have the same ribosome structure
no used in fermentation
does glycolysis require oxygen
IA = IB > i
dominance with blood types IA IB and i
x-linked dominant
dominant inheritance on the X chromosome. Any offspring (male or female) that receive the affected allele will end up with the disorder.
chlorophyll a
dominant light absorbing pigment
sessile
non-motile
free enerfy
not changed by the presence of a catalyst
flagella of prokaryotes
not constructed of microtubules and not enclosed by PM; move different in that they twist like a screw
smooth ER
not continuous with outer nuclear membrane, does NOT have ribosomes involved with metabolism; main function is to synthesize lipids, produce steroid hormones, and detoxify cells
ribosomes
not organelles; carry out translation aka protein synthesis (mRNA -> protein)
general characteristics of fish (lawless) - chordata
notochord in larvae and adult, cartilaginous skeleton
diastole
occurs between the dub and next lub sound.
saturation (enzymes)
occurs when all active sites are occupied, so the rate of reaction does not increase anymore despite increasing substrate concentration (graph plateus_
Autolysis
occurs when an injured or dying cell self-destructs by rupturing the lysosome membrane and releasing its hydrolytic enzymes
Haploinsufficiency
occurs when one copy of the gene is lost or nonfunctional and the remaining copy is not sufficient for a normal phenotype.
chordates
of vertebrates who mostly have a closed circulatory system.
sanger sequencing
older and more established methods of DNA sequencing
mother centriole
older centriole after S phase replication
single histone H1
on the outside of a nucleosomes, ______ holds the DNA in place
complete dominance
one allele is dominant to a second allele
density centrifugation
one cycle where organelles are separated by density into layers.
heterozygous
one dominant allele and one recessive allele in its homologous pair.
base substitutions (point mutations)
one nucleotide is replaced by another.
cytochrome c
one of the carrier proteins in the electron transport chain that is so ubiquitous among living organisms that approx. 100-amino-aicd sequence of the protein is often compared amoung species to assess genetic relatedness
X inactivation
one of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated and remains coiled as a Barr body to equalize the gene dosage that both males and females express
sex chromosomes
one pair in the human body and determine sex.
allele
one variation of a gene
aerotolerant organisms
only undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation, but oxygen is not poisonous to them
glycerol
or can be represented linearly
centrosomes
organelles found in animal cells containing a pair of centrioles oriented at a 90 degree angle to each other
centrosomes
organelles found in animal cells contianing a pair of centrioles; act as microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) during cell division
mitochondria
organelles that produce ATP through cellular respiration, a catabolic processes
mitochondria and chloroplasts
organelles where nonnuclear DNA is found
chloroplasts
organells found in plants and photosynthetic algae, but not in cyanobacteria;
heme cofactors
organic molecules that contain iron atoms, which bind oxygen.
transgenic organisms
organism that contains genes from other organisms
true-breeding
organisms are homozygous for all the traits of interest.
eukaryotes
organisms whose cells contain membrane bound nuclei and organelles.
basal bodies
organize the development of flagella and cilia and anchor them to the cell surface
prokaryotes
organsisms that do not have membrane bound nuclei and tend to not have membrane bound organelles
mRNA
orovides teh instructions for assembling AAs into a polypeptide chain (linear structure)
leukocytes (WBCs)
our immune cells and defend against infection.
symbiotic bacteria
outcompete pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
epidermis
outer layer of cells that provides protection and prevents water loss
parietal layer
outer layer of the lung
dermal tissue
outer layer of the plant. Provides protection and regulation.
gram negative
outer membrane present
peroxisomes
perform hydrolysis adn break down stored fatty acids and help with detoxification in plant cells they modify the by-products of photorespiration when CO2 is diverted from its use in photosynthesis
celllular respiration
performed by plants after photosynthesis, using up oxygen and carbohydrates to produce energy.
swelling
permeable capillaries result in fluids leaking into tissues.
macrophages and monocytes
phagocytes in innate immunity. Can also act as antigen-presenting cells to activate adaptive immunity.
dif forms of endocytosis
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis
5' carbon
phosphate group attached ("F"osphate = Five)
oxidative phosphorylation
phosphate group is added to ADP to form ATP, but the energy for the bond does not accompany the phosphate group. instead, electrons give up energy for generating ATP during each step of the process, where electrons are transferred from one molecule (electron carrier) to another in a chain of reactions
homozygous
same allele in both homologs. Can be homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive.
cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
phosphorylate certain substrates to signal cell cycle progression. Activated by cyclin. responsible for advancing the cell past the checkpoints
6co2 + 6 h2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
photosynthesis eqation
Photosystem II (P680) and Photosystem I (P700)
photosystem proteins used in photosythesis
cytokinesis
physical division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane`
day neutral
plants do not flower in response to daylight changes. some other cue such as temp or water trigger floweing
short day
plants flower in late summer and early fall when daylight is decreasing; flower when delight is less than critical length or when night excess a critical length
long day
plants that flower in teh spring and early summer when daylight is increasing so when daylight excess critical length and night is less than critical length
ampR gene, GFP gene, LacZ gene
plasimid cloning vector must contain
taxonomy
science of classifying organisms.
genus and species
scientific name
cAMP levels and catabolite activator protein (CAP)
second level of lac operon regulation.
phagocytes (including neutrophils and monocytes), complement system, interferons, inflammatory response
second line: non specific responsesf
gel electrophoresis
separates DNA fragments by charge and size. An electric field is applied to agarose gel (top = negative cathode, bottom = positive anode). Smaller fragments travel further from top of gel.
cell fractionation
separates cell contents by centrifugation.
chromatography
separating components of a heterogeneous sample using differential solubility.
TATA box
sequence in many promoters that transcription factors can recognize and bind to.
gene
sequence of DNA that codes for a trait.
promotor
sequence of DNA to which the RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription
primary structure
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
monomer antibody IgD, IgE, IgG
shape and examples
episomes
plasmids that can integrate into the genome
membrane attack complex (MAC)
pokes holes in pathogens and lyses them; formed by complement proteins
IgA
present in a dimeric form and found most abundantly in bodily secretions. Newborns receive passive immunity through breast milk containing ______. Also, _____ mainly binds pathogens externally, outside of circulation.
IgM
present in a pentameric form and is the largest antibody. The first antibody to be produced and activates the complement system.
chase phase
prevents radioactively labelled protein production. Using simple staining, the radioactive proteins can be tracked.
protein structure
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
multiplication rule
probability of two or more independent events occuring together, you merely multiply the porbabiliries of each event happening
clonal expansion
process in which these B cells divide into either plasma cells (antibody-secreting cells) or memory B cells (to be activated later in case of another attack).
1. During the day, stomata are closed to prevent transpiration (evaporation of water from plants). 2. During the night, stomata are open to let carbon dioxide in. Just like in C4 photosynthesis, PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 into PEP, producing oxaloacetate and afterwards malate. However, malate is stored in vacuoles instead of being shuttled to bundle sheath cells. 3. During the next day, the stomata are closed again and malate is converted back into oxaloacetate, which releases CO2 and PEP. Thus, CO2 accumulates in the leaf for use in the Calvin cycle through temporal isolation.
process of CAM photosynthesis
1. use restriction enzymes to cut the desired gene out of the donor DNA 2. use the same restriction enzyme to cut up the DNA of a cloning vector 3. mix cut foreign DNA with plasmids 4. apply DNA ligase to stabilize attachments 5. mix plasmids with bacteria to allow transformation 6. grow the transformed bacteria in the presence of amplicilin and X-gal
process of DNA cloning
pyruvate decarboxylated into acetalaldyed and then reduced (bc NADH is oxidized to NAD+) into ethanol
process of alcohol fermentation look at figure
central chemoreceptors and peripheral chemoreceptors
signal to the medulla
nodules
specialized structures in plant rooots; nitrogen fixing bacteria live here
specific heat capacity
specific heat is the degree to which a substance changes temperature in response to a gain or loss of heat water is high- must add a large amount of energy to warm (and boil) water or remove a relatively large amount of energy to cool (and freeze water)
checkpoints
specific points in teh cell cycle, where the cell evaluates internal and external conditions to determine whether or not to continue htrough the cell cycle
sporophyte (2n)
stage that tracheophytes (vascular plants) spend majority of their life in
gram positive
stain dark purple
gram negative
stain pink due to counterstain
AUG
start codon
one-hit hypothesis
states that a gain-of-function mutation in one copy of the gene turns it into a oncogene.
gibbrelins
stem and shoot elongation, elimination of dormancy of a seed, flowering, fruit production, leaf and fruit death. plant homrone
chloride shift
step 1 of gas exchange In erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the systemic circulation, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is low. As a result, carbon dioxide continuously diffuses in from the tissues, and is converted into bicarbonate and protons. Bicarbonate is able to diffuse out of the cell, however, protons (H +) cannot leave. As some bicarbonate diffuses out, this creates a positive charge within the erythrocyte, and chloride ions (Cl -) must diffuse into the blood cell to cancel out the positive charge of the protons.
decrease
step 2 of gas exchange Influx of protons causes the pH to _______ within the erythrocyte, resulting in the conversion of oxyhemoglobin into reduced hemoglobin. Reduced hemoglobin has lower affinity for O2, leading to release of oxygen which diffuses to the tissues.
1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination
steps of DNA replication
middle lamella
sticky cement similar in function to tight junctions; unique to plants
favorable conditions
stimulate a virus in the lysogenic cycle to replicate and enter to lytic cycle.
closed
stomata are ______ when CO2 concentrations are high and when temperatures are high (prevents water loss via transpiration).
UAA UAG UGA
stop codons
endosperm
storage material, provides the embryo with nutrients.
storage vacuoles
store starches, pigments, and toxic substances
genomic library
stores the DNA of an organism's genome. DNA fragments are incorporated into plasmids and can be screened for by using antibiotic resistance and color changing techniques. They are then cloned via bacterial cloning.
1. Carbon fixation - carbon dioxide combines with five-carbon ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) to form six-carbon molecules, which quickly break down into three-carbon phosphoglycerates (PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by RuBisCo. 2. Reduction - PGA is phosphorylated by ATP and subsequently reduced by NADPH to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). 3. Regeneration - Most of the G3P is converted back to RuBP allowing the cycle to repeat 4. Carbohydrate synthesis - some of the G3P is used to make glucose. 2 G3P out of 12 produced are used at a time to make glucose
process of the calvin cycle
Photophosphorylation
process of using energy derived from light (photo) to generate ATP rom ADP and Pi
broken down into amino acids, which must first undergo oxidative deamination (removal of NH3), before being shuttle to various pats of cellular respiration
process of using proteins for cellular respiration
leading strand
produced continuously because it has a 3' end that faces the replication fork.
reduced hemoglobin (H+Hb)
produced by H + ions binding to hemoglobin, outcompeting oxygen and lowering oxygen binding affinity (less HbO2). On the other hand, carbon dioxide binding affinity is increased (more HbCO2).
Carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO)
produced when carbon monoxide outcompetes oxygen for hemoglobin binding. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs as a result because oxygen can no longer be transported efficiently.
recombinant DNA
produced when restriction enzymes cut DNA at palindromic sequences generating sticky ends (have unpaired nucleotides) or blunt ends (have paired nucleotides).
photorespiration
produces a 2 C molecule phosphoglycerate that is shuttled to peroxisomes and mitochondria for conversion into PGA do this during hot and dry conditions when the stomata close to minimize water evaporation through stomata during transpiration
regulatory gene
produces a regulatory protein that engages the operator region adn governs whether RNA polymerase can attach to the promotor region and begin transcription
basal body
produces cilia and flagella
apoptosis
programmed cell death; carried out by lysosomes
automaticity
property cardiomyocytes have; they are self-excitable and able to initiate an action potential without an external nerve.
penetrance
proportion of individuals who have the phenotype associated with a specific allele. Can be complete or incomplete
bud scales
protective outer coverings on a bud. they protect the growth tissue(cells) in the buds meristematic tissue. These help to waterproof and insulate.
synaptonemal complex
protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes during synapsis.
exons
protein coding DNA
capsomeres
protein subunits that make up capsids
fibronectin
protein that connects integrin to the ECM adn helps with signal transduction such that they can travel through the integrins into the cell
cyclin
protein that cycles through stages of synthesis and degradation and activates CDKs
spliceosomes
protein that removes introns present in pre-mRNA
receptor function of proteins
proteins in cell membranes which bind to signal molecules to trigger changes inside cells
ECM components
proteoglycan, collagen, integrin, fibronectin, laminin
Cell is irradiated with light and fluorescence lifetime is measured.
protocol for Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM):
structure function of proteins
provide strength and support to tissues
element
pure substance that has specific physical/chemical properties, cant be broken down into a smaller substance
AG
purines
casparian strip
strip (made of fat and wax) is an impenetrable substance in the cell walls of the roots. It forces water coming from the cell walls into the cytoplasm for filtering before entering the rest of the plant.
water has ______ adhesion
strong adhesion= attraction of unlike substances; results from attraction of the poles of water molecules to other polar substances capillary action
cellulose
structural component in plant cell walls and is beta bonded polysaccharide. linear strands are packed rigidly in parallel
light chains and heavy chains linked by sulfide bonds. variable region and constant region
structure of antibodies (immuniglobulins)
vertebrata
subphylum of amphibia - chordates
vertebrata
subphylum of mammalia (marsupials) - chordates
Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP):
quantitative measure of how and where biomolecules move in a live cell.
y-axis enzyme kinetics plot
reaction rate of velocity V
X-linked recessive
recessive inheritance on the X chromosome. For males, only one affected allele is needed to cause the disorder. For females, two affected alleles are needed to cause the disorder because females have two X chromosomes.
aneuploidy
refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells.
centromeres
regions of DNA that connect sister chromatids in a dyad
cytokinins
regulate cell differentiation and division with auxins. Can prevent aging. plant homrone
G1/S checkpoint
regulates cell cycle transition from the G1 phase into the S phase, checking for favorable conditions to grow.
dyads
replicated chromosomes containing two sister chromatids that look like an X
x-axis of enzyme kinetics plot
represents substarte concentration [X]
storage function of proteins
reserve of amino acids
gills
respiratory system of Lancelets (also known as Amphioxus)- chordate
gills (juvenile), lungs (adult)
respiratory system of amphibia - chordates
lungs
respiratory system of mammalia (placental)- chordates
gills
respiratory system of mollusca
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of nematoda
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of platyhelminthes
turner syndrome
results from nondisjunction of sex chromosomes; sperm will either have XY or O. eggs will either have XX or O. when a normal X egg or sperm combines with an O sperm or egg, ______ results
lymphatic system
returns fluids to the circulatory system and functions as a filter
oxygen dissociation curve
reveals the relationship between the saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen in the blood and the partial pressure of oxygen. Certain conditions will shift this curve either left or right.
inversions
reverse the direction of parts of chromosomes
review chart on prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
review chart on prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
nucleoside
ribose sugar and nitrogenous base
nucleotide
ribose sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group
what are ribosomes composed of
ribosomal subunits
tricuspid, deoxygenated
right AV valve
palisade mesophyll cells
right below upper epidermis, has many chloroplasts, and is where most of photosynthesis occurs
transcription
synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template
Left atrium → bicuspid / mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic semilunar valve → aorta → body → vena cava → right atrium
systemic circulation flow
transformation
- bacteria take up extracellular DNA.
somatic cells
- body cells excluding the gametes. Diploid in humans.
1⁄2 AA (or aa) and 1⁄2 Aa
Homozygous x heterozygous
types of facilitative transporters
uniporters, symporters, channel proteins, carrier proteins, passive diffusion
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
unique lengths of DNA from restriction enzymes, allows for comparison between individuals. for example, in one individual the gene sequence of the noncoding DNA could result in cleavage, but in another individual, the gene sequence of the noncoding DNA may not result in cleavage Analyzes non-coding DNA (coding DNA is highly conserved). used in gel electrophoresis
long day, short day, day neutral
groups of floweing plants
gravitropism
growth away from pull of gravity; due to auxin
tropisms
growth in a certain direction; controlled by auxins
thigmotropism
growth in response to contact (vine growing up wall);due to auxin
phototropism
growth towards light. due to auxin
cilia
hair-like projections in the respiratory tract that sweep away debris and pathogens.
density dependent inhibition
halting cell division when density of cells is high.
systole
happens between the lub-dub sounds.
seed coat
hard outer layer that covers and protects the seed.
pathogens
harmful microorganisms that causes disease.
tertiary structure
has 3D structure due to interactions between R-groups. example: disulfide bonds are created by covalent bonding between the R-groups of two cysteine AAs (sulfur-sulfur bond)
SA node (pacemaker)
has the greatest automaticity and is most likely to reach threshold to stimulate a heartbea
retroviruses
have an RNA genome that infects host cells.
unsaturated fatty acids
have double bonds can be divided into monounsaturated fatty acids (one double bond) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (2 or more double bonds) pack more loosely, have lower melting temps, and are liquid at room temp
obligate aerobes
only perform aerobic respiration, so they need the presence of oxygen to survive
recessive alleles
only show up in phenotype if dominant alleles are not present. Typically represented by lowercase letters ("a").
obligate anaerobes
only undergo anaerobic respiration or fermentation, and oxygen is poison to them
channel proteins
open tunnel that faces both sides of bilayer; transport ions like Na, K, Ca, Cl or like aquaporins w/ water
repressible operon
operon that stops working only in the presence of an active repressor
inducible operon
operon where a substance is required to induce the operon to produce enzymes
protein enzymes require ______ or else they will _______
optimal temperatures & pH for function; denature
components of proteins
CHON --> atoms combine to form amino acids which link together to build polypeptides (or proteins)
nucleic acids
CHONP DNA & RNA contain nucleotide monomers that build into DNA and RNA polymers
archaea
Contain introns, some have histones.
gram positive
Contain teichoic acids
1/1 AA or 1/1 Aa or 1/1 aa
Homozygous x homozygous
Monocotyledons (monocots)
Long narrow leaf Parallel veins. mono or di?
no pressure
Lymph vessels have _____ ________ like veins, and the fluid moves back towards the heart due to the constriction of skeletal muscle and backflow of fluid is prevented with a system of valves, similar to veins.
non-cyclic phosphorylation
Makes ATP, NADPH, and O2. Oxygen is released and carries high-energy electrons from the light reaction to the Calvin Cycle. carried out in light dependent reactions
growth rings
New xylem is produced every year (forming
meristems
Plant growth takes place via mitosis at
Dinoflagellates, diatoms, and euglenoids
Plant-like (algae-like) protists are unicellular, photosynthetic autotrophs, reproduce asexually, and are found in aquatic environments.
symbiotic relationship
Plants have a __________ with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Bacteria fix nitrogen to a usable form for plants and plants produce food for bacteria via photosynthesis.
fibrinogen
Platelets release factors that help convert ___________ into fibrin,
Southern blotting - DNA Northern botting- RNA nOthing- nOthing Western blotting- Protein
SNOW DROP
protein functions
STorage, STructure, immunity, enzymes, hormones, motion, receptors
annelida
Segmented bodies, coelom is divided by septa, sexual (hermaphrodites) and asexual (regeneration) reproduction, longitudinal and circular muscles.
higher
Since G-C bonds have more hydrogen bonds, a _______ temperature is needed to break DNA strands with a larger proportion of G-C bonds.
echinodermata
Spiny, central disk, tube feet, sexual or asexual reproduction, closest related major phyla to chordates.
males
Squares on a pedigree
APCs (antigen presenting cells)
T cells must to bind to __________ to be activated.
quorum sensing
The ability of bacteria to sense the presence of other bacteria via secreted chemical signals.
dub
The atria are contracting, while the ventricles are relaxing. The noise comes from the semilunar valves snapping shut.
lub
The atria are relaxed, while the ventricles are contracting. The noise comes from the AV valves snapping shut as the ventricles contract.
cyclic photophosphorylation
The generation of ATP by cyclic electron flow. happens when photosystem I passes its electrons back to teh first ETC instead of the second ETC where it would have produced NADPH
outer membrane of chloroplast
The outer plasma membrane composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
proton motive force
The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.
peptide bond
The ribosome catalyzes the formation ________ bond between the polypeptide in the P site and the newly added amino acid in the A site.
intermembrane space of chloroplast
The space between the outer and inner membranes.
umbilical cord
The waste and carbon dioxide from the fetus is removed from right ventricle to the
right shift curve
corresponds to a lowered affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin.
nucleoplasm
cytoplasm of the nucleus
DNA and RNA are polymers of...
nucleotides
missense mutations
single change in amino acid sequence
arhtropoda crustacea
Exoskeleton, jointed appendages, aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
carotid arteries
chemoreceptors in the ______ monitor the pH of the blood
telomerase
enzyme that extends telomeres to prevent DNA loss.
tension
negative water pressure, develops as water transpires from the leafq
fused ganglia, ventral nerve cord
nervous system of all arthopoda
ventral nerve cord, anterior ganglia (brain)
nervous system of annelida
increased pH left shift curve
(more basic): fewer protons (H +) to produce reduced hemoglobin (H +Hb), so more oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) remains.
ciliated epithelial cells
(move mucus and trapped debris)
degeneracy
(multiple codons code for the same amino acid). bc there are 64 codon combos but only 20 AAs
inducible operon
(must be induced to become active).
conservative missense mutations
(mutated amino acid similar to unmutated)
gastrovascular cavity
(one opening, two way digestion, acts as hydrostatic skeleton to aid movement).
nematocysts
(cells shooting poisonous barbs),
central disk
(central portion from which arms radiate, contains mouth, anus and opening for water to enter for water vascular system),
End of G2 checkpoint
(checks accuracy of DNA replication and MPF levels),
G1 restriction point
(checks for favorable conditions to grow, enters G0 phase if unfavorable),
hemocytometers
(counting chambers): gridded slide under microscope. Can count cells in a known area and extrapolate for full volume of sample.
stereo microscopes
(dissection microscopes): low magnification to view surface of an object.
metamorphosis
(distinct stages, altered appearance as insect matures).`
M checkpoint
(during metaphase, checks for chromosomal attachment to spindle fibers).
metanephridia
(excretory glands for osmoregulation. Tubes of cilia move fluid emptying into coelom, ducts bring fluid to exterior).
double fertilization
(female gamete fertilized by two male sperm).; angiosperms exhibit this
secondary phloem
(forms bark with cork and cork cambium).
internal respiration
(gas exchange between blood and tissues).
external respiration
(gas exchange between inspired air and lung alveolar capillaries)
rhizoids
(hair-like projections) which aid in water absorption and minor anchorage.; in nonvascular plants
heterochromatin
(hard to access DNA).
fractionation
(isolation) of each organelle during differential centrifugation
apical meristems
(located at tips of roots and shoots).
tracheids
(long and thin, water travels through pits in their tapered ends)- part of xylem
metabolic acidosis
(lowered blood pH)
seedless tracheophytes
(lycophytes and pterophytes, e.g. club moss, quillworts, fern, horsetail). Mostly heterosporous with flagellated sperm.
spiracles
(small openings on exoskeleton where air enters)
snRNAs
(small nuclear RNA)
snRNPs
(small nuclear ribonucleoproteins) composed of RNA and protein molecules, recognize the splice sites, join with additional proteins to form a spliceseome
malpigian tubules
(small tubes on abdomen, help with uric acid excretion).
hemocoel
(spaces inside an organism where blood freely flows around organs).
tube feet
(suction cups for walking and obtaining food),
filament
(supports anther).
radula
(tongues covered in tiny teeth - unique to mollusks).
amoebocytes
(totipotent cells contribute to structure, digestion, regeneration, move via pseudopodia)
primer annealing
(~65 °C): DNA primers hybridize with single strands. PCR
elongation
(~70 °C): nucleotides are added to the 3' end of DNA using Taq polymerase. PCR
denaturation
(~95 °C): heating separates DNA into single strands. PCR
genome to volume ratio (G/V)
- cell division occurs when volume is too large for cells to support with its limited genome. Decrease in G/V leads to division.
gap phase 1 (G1)
- cell grows in preparation for cell division. Also checks for favorable conditions. If favorable, cell will enter S phase. If unfavorable, cell will enter G0 phase.
telophase
- chromosomes have segregated and nuclear membranes reform. In addition, nucleoli reappear and chromosomes decondense into chromatin.
anchorage dependence
- dividing only when attached to an external surface.
genetic recombination
- exchange of DNA between chromosomes to produce genetically diverse offspring.
haidane effect
- hemoglobin has increased carbon dioxide affinity when oxygen is low. As a result of low oxygen, reduced hemoglobin (H +Hb) levels are higher and have a greater affinity for carbon dioxide.
Y-linked
- inheritance on the Y chromosome. Can only be passed from father to son. Will always be expressed whether it is dominant or recessive because males only have one Y chromosome.
anaphase
- kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart. Now, the sister chromatids are considered separate chromosomes. Chromosome number doubles.
anaphase I
- kinetochore microtubules shorten to separate homologous chromosomes from each other. Will not begin unless at least one chiasmata has formed within each tetrad.
telophase and cytokinesis II
- nuclear membranes reform, nucleoli reappear, and chromosomes decondense into chromatin. Four haploid daughter cells are produced in total.
nerve net (neurons spread apart, no brain)
nervous system of cnideria
modern cell theory (5)
-all living things are composed of cells -the cell is the basic functional unit of life -the chemical rxns of life take place inside the cell -cells arise only from pre-existing cells -cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA, passed from parent cell to daughter cell
cholesterol
-component of the cell membrane; amphipathic; retains membrane fluidity -it's the most common precursor to steroid hormones as well as for vitamin D and bile salts
DNA structure
-consists of 2 long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine -antiparallel double helix with opposite directionalities
peripheral membrane proteins
-found outside of the bilayer; do not pass through it -functions: receptor, adhesion, and cellular recognition
central dogma of genetics
-information is passed from DNA -> RNA -> proteins -once "information" has turned into protein it cannot transfer from protein to protein, or from protein to nucleic acid; except w/ reverse transcriptase and prions
Golgi apparatus
-made up of cisternae that modify and package substances -primary site for cell trafficking ; receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER and then modifies them (like glycosylation), repackages them into vesicles, and distributes them to the cell surface for exocytosis
control of water movement
1) electrical and osmotic gradients are established- active pumping of H+ out of guard cells by H+ - ATPase; pump is actiated by sunlight; electrical gradient drives uptake of potassium ions into the guard cells, cl- follows due to electrical imbalance creating a solute gradient driving osmosis 2) water enters the guard cells and the stomata open 4) water exits the guard cells and stomata close- closing is associated with decrease in [ ] of K+. Cl-, and sugars and by abscisic acid (ABA), a plant hormone
factors that influence membrane fluidity
1) temp: increase in temp increases fluidity and a decrease in temp decreases fluidity 2)cholesterol: holds membrane together at high temperatures and keeps membrane fluid at low temperatures 3)degrees of unsaturation- saturated fatty acids pack more tightly than unsaturated fatty acids, which have double bonds that may introduce kinks
rally signalling
1. Mast cells sit in the tissue in preparation for injury 2. If there is an injury, mast cells will release histamine, which dilates blood vessels 3. This increases blood flow and makes vessels more permeable to let immune cells into the tissues
X-gal
A Chemical similar to lactose that turns dark blue when cleaved by beta-galactosidase
nerve ring and radial nerves
nervous system of echicnodermata
ventral nerve cords and brain
nervous system of mollusca
nerve cord and nerve ring
nervous system of nematoda
nucleotides in RNA
AU , CG
1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 into a three carbon PEP molecule, producing oxaloacetate, which is converted into malate in the mesophyll cell . 2. Malate is transferred to bundle sheath cells, which have lower concentrations of oxygen. 3. Malate is decarboxylated to release CO2 , spatially isolating where CO2 is fixed by RuBisCo. The only drawback is that pyruvate is also produced and needs to be shuttled back to mesophyll cells using ATP energy. 4. Pyruvate is converted back into PEP.
C4 photosynthesis process
CADET = Carbon dioxide, Acid, 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate, Exercise and Temperature. CADET Increase → Right shifted curve
CADET, face Right!
positive regulation
CAP activator protein enhancing lactose metabolism when only lactose is present
Cytotoxic T cells
CD8 T cells; which directly kill infected cells through perforin (poke holes) and granzymes (cause apoptosis
process of florigen production
CONSTANS (CO) protein that is involved in measuring day length is regulated by phytochromes, stabilizing it or allowing it to degrade. CO is a TF that stimulates transcrioption of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) gene which produces FT mRNA which produces FT protein that travels through phloem tissue to the shoot apex to initiate flower development. FT is believed to be florigen
monomers
single molecules that can potentially polymerize (combine into a larger chain)
Avery, McLeod, McCarty Experiment
DNA was the hereditary info of a cell
karyogamy
Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus. Occurs in many fungi, and in animals and plants during fertilization of gametes
symbiotic relationship between fungi and cyanobacteria/algae
Fungi protect the cyanobacteria / algae and provide it with water and nutrients while algae / cyanobacteria photosynthesize, producing food for the fungi.
splitting of water in noncyclic photophosphorylation
H2O split into 2 electrons, 2H+ and 1/2 O2 2 electrons from h2o replace the lost e-s from PSII, one of teh H+ provides the H in NADPH and the 1/2 O2 contributes to the oxygen cgas that is released
cardiac output
HR x SV
AB Blood type
IAIB
B blood type
IBIB or IBi
general characteristics of fish (cartilaginous) - chordates
Jaws and teeth, reduced notochord with cartilaginous vertebrae.
competitive inhibition enzyme kinetics plot
Km increases, while Vmax stays the same
noncomeptitive inhibition kinetics plot
Km stays the same, Vmax decreases
constiuitively expressed
LacI is ____________ which means it always on so that the lac repressor protein is always bound to the operator blocking transcription
angiosperms
Most abundant plant. Flower-bearing and produce fruit (plant ovary, protects seeds). Sperm is not-flagellated and is dispersed by wind or animals often as pollen. Can exhibit double fertilization (female gamete fertilized by two male sperm).
amino acids; chlorophyll
Nitrates are taken up by plants (assimilation of nitrogen) and incorporated into _________ and _____________. Animals (consumers) acquire nitrogen by eating plants (producers).
general charactersitics of amphibia - chordates
No scales. Undergo metamorphosis. Tadpoles (aquatic) have tails, no legs. Adults (terrestrial) two pairs of legs, no tail.
nematoda
Not truly segmented, can reproduce sexually or parthenogenetically, mostly freshwater environments. Draw food and water into mouth by beating cilia.
hetertorphic bacteria (chemoheterotrophic bacteria)
Obtain their carbon in energy from inorganic molecules. these bacteria include parasites, pathogens, iand decomposers. Other _____ form mutualistic relationships with their host . In addition these bacteria compete with pathogenic bacteria, limiting their growth and their potential for causing illness
the RNA world hypothesis
RNA dominated Earth's primordial soup before there was life; it developed self-replicating mechanisms and later could catalyze reactions such as protein synthesis to make more complex macromolecules
immuno-naive
The fetus and newborn are referred to as ________ because they do not yet have their own active immunity.
gymnosperms
The first seeded plants. Seed not protected. E.g. conifers such as firs, spruce, pine, redwood. Sperm is not-flagellated and is dispersed in seeds by wind.
clonal selection
The process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen. occurs in B cells or T cells (the lymphocytes)
diastolic blood pressure
This is the bottom number in a blood pressure reading. (in mmHg)
arteries branching off into arterioles
This is where we see the greatest drop off of blood pressure.
tracheophytes
Vascular, grow vertically and tall and have a root system for anchorage. Spend most of life cycle in sporophyte stage.
antibiotic resistance method in bacterial cloning
a gene that confers antibiotic resistance is attached to the target gene. Only the cells that have picked up and integrated the antibiotic resistance gene/target combo will have antibiotic resistance. These cells will be the only ones that grow on a plate containing an antibiotic. Cells that did not pick up this combo will die because they are not resistant to the antibiotic.
zone of elongation
above apical meristem, cells absorb water and elongate.
Platyhelminthes
acoelomate
how to increase rate of enzyme action with a competitive inhibitor?
adding more substrate
insertions
adding nucleotides into the DNA sequence - can shift reading frame.
methylation of histones
adds methyl groups, either increasing or decreasing transcription. seems to be associated with long-term inactivation of genes upregulate or downregulate DNA transcription depending on which amino acids receive methyl groups and how many methyl groups are added.
46; 46
after mitosis, each cell will have ___ chromosomes (___ chromatids)
plasma membrane, genetic material int he form of DNA, and a mechansim, using RNA and ribosomes, for translating the genetic material into proteins
all living things consist of cells and all cells consist of
genome
all the DNA within a cell
metabolism
all the metabolic pathways that are happening in a given organism
lipoproteins
allow the transport of lipid molecules (which are nonpolar and hydrophobic) in the bloodstream due to an outer coat of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins
DNA cloning
allows DNA fragments or genes to by copies
simple protein compositions contain only _____
amino acids (ex: albumin)
pulse phase
amino acids are radioactively labeled and then incorporated into proteins.
proto-oncogenes
are genes that can become oncogenes (cancer-causing genes) due to gain-of-function mutations.
porifera
are sessile, suspension feeders, aquatic habitats, earliest animals, reproduce asexually (budding) or sexually (hermaphrodites - has male and female sex organs).
T cell receptor (TCR)
are unique just like BCRs, binding only to one type of antigen per T cell.
nucleoid
area in PROkaryotes where they keep their genetic material
adhesion function of peripheral membrane proteins
attaches cells to other things and act as anchors for the cytoskeleton
interconnecting fibers
attaches centrioles
karyotyping, DNA sequencing, DNA fingerprinting, PCR, bacterial cloning, gel electrophoresis, southern blotting, northern blotting, western blotting, ELISA, pulse chase experiments
biological laboratory techniques for nucleic acids and proteins
4 chamber hearts (2 atriums and 2 ventricles)
bird and humans. Homeothermic chordates.
homosporous plants
bisexual gametophyte, produces one type of spore.
deuterostome
blastopore forms anus
protostome
blastospore forms mouth
bilateral
body symmetry of all arthopoda
bilateral
body symmetry of annelida
bilateral
body symmetry of chordates
radial (around a central axis)
body symmetry of cnideria
Bilateral (larvae), five fold radial (adult).
body symmetry of echicnodermata
bilateral
body symmetry of mollusca
bilateral (right and left halves, axis at sagittal plane) with cephalization
body symmetry of platyhelminthes
asymmetrical
body symmetry of porifera
spongy mesophyll cells
bottom of leaf, where the leaf has a lot of spaces for gas movement; some chloroplasts for moderate amounts of photosynthesis
hypocotyl
bottom region of young shoot.
amylopectin
branched starch
lysozyme (antimicrobial proteins)
break down bacerial cells,found in secretions from mucous membranes
oncotic pressure
brings fluid back into the capillaries at the venule end. However, not all the fluid is reabsorbed from the interstitial space into the venule; type of osmotic pressure
root pressure
builds up in roots producing an osmotic gradient which drives water from soil into the roots.
cytosis
bulk transport of large hydrophilic molecules across the cell membrane and requires energy (active transport mechanism)
where are cilia and flagella produced/
by the basal body, which was initally formed by the mother centriole, (older centriole after S phase replciation)
linkage maps
can be drawn out using map units to infer the distance between genes on a chromosome.
maternal inheritance
can be used to trace a specific genome from progeny back through multiple generations to its original mother
pluripotent cells
can differentiate into the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm). Cannot give rise to extraembryonic membranes.
totipotent cells
can differentiate into an entire organism (including extraembryonic membranes). E.g. zygote → morula.
facultative anaerobes
can do aerobic respiration, anaerobic rep, or fermentation, but prefers aerobic respiration bc generates the most ATP
Multiple-locus crosses
can then be solved using these single alleles cross. for solving dihibrid crosses
histone methylation
can upregulate or downregulate gene expression depending on methyl group location and number.
phase contrast microscopes
can view thin samples with live cells. Light is refracted through an annular ring creating a phase shift, leading to high contrast. Large phase shifts can lead to a halo effect (can be reduced with phase plates or thinner samples).
monosaccharides
carbohydrate monomers with the empiral formula of (CH2O)n n=number of carbons
notochord
cartilaginous rod derived from mesoderm. Forms the primitive axis and supports the body during embryonic development. Lost in most chordates, and replaced by bone.
Tay-sachs disease
caused by nucleotide insertion, which results when lysosomes lack the functional enzyme to nreak down glycolipids which accumultae in nerve cells of the brain
chromosomal aberrations
caused when chromosome segments are changed
histone acetylation
causes gene activation and formation of euchromatin (easily accessible DNA).
Gap phase 2 (G2)
cell continues to grow and prepare for cell division by checking DNA for any errors after replication. Also checks for mitosis promoting factor (MPF), Organelles are replicated here.
thrombocytes (platelets)
cell fragments that do not have a nucleus, they are responsible for clotting.
synthesis phase (S)
cell replicates its genome here and moves to G2 phase when completed. Centrosome also duplicates.
cell turgor
cell rigidity
1) G1 restriction point 2) end of G2 3) M checkpoint
cell specific checkpoints
eubacteria
cell walls contain peptidoglycan,
archaea
cell walls lack peptidoglycan; lipids bound via ester linkage
various polysaccahrides but not peptidoglycans, cellulose, or chitins
cell walls of archea
differential centriguation
cells are first split open to release contents (homogenization). Multiple cycles where supernatant is removed and spun again allowing for fractionation (isolation) of each organelle.
optical microscopy
cells are viewed directly. Light shines on a sample and is magnified via lenses. Can observe living cells.
electron microscopy
cells are viewed indirectly via computer after being bombarded with electrons which pass through magnetic fields in a vacuum. Can be used to view smaller objects but cells must be fixed, stained (metal coated) and killed.
cell theory
cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division
zone of maturation
cells differentiate to specific plant tissues.
haploid
cells have meiosis II
type 1 epithelial cells and type 2 epithelial cells
cells in alveoli
type 1 epithelial cells
cells in alveoli that give trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
type 2 epithelial cells
cells in alveoli that produce surfactant
stem cells
cells in early stage of life that can become any type of cell
flow cytometry
cells pass through a very narrow tube and can be counted via detection by a laser beam.
G0 phase
cells still carry out their functions but halt in the cell cycle. Cells that do not divide are stuck here.
transformed cells
cells that have become cancerous, proliferate without regard to cell cycle checkpoints, density-dependent inhibition, anchorage dependence and other regulatory mechanisms
adipocytes
cells that store fat (triglycerides) & have hormone sensitive lipase enzymes to help release
brain
chemoreceptors in teh _____ monitor the pH of the fluids surrounding the brain adn spinal cord (CSF)
increased body temp right shift curve
correlates to more cellular respiration, which uses up oxygen and produces more carbon dioxide. Thus, hemoglobin will need to unload more oxygen for tissues to use and have decreased oxygen binding affinity.
left shift curve
corresponds to an increased affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin.
epidermis
covered by cuticle (waxy layer) which limits water evaporation.; uppe rand lower later with mesophyll in between
pleura
covers the lungs and is dual layered membrane composed of the parietal layer (outer layer) and the visceral layer (inner layer).
fibrin
creates a 'net' to stop bleeding.
photosynthesis
creates chemical energy that is transferred through food chains, reduces atmospheric CO2, and releases oxygen
crossing over
creates genetic diversity and occurs during prophase I of meiosis. Homologous chromosomes join together to form tetrads (aka bivalents) and exchange genetic material at points referred to as chiasmas. Afterwards, genetically unique chromatids are produced as a result of crossing over.
monohybrid cross
cross where only a single gene is examined.
restriction enzymes
cut up DNA at specific recognition sequences of nucleotides called restriction sites
nucleotide excision repair
cuts out damaged DNA and replaces it with correct DNA using complementary base pairing.
functions of microfilaments
cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming), cleavage furrow, muscle contraction
cyclosis
cytoplasmic streaming stirring of the cytoplasm, organelles and vesicles travel on microfilament tracks
cytosol vs. cytoplasm
cytosol: the liquid surrounding organelles in a cell cytoplasm: the cytosol and organelles in a cell (except the nucleus)
one map unit
defined as the chromosomal distance that would allow 0.01 crossover events per generation.
nucleolus
dense area in the nucleus that makes rRNA and produces ribosomes
nerve cords
dense nerve bundles that run the length of an invertebrates body
Q wave
depolarization through interventricular septum
recombinant gametes
describe the gametes that receive the genetically unique chromatids (new combination of alleles),
induced fit theory
describes how the active site molds itself and changes shape to fit the substrate when it binds
expressivity
describes the degree of a certain phenotype such as hair length or height despite having the same genotype.
ploidy
describes the number of chromosome sets found in the body. Humans
cooperativity
describes the process by which the binding of one oxygen molecule to hemoglobin makes it easier for others to bind due to changes in the shape of the hemoglobin polypeptide. This also works in reverse, allowing efficient unloading of oxygen in body tissues.
horizontal gene transfer
describes the transfer of genes between individual organisms.
epigenetics
does not involve modifying the genetic code, but instead the regulation of when genes are expressed.
tetrads (bivalents)
during crossing over, Homologous chromosomes join together to form _______, exchange genetic material at points referred to as chiasmas.
ovule
egg
deuterostome
embryonic development of echicnodermata
protostome
embryonic development of mollusca
functional residual capacity
entire volume of air still present in the lungs after a normal exhalation. It is also the sum of the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.
cooperativity
enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule attaches to an active site (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
carbonic anhydrase
enzyme present in red blood cells.
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
enzyme that attaches an amino acid to a specific tRNA using the energy from ATP.
pyruvate dehydrogenase
enzyme that carries out the pyruvate maniputation
gills
evaginated structures (outgrowths from the body) that create a large surface area over which gas exchange occurs; inside a circulatory system removes o2 and delivers wasteCO2 can be internal and protected or external and unprotected
yeast
example of nonfilamentous fungi
sponge
example of porifera
bacteriophage enters the lysogenic cycle in its host and carries bacterial DNA along with its own genome upon re-entering the lytic cycle.
example of transduction
placental IgG
example, a fetus gains passive immunity through the
1) nutrition on appearance adn expression of genetic disorders 2) temperature influencing sex determination in reptiles 3) temp on animal fur 4) seasonal influecnes in daylight influence the expression of hair corlor frmo brown in summer to white in winter in the snowshoe hare (or increased UV radiation increasing melanin) 5) soil pH influecnes flower color in Hydrangeas 6) chemicals in the env produced by other animals, often required to elicit mating
examples of environmental influecne on phenotypic expression
protonephridia
excretory system of platyhelminthes
open system
exhcanges of energy with the surroundings are includewd
E site
exit site. The tRNA from the P site is sent here and released from the ribosome.
external intercostal muscles
expands rib cage
kinetochore microtubules
extend from centrosomes and attach to kinetochores on chromosomes.
astral microtubules
extend from centrosomes to cell membrane to orient the spindle apparatus.
polar microtubules
extend from the two centrosomes and connect with each other. Pushes centrosomes to opposite ends of the cell.
1. Growth factors 2. Density-dependent inhibition 3. Anchorage dependence
external factors that influence the cell cycle
decarboxylation of pyruvate into acetaldehye
extra step of alcohol fermentation
collenchyma
extra support (e.g. in areas of active growth), irregular cell walls.- ground tissue
blood goes to right atrium from superior adn interior vena cava. goes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, through the pulmonary value to the lungs through the pulmonary arteris. comes back in the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, down the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle out the aortic valve to the aorta and out into the rest of the body
flow of blood in the heart
stroma
fluid material that fills area inside the inner membrane
mychorrizae
fungi that have a mutualistic relationship with plants; absorb water and nutrients, effectively increasing absorbing surface area. plant roots supply fungi with sugars
reverse chloride shift.
gas exchange in lungs Since most of the carbon dioxide is present in the blood plasma as bicarbonate ions (HCO3 -), the bicarbonate ions re-enter erythrocytes at the lungs and chloride ions leave through the
1) direct w/ the environment 2) gills 3) trachae 4) lungs
gas exchange mechanisms found in animals
direct w/ the environment
gas exchange that occurs with Platyhelmenthes that have large surface areas and every cell either is exposed to the outside env or close enough that fases area available by diffusion through adjacent cells
RNA interface (RNAi)
gene silencing caused by short RNA molecules through blocking translation, cleaving and degrading complementary mRNA seuwences, and bind to chromatin in nucleus examples SiRNAs and miRNAs
optical microscopy and electron microscopy
general types of microscopy
motion function of proteins
generate movement for individual cells or entire organisms
hydrogen peroxide
generated by processes in the cell and peroxisomes detoxifies the cell of it; H2O2; perixosme quickly breaks it down into water and oxygen by the enzyme catalse toxic bc it can produce reactive oxygen species
spontaneous movement of protons
generates energy that is used to convert ADP + Pi into ATP
repressible enzymes
genes that stop producing enzymes only in the presence of an active repressor
fixation
getting cells to 'stick' to the slide and preserving them in their most life-like state.
glucose + 2ADP + 2P + 2NAD -> 2ATP + 2NADH + 2 pyruvate + 2H
glycolysis reaction
antifreeze genes
glycoproteins in the blood prevent freezing result from multiple duplications
Gap Phase 1 (G1 ) of interphase Synthesis Phase (S) of interphase Gap Phase 2 (G2 ) of interphase Mitosis of the M phase Cytokinesis of the M phase
go same go make cake
operon
group of genes that is controlled by one promoter, functioning as a single unit.; prokaryotic transcription
short tandem repeats (STRs)
group of nucleotides that repeats again and again in a stretch of DNA but the number of repeats varies between individuals
codon
group of three mRNA bases that code for an amino acid or terminate translation
taxa
group or level of organization into which organisms are classified
hypertonic solutoins
have higher solute concentration than the cells placed in them, causing water to leave the cell (cell shrivels)
cis-unsaturated fatty acids
have kinks that cause the hydrocarbon tails to bend and do not pack tightly
low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
have low density of proteins unhealthy bc they transport cholesterol to teh peripheral tissues, where it can cause vessel blockage
compound microscopes
have multiple lenses to view simple, one-cell thick, live cells. Without fixing and staining, it has poor contrast.
DNA mutation
heritable change in the DNA nucleotide sequence that can be passed down to daughter cells.
carrier
heteozygote individuals who possess a recessive allele for a genetic disorder, but do not express the disorder and can pass the defective allele to their offspring
inflammatory response
histamine secreted, vasodilation occurs, phagocytes attracted to injury, complement helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells
nucleosomes
histones serve to organize then lengthy DNA coiling into bundles
sliding clamp proteins
hold DNA polymerase onto the template strand.
triglycerides 2nd most desirable energy source
how are fats mostly present in the body
using perforin and granzyme
how do NK cells lyse cells
disable activity of bacterial ribsoomes and disrupt protein synthesis
how do antibiotics affect bacteria
horizontal gene transfer
how do bacteria increase genetic diversity
through hydrolysis
how do disaccharides release two carbohydrate monomers, which can enter hydrolysis
diffusing into the roots form gaseous spaces in soil
how do plants get oxygen
through stomata, diffusing into the water lining the lead (spaces in spongey mesophyll), enter photozynthesizing cells,
how does CO2 get into a plant
increasing H+ movement into cell, lowering pH, activating enzymes to break down cellulose fibers, promoting water movement into the cell, elongating the cell as cell turgor increases
how does auxin generate cell growth
electrons are excited to higher energy levels when irradiated with light. When the electron comes back down to its normal energy level, it releases fluorescence.
how does fluorescence occur
photosynthesis takes electrons released by photolysis and excites them using solar energy. the excited electrons are used to power carbon fixation
how does photosynthesis power carbon fixation
1) limitations to growth 2) regulations to prevent cancerous growth
how does the cell cycle influence cell division
valves within the vein. skeletal muscles squeeze the veins to push the blood florward
how does the vein prevent the backflow of blood
heart rate (HR)
how fast the heart beats.
1. crossing over 2. independent assortment 3. random fertilization
how genetic recombination occurs
when acetalaldehyde is converted to ehtanol
how is NAD+ replenished in alcohol fermentation
root hairs and mychorrizae
how is the water-abosrbing capacity of roots increased
2
how many H bonds b/w A and T
2
how many H bonds between A and U
3 H+
how many H+s must pass through the ATP synthase to produce 1 ATP
64 and 20
how many codon combos are there and how many amino acids are there?
9
how many histones are in each nucleosomes
2 lobes
how many lobes have the left lung
3 lobes
how many lobes have the right lung
2^23 options (23 homologous chromosome pairs split)
how many options are there from the law of independent assortment
single origin of replication
how many origins of replication do organisms with circular DNA such as bacteria have
multiple origins of replication
how many origins of replication do organisms with linear DNA such as humans have
6 times and 6 CO2
how many times must the calvin cycle repeat and how many co2 must it use to make 1 glucose
asexually through binary fission
how to bacteria reproduce
CO x TPR or (HR x SV) x TPR
how to calculate mean arterial pressure
presence of a coelom
how to distinguish animals
subtracting end-systolic volume from end-diastolic volume.
how to find stroke volume
Bacteria in our digestive tract provide us with vitamins and other nutrients while processing material that we cannot digest
human mutualistic relationship with bacteria
haploid cells
humans also have _____ that only contain one chromosome set (23 chromosomes).
diploid
humans are _____ bc they contain two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes, 23 pairs), one from each parent.
turgor pressure
hydrostatic pressure that develops when water enters the cells of plants and microorganisms
sister chromatids
identical, attached copies of a single chromosome, forming dyads
southern blotting
identifies fragments of known DNA sequence in a large population of DNA. Electrophoresed DNA separated into single strands and identified via complementary DNA probe.
northern blotting
identifies fragments of known RNA sequence in a large population of RNA. Electrophoresed RNA separated into single strands identifying fragments of known RNA using an RNA probe.
catalysts
increase reaction rates (speeds rxns up) by lowering the activation energy of a reaction; reduce the energy of the transition state
negative feedback homeostasis
increased CO2 in the body, decreased pH as CO2 enter the plasma and CSF is converted to HCO3- and H+. results in chemoreceptors sending impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to increase respiratory rate. results in faster turnover in gas exchange, returning blood CO2 to normad
increased heat
increased blood flow results in a higher temperature.
metabolic alkalosis
increased blood pH
respiratory alkalosis
increased blood pH occurs due to rapid breathing
dark field microscopy
increases contrast between sample and the field around it to allow visualization of unstained live cells. Only scattered light is viewed - allows the sample to be viewed against a black background. allows research to view unstained samples of living cells by increasing contrast between sample and field around it
histone deacetylase
increases positive charges, tightening DNA-histone attractions and decreasing transcription.
laminin
influence cell differentiation, adhesion, and movement; it is the biologically active component of the basal lamina ( a layer of the ECM secreted by epithelial cells)
cell cycle
influences cell division through limitations to growth and regulations to prevent cancerous growth.
introns
interruptions in DNA between protein coding DNA called exons
vaccination
introduces the antigen or pathogen in a deactivated state to stimulate active immunity, which is referred to as artificial immunity in this case and induces memory B and T cell formation.
book lungs
invaginated structures occuring in many spiders; stacks of flattened membranes inclosed in an internal chamber
arthropoda
invertebrates such as insects and crustaceans that have an open circulatory system with hemolymph, a fluid similar to blood. Gas exchange happens mainly through the tracheal system for insects and the book lungs for arachnids, not the hemolymph.
operator region
is present near the operon's promoter and binds activator/repressor proteins to regulate the promoter.; prokaryotic transcription
heredity
is the passing of traits from parents to offspring. which can be passed sexually or asexually
lamella
junction between to grana
homeotherms,
keep their body temperature constant
anaphase II
kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart. Sister chromatids become separate chromosomes and chromosome number doubles.
eubacteria and archaea
kingdoms of prokaryotes
animal-like protists
known as protozoa, have food vacuoles. Heterotrophic (move via flagella and cilia) and often parasitic pathogens.
1) acetyl-CoA joins oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C) 2) citrate undergoes rearrangements producing 2CO2 adn 2 NADH 3) after the loss of 2 COs (and production of 2 NADH), the resulting 4C molecule produces 1 GTP through substrate level phosphorylation 4) the molecule will now transfer electrons to 1 FAD+, which is reduced into 1 FADH2 5) lastly, the molecule is converted back into oxaloacetate during which it gives electrons to produce 1 NADH
krebs cycle process
vascular cambium and cork cambium
lateral meristems
law of dominance
law that states dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles. Mendel studied plant height to come to this conclusion.
law of independent assortment
law that states homologous chromosomes line up independently during metaphase I of meiosis so that alleles separate randomly (increases genetic variability).
law of segregation
law that states homologous gene copies separate during meiosis (specifically anaphase I). Thus, Aa individuals will produce gametes with "A" or "a" alleles.
basophils
least numerous leukocyte and also contain granules with histamine and heparin . Very similar to mast cells, except ________ circulate as mature cells while mast cells circulate as immature cells.
low partial pressure of CO2 left shift curve
less carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate anions (HCO3) and protons (H +), leading to increased oxygen binding affinity through increased pH.
decreased body temp left shift curve
less cellular respiration, so hemoglobin isn't influenced to unload more oxygen and has an increased oxygen binding affinity.
leukocytes from highest to lowest quantities Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas -neutrophils -lymphocytes -macrophages/moncytes -eosinophils -basophils
leukocyte immune cells
carotenoids
lipid derivatives containing long carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and six-membered rings at each end. function mainly as pigments (like for CARROTS)
peptidoglycan
lipids bound via ester linkage
SA node (pacemaker)
located in the upper wall of the right atrium and usually initiates the cardiac cycle. It has the greatest automaticity and is most likely to reach threshold to stimulate a heartbeat. It sends a signal to contract both atria to send blood to the ventricles. It also sends a signal to the AV node to initiate contraction too.
lungs
located in the thoracic cavity and covered by the rib cage.; invaginated structures
Muscular post-anal tail
lost during embryonic development in humans and many other chordates.
general characteristics of reptiles - chordates
mainly terrestrial, leathery eggs, internal fertilization, cold blooded (poikilothermic).
snRNAs and proteins
make up the functional part of a spliceosome and are collectively referred to snRNPs
function of ribosomes embedded in the rough ER
make proteins that are sent out of the cell or to the cell membrane
autotrophs
make their own orgnaic molecules
Leukocytes and thrombocytes
make up <1% of blood volume.
stamen
male plant sex organ. Composed of anther (site of microspore formation) and filament (supports anther).
microscpores
male spores
dominant alleles
mask the expression of recessive alleles. Typically represented by uppercase letters ("A").
ganglia
masses of nerve tissue
inspiration reserve volume
maximum volume of air that can be inhaled further after a normal inhalation is already taken in.
vital capacity
maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation. It is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
specificity constant
measures how efficient an enzyme is at binding to the substrate and converting it to a product
seed dormancy
mechaism that allows seeds to delay germination until conditions for growth are optimal
chemiosmosis
mechanism of ATP generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a proton concentration gradient across a membrane
reductional division
meiosis I
lysosomes
membrane bound organelles that break down substances (through hydrolysis with their hydrolytic enzymes) taken in through endocytosis
nuclear envelope
membrane of the nucleus; 2 phospholipid bilayers (inner and outer) with a perinuclear space in the middl
memorize table & review figures
memorize table & review figures
coelomates
mesoderm surrounds the coelom on all sides
inorganic cofactors are usually _____
metal ions like Fe2+ and Mg2+
chemotaxis
method by which cells move in response to a chemical signal. Immune cells use chemotaxis to move to the tissues.
metaphase plate
midpoint of the cell
inverse to log10 of its molecular weight
migration distance for a fragment during gel electrophoresis
residual volume
minimum amount of air that needs to be present in the lungs to prevent collapse.
unique alleles
minor nucleotide variations
conservative or nonconservative
missense mutations can be....
transgenic animals
models used to identify the function of a gene. A gene is taken from one organism and inserted into another. Can be used for mass medication production (e.g. clotting factors for hemophiliacs). This process is labor intensive.
IgG
monomer that is the most abundant antibody in circulation. Also the only antibody that can cross the placenta to give fetus passive immunity. Helps complement system to cause opsonization (tags antigens and subsequent phagocytosis).
IgD
monomer that we have very little information about. Only small amounts are produced.
amino acids
monomers of proteins with the following structure
forms of carbohydrates
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
High partial pressure of carbon dioxide: right shift curve
more carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate anions (HCO3) and protons (H +), which lower oxygen binding affinity through decreased pH.
pellet
more dense particles that collect at the bottom after centrifugation
passive diffusion
movement of substances across the semipermeable membrane, bringing molecules down their concentration gradient (from high to low) without energy use. examples: facilitated diffusion (by carrier proteins, channel proteins, symporters, uniporters, and antiporters ; also osmosis, simple diffusion, plasmolysis, dialysis, countercurrent exchange)
plasmolysis
movement of water out of the cell by osmosis that results in the collapse of the cell (esp w/ plant cell central vacuoles)
pulmonary circulation
moves deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs and back in order for it to become oxygenated.
systemic circulation
moves oxygenated blood from the heart throughout the body.
quaternary structure
multiple polypeptide chains come together to form one protein
balance
must exist between opening stomata for food production via photosynthesis and closing stomata to prevent water loss (desiccation).
Heterotrophs (chemoheterotrophs)
must obtain their energy by consuming organic substances produced by autotrophs
carcinogens
mutagens that activate uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)
nonconservative missense mutation
mutated amino acid different from unmutated
mychorrhizae
mutualistic associations between plant and fungi; fungus grows on the roots of the plants, facilitating movement of water and minerals to plant and the plant in turn provides sugars to the fungus
hyperbolic
myoglobin has a _____ oxygen dissociation curve because it does not undergo cooperativity
gametes
name for haploid eggs and sperm
upper respiratory tract
nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx.
transcription factors
needed in eukaryotes to help RNA polymerase bind to promoters.
1) Water is split (photolysis), passing electrons to photosystem II and releasing protons into the thylakoid lumen. 2. Photons excite electrons in the reaction center of photosystem II, passing the electrons to a primary electron acceptor. 3. The primary electron acceptor sends the excited electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC). During the redox reactions within the ETC, protons are pumped from the stroma to the thylakoid lumen. The electrons are then deposited into photosystem I. 4. Photons excite pigments now in photosystem I, energizing the electrons in the reaction center to be passed to another primary electron acceptor. 5. The electrons are sent to a short electron transport chain that terminates with NADP+ reductase, an enzyme then reduces NADP+ into NADPH using electrons and protons. 6. The accumulation of protons in the thylakoid lumen generates an electrochemical gradient that is used to produce ATP using an ATP synthase (chemiosmosis), as H+ moves from the thylakoid lumen back into the stroma.
non-cyclic photophosphorylation
cofactor
non-protein molecule that helps enzymes perform reactions
telomeres
noncoding, repeated nucleotide sequences at the ends of linear chromosomes.
iron
nonprotein parts of cytochromes in electron transport chains
wild-type allele
normal allele that is most common in nature.
C3 photosynthesis
normal photosynthesis where 3C PGA is produced calvin cycle
electron tomography
not a type of microscopy. Sandwiches TEM images to create a 3D image of sample's internal structure.
where does DNA replication and transcription occur?
nucleus DNA-> mRNA
Components of the endomembrane system
nucleus, rough, and smooth ERs, golgi apparatus, lyosomes, vacuoles, and cell membrane
phenotype
observable traits that result from the genotype.
karyotyping
observing chromosomes under light microscope during metaphase. Can be used to diagnose conditions involving chromosomal aberrations, breakages, aneuploidies (e.g. Down's syndrome or trisomy 21).
decomposers
obtian thier energy from dead, decaying matter
metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
occur as a result of imbalances in carbon dioxide, oxygen, or proton levels.
fever
occur from the inflammatory response but is controlled by the brain and causes a systemic response to kill pathogens with higher temperatures.
autoimmune diseases
occur when the immune system attacks self MHC I
inversoins
occur when chromosome segments are arearranged in reverse orientation on the same chromosome typically no abnormalities result
diastole
occurs right after the atria contract to fill the ventricles. The myocardium is completely relaxed at this point. Diastole is the phase of the cardiac cycle where blood pressure is lowest in the arteries.
systole
occurs right after the ventricles eject their blood into the arteries they connect to. Therefore, it is the phase of the cardiac cycle where blood pressure is highest in the arteries.
competitive inhibition
occurs when a competiive inhibitor competes directly with the substrate for an active binding site
noncompetitive inhibition
occurs when a noncompetitive inhibitor binds to an allosteric site (location on enzyme that is different from the active site), modifying the active site. rate of enzyme action cannot be increased by adding more substrate
substrate-level phosphorylation
occurs when a phosphate group and its associated energy are transferred to ADP to form ATP process used to generate ATP in glycolysis, transferring a phosphate group to ADP directly from a phosphorylated compound
macrophage engulfs anti-gen bearing pathogen. t cells bind to the macrophage in cell-mediated response. interleukins are secreted by helper T cells to stimulate the production of B cells
oftentimes how B cells are activated
closed system
only energy transfers among specific items are considered
microaerophiles
only perform aerobic respiration, but high amounts of oxygen are harmful to them
test-cross
pairs an individual of unknown genotype with one that is homozygous recessive or one that it is known. By looking at the offspring from a _______, we can determine the unknown genotype.
B and T cells
part of adaptive immunity and must be activated.
epidermis and root hairs
part of dermal tissue of plants
natural killer (NK) cells
part of innate immunity and attack virally-infected cells + cancerous cells.
dendritic cells
part of innate immunity and scan tissues using pinocytosis and phagocytosis. They act as antigen-presenting cells like macrophages, migrating to the lymph nodes to activate adaptive immunity.
eosinophils
part of innate immunity and have granules that can be released to kill pathogens, especially parasites.
companion cells
part of phloem; (connected to sieve cells, contain organelles for metabolic functions).
sieve cells
part of phloem; (long cells, lacking organelles, connected to form a tunnel for transport)
fish
part of the phylum Chordata and have a closed circulatory system with blood to transport gas. ______ have gills with a large surface area for gas exchange and use countercurrent exchange to efficiently absorb oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from their blood.
vessel elements
part of xylem; (short and stout, water travels via perforations in cell walls).
ventricles
parts of the heart that are thicker and are more muscular
stigma, style, and ovary
parts of the pistil
anabolic pathways
pathways in which a repressioble operon are associated with
RNA
polymer of nucleotides that have hydroxul group on the ribose sugar's 2' carbon
polypeptides
polymers of AAs and are joined by peptide bonds through dehydration (condensation) reactions, and hydrolysis reactions break the bonds the polypeptide is an amino acid chain with two end terminals on opposite sides
glucose repression
preferencial source of energy when both lactose and glucose are present
carbohdyrates bc they are easily catabolized and are a high yield
preferred energy source and why
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)
present in eukaryotic cells and organize microtubule extension, which are made of the protein tubulin. Specifically, they are responsible for forming the spindle apparatus, which guides chromosomes during karyokinesis.
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)
present in eukaryotic cells and organize micortubule extension examples: centrioles and basal bodies
trachae
present in insects; chitin-lined tubes that permate insect bodies; diffusion occurs across moistened tracheal endings`
splice signals
present within introns, signaling to the spliceosome where to cut.
1) H+ ions (photons) accumulate in thylakoids- occurs when water is split by PSII and when H+ are carried from stroma into lumen by cytochorme in ETC 2) a pH and electrical gradient across the thylakoid membrane is created 3) ATP synthease generates ATP as the channel protein ATP synthase allows H+ to glow through the thylakoid membrane and out into the stroma 4) the calvin cycle produces G3P using NADPH, CO2, adn ATP which are used to make glucose or other carbohydrates
process of chemiosmosis in chloroplasts
The sample is dissolved in the solvent (mobile phase) and placed in an apparatus containing the stationary phase. The mobile phase climbs up the stationary phase and the different components ascend to different heights based on how they react with the mobile phase. heterogeneous sample will break into bands through differential solubility
process of chromatography
1) platelets adhere to damaged walls and release substances to attract more platelets that release more substances (positive feedback) 2) fibrinogen dissolved in blood is converted to active adn solid for- fibrin 3) thread of fibrin protein bind together to form a network that stops blood flow 4) platelets contract, pulling fibers together to tighten the plug
process of clotting
respiration
process of extracting energy from those carbohydrates, providing the free energy that allows cells to maintain order, minimize entropy, and remain alive
1) hexokinase uses 1 atp to phosphorylate glucose to G6P, which cannot leave the cell (it becomes trapped by the phosphorylation) 2) isomerase modifies G6P into fructose-6-P 3) phosphofructokinase uses a 2nd ATP to phosphorylate F6P into fructose-1,6- bisphosphate 4) fructose 1,6 bisphosphate is broken into dihydroxyacteone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), which are in eq w/ one another 5) G3P proceeds to energy payoff phase so DHAP is constantly converted to G3P to maintain equilibrium. thus, 1 glucose molecule will produce 2 G3P that continue into the next steps 6) G3P undergoes a series of redox reactions to produce 4 ATP through substrate-level-phosphorylation, 2 pyruvate, adn 2 NADH
process of glycolysis
photosynthesis
process of incorporating energy from sunlight into carbohydrates
reaction coupling
process of powering an energy-requiring reaction with an energy releasing one; allows an unfavorable reaction to be powered by a favorable one making net gibbs free energy negative
DNA -> RNA -> protein/enzymes -> traits, metabolism, homeostasis
process that begins with DNA to create a living, functional organism (central dogma)
mitochondria
produce ATP for energy use through cellular respiration; carry out aerobic respiration where enrgy is obtained from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
autotrophs
produce their own food through photosynthesis, releasing oxygen and making carbohydrates.
C4 photosynthesis
produces 4C oxaloacetate, occurs in plants living in hot environments
reproductive cloning
producing a genetic copy of an organism from a somatic cell . A multipotent cell must be converted to a totipotent cell. E.g. Dolly the sheep.
life cycle
production of gametes by meiosis and subsequent growth by meiosis
4 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH
products of glycolysis
complement cascade
proteins of the complement cascade turn on each other through _______, which amplifies the complement effects by releasing cytokines.
kinetochores
proteins on the sides of centromeres that help microtubules pull sister chromatids apart during cell division
general transcription factors
proteins that are required by all transcription events to successfully initiate transcription by RNA polymerase; attach w/ the RNA pol at the promotor region
cellular recognition function of peripheral membrane proteins
proteins that have carbohydrate chains (glycoproteins) used by cells to recognize other cells
1. Isolate a specific type of cell from a sample. Remove all the mRNA, because it represents the active transcription of that cell type. (active transcription) 2. Using **reverse transcriptase**, synthesize **cDNA** from the mRNA. 3. Hybridize the cDNA with the DNA probes on the microarray. 4. Use an analysis machine to examine the microarray for fluorescence. From this information, the analysis machine can tell what sequences of DNA are being expressed into mRNA. By comparing that information to a **sequenced genome**, a scientist can determine what genes a certain cell type expresses. The scientist can then vary conditions the cell is placed in, and see how gene expression changes.
protocol for DNA microarrays
expiration/exhalation
relaxation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, bringing the lungs back up and closing up the rib cage through elastic recoil. This causes the pressure of the intrapleural space to increase and the volume of the lungs to decrease, driving air out of the lungs. The internal intercostal muscles can also contract during a more forced expiration, closing the rib cage even more.
1. **Processed mRNA** for the eukaryotic gene of interest is isolated. 2. The processed mRNA are treated with **reverse transcriptase** to make **cDNA** (complementary DNA). 3. A restriction enzyme and **DNA ligase** allow the **cDNA** to be incorporated into a **plasmid**, which acts as the transfer **vector** in bacterial cloning. 4. The **vector** containing the gene is taken-up by **competent bacterial cells**. 5. Bacteria that have taken up the vector will undergo **transformation**. 6. We find the gene of interest by using **antibiotic resistance** or **color change methods**.ing electroporation or heat shock) and undergo transformation → gene of interest is found using antibiotic resistance (antibiotic resistant gene attached to target gene) or color change (vectors containing genes making cells blue) methods.
protocol of bacterial cloning
adherens junctions
provide support against mechanical stress. connects neighboring cells via actin filaments
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM):
provides a quantitative measure of the concentration of various ions, molecules, and gases in a cell.
ECM
provides mechanical support betweenc ells
nuclear lamina
provides structural support to the nucleus, as well as regulating DNA and cell division associated with the inner membrane of the nucleus formed by intermediate filaments; cell structure and rigidity
ground tissue
provides structural support, makes up most of plant's mass.
C U T
pyrimidines
2 pyruvate -> 2 CO2 + 2 NADH + 2 acetyl-CoA
pyruvate decarboxylation
western blotting
quantifies amount of target protein in a sample using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS PAGE (proteins denatured and given negative charge proportional to their mass). Treated with primary antibody (binds to target protein) and secondary antibody (attached to indicator and binds to primary antibody). Vectors containing a gene that make cells blue will be used. Restriction enzymes that cut the blue-gene will also be used. If the target gene inserts into the blue-gene, the blue-gene will be inactivated and the cell will appear white. If the target gene does not insert into the blue-gene, the gene will re-attach, remaining active and blue.
hyperventilation
rapid breathing
wound response
rapid production of chemical toxins (such as the hormone systemin) when a leaf is chewed or injured; example of an induced response
30
real amt produced due to variations in mitochondrial efficiencies and competing biochemical processes
1) multicellularity 2) chromosome complexity 3) uncoupling of transcription and translation
reasons why gene expression is more complicated in euks than proks
larynx
receives air and contains the voice box.
esophagus
receives food and connects to the stomach.
genomic imprinting
refers to genes that are expressed depending on parental origin and are influenced by epigenetic factors; come from autosomal chromosomes
fluorescent lifetime
refers to the amount of time it takes for an excited molecule to release all its fluorescence.
active immunity
refers to the immunity an organism gains from being infected once already by a pathogen.
passive immunity
refers to the immunity one organism gains from receiving the antibodies from another organism already has that immunity.
ETC goal
regenerate electron carriers and create electrochemical gradient gradient to power ATP production
SRY (sex-determining region of Y)
regulates gene activities on other chromosomes, which, in turn, stimulate the development of male characteristics
miRNA
regulates gene expression by blockking or degrading mRNA (microRNA) (linear shape)
Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF)
regulatory protein-enzyme, to be in adequate amounts for cell cycle continuation. cyclin-CDK complex that advances the cell cycle through the G2 checkpoint
deletons
removing nucleotides from the DNA sequence - can shift reading frame.
platyhelminthes
reproduce sexually (hermaphrodites) or asexually (regeneration), mainly aquatic habitats, parasitic lifestyles, most primitive of triploblasts, has organs.
activation energy
required to contort or destabilize reactants; can be lowered by the presence of a catalyst
origin of replication
required to initiate DNA replication, where the DNA strands first separate.
endergonic reaction
requires energy + nonspontaneous = +dG
receptor-mediated endocytosis
requires the binding of specific dissolved molecules to peripheral membrane receptor proteins that are concentrated in coated pits in the PM which initiates endocytosis by folding inwards LDLs (transport cholesterol) use this mechanism
trachea or book lungs
respiratory system of arachnida arthopoda
some have gills
respiratory system of arthropoda crustacea
lungs
respiratory system of birds - chordates
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of cnideria
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of echicnodermata
gills
respiratory system of fish (bony) - chordates
gills
respiratory system of fish (cartilaginous) - chordates
gills, countercurrent exchange
respiratory system of fish (lawless) - chordata
spiracles branch into tracheal tubes
respiratory system of insecta arthropoda
lungs
respiratory system of mammalia (marsupials) - chordates
lungs
respiratory system of mammalia (monotremes)- chordates
none (diffusion)
respiratory system of porifera
gills
respiratory system of tunicates (also knonw as Urochordata) - chordates
photoperiodism
response of plants to changes in photoperiod,
trp operon
responsible for producing the amino acid tryptophan.
dinoflagellates
responsible for red tide (toxins build up, O2 in water is depleted), have two flagella (find food in absence of light), and are heterotrophic (parasitic).
erythrocytes (RBCs)
responsible for transporting oxygen attached to hemoglobin.
far-red light
restores night length
APE sites
ribosomal binding sites
vascular cambium
ring of meristematic tissue located between primary xylem (closer to center) and primary phloem (closer to outer edge). Cell produced inside ring of vascular cambium become secondary xylem (forms wood along with pith) and cells outside become secondary phloem (forms bark with cork and cork cambium). New xylem is produced every year (forming growth rings) whereas new phloem replaces old phloem.
cork cambium
ring of meristematic tissue located outside the phloem.
gram negative
secrete exotoxins
gram positive
secrete exotoxins
goblet cells
secrete mucous
sebaceous glands
secrete oil (sebum) as a barrier. Sebum also has antimicrobial properties.
steroid hormones
secreted by the adrenal cortex lipids that have 4 hydrocarbon rings derived from cholesterol
interferons
secreted by virally-infected cells and bind to non-infected cells to prepare them for a virus attack. Also, ________help activate dendritic cells. also secreted by cells invaded by viruses to stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins that help defend them form the virus
deletions
segments of chromosomes are lost; fatal
duplication
segments of chromosomes are repeated
knockout mice
selected gene is 'knocked out' and changes between knockout and wild type are observed.
chromosomes
separate DNA molecules that make up the entire genome
DNA sequencing
sequencing nucleotides in fragments of DNA. Can sequence complete genomes piece by piece. In humans single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) serve as markers for disease causing genes.
sugar-phosphate backbone
series of phosphodiester bonds with a 5' end (free phosphate) and a 3' end (free hydroxyl) (DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached to the backbone)
general characteristics of tunicates (also knonw as Urochordata) - chordates
sessile, filter feeders, hermaphroditic, sexual and asexual (budding) reproduction. Benthic habitats (bottom of a body of water), notochord in larvae.
linkage
sex-linked disorders have X-chromosome _______.
Two hyphae fuse their cytoplasm (plasmogamy) creating a single fused cell with 2 haploid pronuclei which fuse (karyogamy) to produce a single diploid cell. The diploid cell produces a spore producing structure that produces spores via meiosis.
sexual reproduction in fungi
dimer antibody IgA
shape and examples
pentamer antibody IgM
shape and examples
notochord, Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord, Pharyngeal Gill Slits, Muscular post-anal tail
shared traits of all chordates
what do catalysts not do?
shift a chemical reaction (doesn't affect WHAT the rxn is doing, just how fast it goes) or affect spontaneity
short tandem repeats (STRs)
short sequences of nucleotides that repated mulitople times, varying in individuals
hormone function of proteins
signalling molecules that circulate through the body to regulate physiological processes
waxes
simple lipids that have long fatty acid tails connected to monohydroxy alcohols (contain a single hydroxyl group) through ester linkages
protein composition
simple or conjugated
sun
since transpiration is caused by the heating actions of the ____, the _____, is then the driving force for the ascent of water and dissolved minerals through plants
haplosufficient
since tumor suppressor genes follow the two-hit hypothesis, they are...
hereditary info of prokaryotes
single "naked" DNA molecule without the proteins associated with the DNA of euks
nonsense mutations
single change in amino acid sequence that results in a stop codon. Results in early termination of protein.
pressure flow hypothesis - movement of food
source cells produce sugar and load it into phloem → increased sugar concentration creates a gradient pulling water into phloem → turgor pressure in phloem increases resulting in bulk flow movement of sugar from leaves down to roots.
centrifuge
spins contents to separate them by mass, density, and/or shape. More dense particles collect at the bottom (pellet) and less dense particles remain as supernatant liquid on top.
photolysis
splitting of water molecules
water has _______ cohesion and ______ surface tension
strong; high cohesion= attraction between like substances; occurs in water due to the H bonding between water molecules (how rain drops are formed) strong cohesion produces high surface tension (paper clip on water)
antibodies (immunoglobulins)
structurally identical to BCRs but freely circulate in blood and lymph. They can tag antigens for phagocytosis, neutralize the antigen by coating it, or activate the complement system.
chitin
structure component in fungi cell walls and insect exoskeletons. it is beta bonded polysaccharides with nitrogen added to each monomer (chitin' with the homies, lil insects & fun-guys)
genomics
study of all genes present in an organism's genome and how they interact.
Cephalochordata
subphylum of Lancelets (also known as Amphioxus)- chordate
vertebrata
subphylum of birds - chordates
vertebrata
subphylum of fish (cartilaginous) - chordates
vertebrata
subphylum of fish (lawless) - chordata
vertebrata
subphylum of mammalia (monotremes)- chordates
vertebrata
subphylum of mammalia (placental)- chordates
vertebrata
subphylum of reptiles - chordates
Tunicata
subphylum of tunicates (also knonw as Urochordata) - chordates
surfactant
substance that prevent the lungs from collapsing by reducing surface tension.
polymers
substances made up of many monomers joined together
Michaelis Constant (Km) enzyme kinetics plot
substrate concentration [x] at which velocity (V) is 50% of the maximum reaction velocity (Vmax) on x axis; 1/2Vmax is on Y
phase shift
subtle difference in the positioning of light, detected by the phase contrast microscope. This creates tremendous contrast, and the microscope can compute what it is looking at by recompiling the image
germination
the sprouting of a seedling from a previously dormant state when environmental conditions are favorable. Water is the most important condition. The seed absorbs water (imbibition) which breaks the seed coat and initiates growth.
M-phase
the stage in the cell cycle where karyokinesis and cytokinesis occurs.
decreased pH high partial pressure of CO2 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) aka 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG): increased body temp
things that contribute to a right shifted curved and thus a lower affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin
1) 5' capping 2) polyadenylation of the 3' end 3) splicing out introns
three main types of post-transcriptional modification
- tag antigens for phagocytosis - neutralize the antigen by coating it - activate the complement system
three things antibodies can do
1) x-linked dominant 2) x-linked recessive 3) y-linked
three types of sex-linked traits
pain
throbbing pain caused by swelling, which puts continuous pressure on nerve endings.
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of all arthopoda
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of annelida
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of chordates
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of mollusca
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissue organization of nematoda
parazoa (no true tissues)
tissue organization of porifera
diploblasts, true tissues (eumetazoa)
tissue organizations of cnideria
Triploblasts, eumetazoa
tissues organization of echicnodermata
eumatazoa
true tissues
pollen tube
tube cell elongates down style forming ___________
style
tube leading to ovary
plasmodesmata
tunnels with tubes between plant cells. allows cytosol fluids to freely travel b/w plant cells; unique to plants narrow tube of Er surrounded by cytoplasm and PM
diploblasts
two cellular layers: endo- and ectoderm
mast cells
type of leukocyte responsible for the first part of the inflammatory response known as rally signaling; circulate as immature cells
negative regulation
type of regulation exihibited by a repressor protein
AB (+)
universal acceptor has both A and B cell surface antigens, as well as an Rh surface antigen, they can receive any blood type and not mount an immune response. Any blood cell surface antigen they receive would be something their blood cells already have.
O
universal donor
fungus-like proteins
unlike fungi, no cell wall made of chitin. Can move via cilia or flagella (e.g. slime molds). Are saprophytic and feed via phagocytosis. Reproduce via asexual reproduction and sporulation (resist environmental conditions).
sticky end
unpaired extension of DNA that results from restriction enzymes
transition state
unstable intermediate between the reactants and products (the top of the curve)
helicase
unzips DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds between strands, creating the replication fork.
chemoautotrophs/chemolithoautotrophs
use energy obtained from inorganic substances (as in chemosynthesis)
photoautotrophs
use light energy and convert it to chemical energy using photosynthesis
photoautotrophs
use light energy as in photosynthesis to make food
no circulatory system
use simple diffusion to distribute nutrients. Includes bacteria, protista, fungi, invertebrate animals.
goal of chemiosmosis
use the proton electrochemical gradient (proton motive force) to synthesize ATP
binary fission
used by archaea, bacteria, and certain organelles to reproduce.
perforin
used by NK cells to create holes
granzyme
used by NK cells to stimulate apoptosis
Cori cycle
used to help convert lactate back into glucose once oxygen is available again by transporting lactate to the lever cells where it is oxidized back into pyruvate. pyruvate can then be used to form glucose which can be sued for more ideal energy generation
lactic acid fermentation
uses 2 NADH from glycolysis to reduced the 2 pyruvate into 2 lactic acid thus NAD+ is //oxidized// back to NAD+ for glycolysis to continue
secondary active transport
uses free energy released when other molecules flow down their [ ] gradient (est. by primary active transport) to pump the molecule of interest across the membrane
vesicular transport
uses vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm to move macromolecules or large particles across the PM exocytosis & endocytosis (pahgo, pino, & receptor mediated) also known as cytosis
anabolic
using energy to build larger macromolecules
central vacuoles
very large in plants and have a specialized membrane called the tonoplast (helps maintain cell rigidity by exerting turgor); function in storage and material breakdown; can carry out digestive function that is present in lysosomes of animal cells renders a large surface area-to-volume ratio
phages
viruses that infect bacteria
transduction
viruses transfer bacterial DNA between different bacterial hosts.
confocal laser scanning microscopy
visualizes fluorescent objects. Can be used without fluorescence tagging. Artifacts are reduced by focusing a beam of UV light onto the sample. This reduces intensity so samples must be illuminated longer.
contribute to DNA mutations
● DNA polymerase errors during DNA replication. ● Loss of DNA during meiosis crossing over. ● Chemical damage from drugs. ● Radiation.
prevent DNA mutations
● DNA polymerase proofreading ● Mismatch repair machinery ● Nucleotide excision repair