final

the audience concept

-"Audience" is familiar with term for "receivers" in simple model of mass com -implies attentive, receptive but passive listeners -Audiences are both product of social context (leads to share cultural interests and understanding) and response to particular pattern of media provision -Audience can be defined (different and overlapping): place, people, medium or channel, time

Diffusion of Innovation and Development

-Lerner 1958- media has "modernization"- promoting western ideas and aspirations. View of media effect as mass educator with local leaders -Rogers and Shoemaker- model of information diffusion in four stages: information, persuasion, decision/ adoption, confirmation Mass media serve as agents of development by- -disseminating technical "know-how" -encouraging individual change and mobility -spreading democracy -promoting consumer demand -aiding literacy, education, health, population control, etc.

social uses of media

-managing relations with others -conversation and social change -social attachment and avoidance -social learning and identification with role models -having control of media choice -sharing activity -vicarious companionship -filling time -framing daily activity

beyond gender- perspective taking nationality

-names are important- part of our culture -when someone is asked not to use their real name, it disrespects their culture -who usually gets asked their names and how to say them? -people end up choosing to give themselves nick names -as media makers- think about how we represent people and their culture- OUR RESPONSIBILITY

Collective reaction effects civil disorder

-often use logic-stimulus response, but other effects too- manner in which reactions are transmitted to others, often at great speed with considerable amplification of overall effects -Important effect- widespread panic in response to alarming, incomplete, or misleading information -effects more relevant by greater risks from terrorists rumor: urgent need for information coupled with restricted supply -Media contribute by reaching large numbers of people at same moment with same item of news which can provoke or alleviate panic -panic- incompleteness or inaccuracy of information, leading to urgent search for information, usually through personal channels, giving further currency to original message -most terrorist violence uses media for their own purposes- to draw attention -media must.. 1. apply normal news values to terrorist events 2. avoid further harm civil disorder -suggested that media can provoke a riot, provide lessons how to riot, and spread disturbance. signals occurrence of riots or gives info that it will be happening -media seem to have capacity to define nature of events, can unintentionally increase degree of polarization for certain cases

beyond gender- perspective taking age

-perceptions of age change as you age -should try to take on perspective of people of other ages -tend to think of age as "physical breakdown"- what they are capable of doing -ex. we watched video of what people thought "old" was. first they said in their 50s. then people in their 70s were good at doing a lot of things. The older people said age doesn't matter as long as they're growing and learning. ex. think grandmas can't do soul cycle

third-party effects

-related to spiral of silence -people think that other people are affected by various forms of media content, but not themselves. -overestimation of media effects is associated with tendency to think of news as bias against those outside of particular view

the media- violence and crime

-repeated demonstration of high level of crime/ violence in popular media -change in media- less regulation, children exposed to it at younger age Lowery and Defleur three main conclusions -TV content is heavily saturated with media violence -children spending more time exposed to violent content -Overall, the evidence supports the hypothesis that the viewing of violent entertainment increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior theory "Social learning theory"- children learn from media what behavior will be rewarded and punished "priming" effects- when people view violence it activates or "primes" other related thoughts and evaluations, leading to greater predisposition to use violence in interpersonal situations Huesmann script theory- social behavior is controlled by "scripts" that indicate how to respond to events. Violence on TV leads to violence as result of aggressive scripts "desensitization"- exposure increases tolerance towards violent behavior effects -not unanimous, controversial -heavy viewers of tv demonstrate increased tolerance towards violence and aggressive behavior. but does not show clear causation and leaves out environmental influences inducement and fright -often seek fright-inducing media. can have some negative consequences. cannot predict when it will be disturbing. harm depends on degree of realism, motivation of exposure, etc. media and crime -no research has found causal connection that media is cause of real crime -idea that media glamorizes criminal life

media fandom

-specified attachment to particular performers and certain kinds of performance- types genres, etc. -Weakest fandom- simply attraction to medium -Strongest fandom- high degree of emotional attachment and activity centering on media personality -collective shared feeling organized by fans themselves -critics associate it with immaturity and irrationality, outcome of mass culture -also seen as manipulation.. encouraged by media to strengthen ties with products and performers, helps make money, like spinoffs

audience norms for media content and conduct

-too much media use, esp TV, is bad, esp for children -children's TV should be protected and supervised -different genres and media receive different evaluations -audiences expect impartiality from news -general audience content should not offend against dominant social norms -media should not be free to damage national interest or security

socialization

-when we learn how to behave in certain expectations which go with given role in society. media offers models of behavior before we experience it, shaping our attitudes and standards -Long-term process because any effect from media interacts with other social background influences and socialization within families 1. media can reinforce and support other agencies of socialization 2. viewed as potential threat to values set by parents, educators, etc. others of social control -media can teach norms and values with symbolic reward/punishment for different kinds of behavior represented in media -Generally accept that media has a socializing effect

types of communication power- alternatives

1. Behavioral and causal line of reasoning consistent with stimulus-response thinking, which power is equated with probability of achieving some given outcome, intended or not 2. Sociological. Max Weber- chance of someone to realize their will to resist. relationship is presumed to exist between the partners of action and coercion is possible to achieve at some aim. -communication and symbolic power is different than other kinds of power because it involves non-material factors.. trust, rationality, respect Different ways which symbolic power can be used -information -stimulation to action -directing attention differentially -persuasion -defining situations and framing "reality"

standpoint theory

A perspective that says the knowledge we create is conditioned by where we stand, or our subjective social position. -experience informs our individual and social prospects -THE WAY WE SEE THE WORLD IS FROM HOW WE EXPERIENCE IT -the narrower our perspective, the narrower our standpoint (how we build messages and view them) -our perspectives dictate how we see the world around us (including how we construct and read messages) -understanding other perspectives makes you a better communicator ...there are relational factors that influence whether someone tends to engage in perspective taking -if you are someone with high power and status, generally not pushed to see someone else's perspective -if you lack status, have to adapt other perspectives, because you have to adapt upward. more sympathetic and empathetic to broader perspectives. -people of different status will likely interpret a message differently ex. Bob Kraft has a hard time intepreting messages from black football players, like national anthem. Darren has easier time because he is black

Structuralism and Semiology

Structuralism: the way meaning is constructed in texts. Signs, narratives, myths Structure: constant and ordered relations of elements.. Languages work with inbuilt ones Sign: psychical vehicle of meaning in a language, what we hear or see. It refers to some object or aspect of reality that we wish to communicate- the referent. Signifier: physical element (word, image, sound) and the signified: the mental concept evoked by physical sign or language make up signification= signification, the referent (external reality) Denotation: relationship within a sign between signifier (physical aspect) and signified (mental concept). "First order of signification." the obvious and straightforward meaning of a sign Universality and objectivity Ex. the actual model in a perfume ad Connotation: "second order of signification" the associated meaning that may be conjured by the object signified Variable meanings according to culture and element of evaluation Ex. perfume ad has french model. Connotation that she uses the perfume, and she is associated with the culture of French and it's chicness -texts have meaning built in by way of language -meanings depend on a wider cultural and linguistic frame of reference -texts represent processes of signification -sign systems can be "decoded" on basis of knowledge of culture and sign system -meanings of texts are connotative, denotative, or mythical

news diffusion

Diffusion of news: spread of news measured by the capacity to recall certain named events 1. extent to which people know about a given event 2. relative importance or perceived salience of an event 3. volume of info about event that is transmitted 4. the extent to which knowledge of an event comes first from news media or from personal contact -J curved relationship between the proportion who are aware of an event and the proportion who heard of the same event from an interpersonal source -when event is known by everyone, most likely heard from personal source. when event is known by less, less know from personal contact. when it is known by just a few- most likely heard from other person - three alternative patterns sometimes found: incomplete diffusion, very rapid early acceleration, and unduly slow acceleration -diffusion of news more complex with variety of channels

The elaboration-likelihood model of influence

ELM: extent to which a person thinks about an issue and the relevant arguments in the message. not everyone has same time/capacity to develop attitudes and we are selective with our attention-devote more effort to understanding matters of greater personal interest -centrally (high elaboration): draw on knowledge and experience to scrutinize information. motivated to process, ability to process. think and reflect on the argument given ATTITUDE CHANGE IS RESISTANT TO COUNTER-PERSUASION. PREDICTABLE BEHAVIOR -peripherally: rely on incidental cues, such as perceived credibility or attractiveness of source rather than cognitive content of message itself. use of heuristics. is not motivated to process or does not have ability to process. does not have cognitive process- does not reflect ATTITUDE CHANGE IS CONTEMPORARY, VULNERABLE TO COUNTER-PERSUASION. UNPREDICTABLE BEHAVIOR

traditional content analysis

Earliest, most central form and widely practiced - - Link between the external object and reference will be clear - - Frequency of occurrence will express 'meaning' - produces statistical summary of larger reality -quantitative -fragmentary -systematic -generalizing -manifest meaning -objective limits -risk of investigator imposing a meaning system rather than discovering content. Any category system must be selective. -digitization of new technologies

Source-Receiver Relations and Effect

French and Raven- five alternative forms of communication relationship -reward: gratification for the recipient from a message (enjoyment, useful, advice) -coercive: negative consequence of non-compliance -referent power: attraction of prestige sender, willingly influenced -legitimate power: accepted influence based on respect for character -expert power: superior knowledge is attributed to source or sender by receiver Kleman- three processes of influence 1. compliance- acceptance of influence in expectation of some award to avoid punishment 2. identification- when an individual wishes to be more like source and imitates/ adopts behavior accordingly 3. internalization- influence that is guided by the same receiver's own pre-existing needs and values. "functional" influence since it is guided by receiver's motives

typlogy of genres

contests- game shows, sports, HIGH OBJECTIVITY AND HIGH EMOTIONALITY actualities- news, documentaries, reality TV HIGH OBJECTIVITY AND LOW EMOTIONALITY persuasions- advertising, propaganda LOW OBJECTIVITY AND LOW EMOTIONALITY dramas- fictional story telling LOW OBJECTIVITY AND HIGH EMOTIONALITY -Genre is not powerful tool of analysis since there are too many possibilities for applying it

Cultivation Theory

idea that long-term immersion in a media environment leads to "cultivation," or enculturation, into shared beliefs about the world -viewing TV gradually leads to adoption of beliefs about nature which form to stereotyped, distortive, selective view portrayed in tv and news -different from direct-stimulus response.. IT IS GRADUAL AND CUMULATIVE. involves learning and constructing of social view based on circumstances. interactive process between media and audiences -TV is not a reflection of world- it is a world within itself- supplies symbolic environment that becomes norm of society -Those who watch more TV are predicted to have closer perceptions of social world to tv world -more TV people watch, more they think violence happens that much in real world -Gerbner- "mainstreaming"- found that exposure to TV shifted opinion in the direction of "moderate" opinion for politics. TV seeks to avoid extremes, so people will conform to moderate ideas

newer persuasion theory Narrative paradigm

-paradigms- the way we interpret the world rational v. narrative paradigm -rational: think of logos. about providing info, not as much engaging with audience. persuades reasoned people looking for info ex. understanding the human body by looking at a chart -narrative: values story-telling. most people not strictly rational- we like stories and they stick with us more. are persuaded because they are personally engaging, memorable, combine reason and emotion -gets people to connect to characters AND receive info. more persuasive because uses ethos (if you are a good story teller), pathos, and logos ex. understanding the human body with the bone-dance episode of hannah montana ex. the google commercials for the video chatter things, about talking to grandparents WE ARE MORE NARRATIVE THAN RATIONAL BASED -narrative includes assessing.. story must include rationality -narrative fidelity: does it actually ring true? -narrative coherence: does it fit together? -narrative consistency: does it progress effectively?

the "why" of media use

-structural tradition- emphasizes media system and social system as primary determinants -behavioral (functionalist) approach- individual needs and motives as starting point -Social-cultural approach- emphasizes the particular context which an audience member is located and the way which media alternatives are valued and given media

text, encoding and decoding

-text 1. the physical message 2. the meaning of the message -media text has potential different readings- polysemy. Seen as necessary for pop media culture, more potential meanings -Hall's encoding/ decoding- media want to direct the meaning of message that they would like receiver to take

The Cultural Text Approach

-texts are jointly produced with their readers -texts are differently encoded -texts are "polysemic"- have many potential meanings -texts have "intertextuality"- are related to other texts -texts employ different narrative forms -texts are gendered

media content as information

information theory -Objective approach to analysis of communication texts -all problems of uncertainty can ultimately be reduced to series of either/ or questions -behaviorist assumptions -all media texts open to uncertainty reduction measuring information value- the capacity to reduce uncertainty 1. density: proportion of relevant reports in text 2. Breadth- number of different points as proportion of the total possible 3. Depth- number of facts and reported motives helping explain basic points -Alternative: readability- news is more readable when there is more redundancy (opposite of info density). "Info-rich" text packed full of facts may be challenging to reader. Info-rich texts are also generally closed- not much room for interpretation -can question diversity of texts evaluative dimension of info -ambiguous or open texts are more redundant or or chaotic COMMUNICATION AS INFO -communications is to be defined as transfer of information from sender to individual receiver -media texts are body of info -essence of info is the reduction of uncertainty -info quality and informativeness are measurable -the evaluative direction of info is measurable

structural analysis

- Attention is directed to latent rather than manifest content, deeper meaning regarded as more essential. -systematic in different way from content analysis- gives no weight to procedures of sampling and rejecting notion that "units" of content should be treated equally. -the audience is divided into "interpretative" communities, unique possibilities for different meanings -Makes it possible to assume that category of references can be concluded -way meaning is constructed in words -qualitative -holistic -illustrative, specific -selective -latent meaning- deeper -relative to reader limits -not easy to generalize

Factors affect the chances of media effects on public opinion and attitude

- the perceived legitimacy, credibility, and authority of a source -consistency and content of media messages -attachment and loyalty to sources -motives for attention to media -congruence of content with existing opinion or belief -amount and quality of attention paid -skill and appeal of message and presentation -support from personal contact and environment

Emerging perceptions of Internet search engine as a media genre

-An accessible gateway to the universe of content in cyberspace -primary purpose: informative -neutral, unedited, uncensored, and comprehensive source -free and open to all senders and receivers -form allows the user to follow any of innumerable paths and linkages -no indications of status or value, except as perceived by searcher disturbing features.. -Impression that public knowledge can be accessed- misleading since capacity to search entire web does not exist -form has natural tendency for monopoly -ads and other info cannot be clearly distinguished -Exclusion and censorship by choice of provider or in response to laws/ pressures -ease of use is misleading.. possible research errors -Editing and updating process eliminates info that was valid at an earlier point, rewrites history

Individual response and reaction: the stimulus-response model

-Any process of media effect on individuals must begin with attention or exposure to media message -effects can be short or long term -Stimulus response model- unambiguously short term and individualistic SINGLE MESSAGE - INDIVIDUAL RECEIVER - REACTION -difference between response and reaction -response- implying interaction with receiver and learning process -reaction- implies choice of interaction, behavioral reflex -Stimulus-response theory has had to be modified to take account of selective attention, interpretation, response and recall -HIGHLY PRAGMATIC: predicts, all other things being equal, the occurrence of a response according to presence or absence of appropriate stimulus -Sometimes been referred to "bullet" or "hypodermic" theory-

from mass to market.. audience as a market

-Audiences are aggregates of many potential or actual consumers -Members are unrelated to each other and have no shared identity of their own -boundaries assigned to audience based on socio-economic status -audiences are objects of management and controlled by media providers -the formation is temporary -public significance is subordinate -relations of audience with media are mutually calculative, not moral

activity and selectivity

-Described in normative way- passivity as harmful, active as good -controversy over how active typical media audience use and what activity means Biocca- five different versions of concepts of audiences -selectivity: audience is active, makes choice -utilitarianism: self-interested consumer, consumption represents satisfaction of conscious need, such as "uses and gratifications" -intentionality: active audience, engaged in cognitive processing of incoming information and experience. subscription to media -resistance to influence: limits set by members of audience to unwanted learning. reader/viewer in "control" -involvement: the more the audience is "caught up" in ongoing experience. Can also be called "affective arousal" like talking back to TV -different versions of audience activity do not relate to same moment of media exposure

why study media content

-Describing and comparing media output- characterize content -comparing it with "social reality" -media content as a reflection of social and cultural values -hypothesizing functions and effects of media -Evaluating media performance-quality of media judged by certain criteria -study of media bias -audience analysis -Tackling questions of genre, textual and discourse analysis, narrative and other formats -rating classification of content

entertainment effects

-Entertainment- the largest category of media content, why media became so popular -Entertainment is an effect itself- intended by producers and audiences -Essential idea- diversion and getting caught up in some story or spectacle. Can include specific kinds of effect- being amused, emotionally aroused, etc.

audience as defined by channel or content

-Identification of audience as readers, viewers, etc. of a particular book, author, film, newspaper -audience in concrete sense - consistent with market thinking- which audience are set of consumers for products. Audience consists of paying consumers -expressed as "ratings" or "numbers" -brings about question of fandom

the medium audience

-Identifies audience by choice of particular type of medium- "TV audience" "cinema-going audience" -regular "users" of that content -close to idea of "mass audience"- large, dispersed, heterogeneous, no internal organization -most audiences now overlap- one that uses one medium will use another. differentiation in their frequency of use -audiences divided by particular uses of media and advantages/ disadvantages of it -Media substitutability- important in media economics- uses demographics, what context messages are better delivered in

audience orientation to media

-In general- audience does not experience its relations with media and communicators as problematic on daily basis -actual people in audience may not have chosen content. ex. family decides whats on tv -Usually a large flow of unrequested and unwanted media messages from advertising -parasocial interaction: the degree to which audience members feel they interact with their favorite TV news persona types of audience orientation -liking of affinity -involvement -parasocial interaction -interactivity -attachment -identification -capture -fandom

model of behavioral effect- comstack

-continous sequence of repeated exposure to representations of behavior affects the way behavior is perceived inputs- TV acts, TV arousal, TV alternatives ..lead to learning of behavior conditions- TV perceived consequences and TV perceived reality -The more positive consequences seem to exceed negative ones, the more true to life the TV behavior, more likely "TV act" to take place mOST IMPORTANT CONDITION IS AROUSAL- wont last without interest

the main dimensions of audience

-degree of activity or passivity -degree of interactivity and interchangability -size and duration -locatedness in space -group character (social/cultural identity) -simultaneity of contact with source -heterogeneity of composition -social relations between sender and receiver -message versus social/ behavioral definition of situation -degree of perceived "social presence" -sociability of context use

intertextuality, open vs. closed texts

intertextuality: reader does not have boundaries when he or she makes meaning. uses past experience -Feature of media themselves- cross-referencing from one medium to another, same "message" or story can be found in very different media forms/ genres -TV has given third level- when fans write about it themselves -codes: rules for people in that culture. "interpretative community"- like a set of fans for same genre or performer open vs. close texts Open text- one whose discourse does not try to constrain reader to one particular meaning or interpretation -Ex. news reports are intended not to be open, but lead to a uniform informational end. Soap operas and serials lend themselves to varied readings

genre

kind or type that is applied to any distinctive category of cultural product -collective identity that relates to purpose, form, and meaning -identity established over time -Particular genre will follow expected structure or narrative or sequence of action HELPS MASS MEDIUM PRODUCE CONSISTENT PRODUCTION -Many media content can be subjected to GENRE ANALYSIS to uncover recurring features, like the romance story uses "narrative logic." a "formula" is sub category or genre that involves conventions of that genre with reference to time, place, plots, costumes, etc. -Enables content to be read correctly when it appears- ex. White hats identify good guys -Strength of genre idea- capacity to adapt and extend with dynamic developments Ex. rise of "talk show" genre. Include audience presence and participation, etc. Ex. reality TV

cultivation mean-world syndrome and other effects

mean world syndrome -viewers who watch the news more often view world as more dangerous place -people who watch TV more also view world as "meaner" place ....most entertainment includes "meanness"' -content drives perception of reality ex. see multiple shows that the nerds will be bullied by jocks. they assume if they are nerdy they will be. other effects -body image ...unrealistic expectations of how bodies look: VS fashion show, insta, tv shows -perception of unfamiliar processes ...watch shows like CSI, think we can find key evidence like this. not actually how it works -perceptions of expectations ...college students ....adult life ex. see on social media, see on TV the partying etc. of college. do not see crying over finals -highest effects- people who consume the most media. rely more on pre-packaged perceptions rather than actual experience -LIVED EXPERIENCE > MEDIATED EXPERIENCE

Goals of audience research

media centered research -measuring actual and potential reach for purposes of bookkeeping and advertising (ratings and sales) -managing audience choice behavior -looking for new audience opportunities -product testing and improving effectiveness audience centered research audience centered research -meeting responsibilities to serve and audience -evaluating media from an audience perspective -charting audience motives for choice and use -uncovering audience interpretations of meaning -exploring the context of media use -assessing actual effects on audience MAIN DIFFERENCE: MEDIA CENTER REPRESENTS VOICE OF AUDIENCE, AUDIENCE CENTER SPEAKS FOR AUDIENCE ITSELF

uses and gratifications

-idea that we have power over the media.. we gain things from it -must distinguish in your own mind: need, want, ease ex. if you are using facebook to communicate because it is easy, then you are CHOOSING to use it -if we want to control our own lives, need to control our own media. it is a choice and we are literate- if we understand this, we will have less negative effects -WE USE IT, IT DOESN'T USE US- for info, entertainment, etc. empowering effects- benefits -we make choices about the media -we use the media -we have different goals and needs and select media accordingly -we have power over media -YOU MAKE CHOICE IN WHATEVER MEDIA YOU USE. YOU HAVE THE POWER TO USE OR NOT USE IT naive perspective- critiques -can only choose from available media -cannot control the content despite our choice- making (choosing to consume/ not consume is different than controlling the content) -presumes people can/ do know how why they make choices and what they gain from them.. Not always true ex. you choose to watch a show, but do not know why ex. CHOOSE TO WATCH NETFLIX. WE USE IT TO EASE OUR MIND. WE USE IT FOR ENTERTAINMENT. HOWEVER, WE DO NOT CHOOSE THE SHOWS ON IT

original persuasion theory- Aristotle

-inartistic proof: make your own message, but bring other things to enhance your message- quote, stat, celebrity -factual, uncontrollable appeals- laws, contracts, witnesses, stats. ex. even location of argument artistic proofs- built and created by the writer -ethos: establishing your credibility or others. persuade people by who you are. if you like someone, more likely to believe them ex. celebrity, Pats player in Boston, BU student USUALLY PEOPLE -pathos: appeals to emotion, gets people to act. ex. see starving kids, want to donate USUALLY PICTURES -logos: depends on logic, stats, and facts. relies on getting people to think ex. anti-juuling- uses stat about how nicotine hurts your health USUALLY INARTISTIC PPROFS

critical perspective on approaches

-marxist: the "news" masks aspects of reality and exploits nature of class society, produces "fragmentation" of interests and undermines solidarity of subordinate classes, evokes concepts in societies that do not exist -advertising and commercialism- transfers meanings and ideas from experience to commercial products. commercial product becomes our desired state. end up with false sense of selves because it tells us who we are and what we want. manipulation and exploitation!! -cultural quality- the aesthetic, ethical, and ecstatic (measure of popularity) -violence in media- MOST CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE -gender bias in media. 1. media towards women (soap operas etc) can never be liberating 2. commercializes feminism

Media Influence on Event Outcomes

-mass media rarely initiate change individually but channels for events. primary object of influence is interest groups -media present channels for communicating vertically or horizontally -Events where media play big role are likely to have a public and collective character, historical significance and long time scale. Many international crises meet this "CNN effect"- media exerting an influence on foreign policy, especially foreign intervention. -indexing- media tend to reflect the debates within national governments and general balance of opinion without proposing new initiatives - can influence outcome of different kinds of events in different ways ex. Bush-Gore- election 2000. republicans framed debate in favor to themselves

Expectancy-value theory

-media offer rewards expected by potential members of audience, relevant to past experience. psychological effects valued by individuals ex. "having a good read" -we have beliefs, we seek gratification from them, we consume media, then have perceived gratifications from it that we will expect from now on -When gratifications obtained is noticeable higher than gratifications sought, likely to be dealing with high audience satisfaction and high ratings of appreciation and attention -When gratification sought is much lower than gratification obtained, clues to falling circulation, ratings, and channel switching

The Natural History of Media Effect Research and Theory: Four Phases

-media power vary with time- especially more powerful in times of crisis phase 1: all powerful media -turn of 1930s.. then new media.. printing press etc. had power to shape public opinion -persuasion -powerful in WW1 phase 2: theory of powerful media put to test -MORE VALUABLES ADDED -post war era research- intervening effects of social and demographic variables- age, education, sex, social psychology -started with studies primarily concerned with influence of films on children and young people -Not direct or one-to-one link expected between media and audience response -Media operate within pre-existing structure of social relationships and certain context -Information acquisition can occur without related attitude or behavior changes phase 3. powerful media rediscovered -Reluctance to accept "minimal effect"- TV in 50s and 60s as new powerful medium, major implications on social life -no effect" myth- concentrated on limited range of effects (especially short term) rather than broader social and institutional effects. SHIFT TOWARDS LONG TERM CHANGE- EFFECTS ON OPINION IN LONG TERM -the way media select, process and shape content for their own purposes can have strong influence on how it is received and interpreted, can have long term consequences phase 4: negotiated media influence -Beginning in late 70s, "social constructivist" -Media having their most significant effects by constructing meanings. offer "preferred" view of social reality- widely accepted and reliable -NO AUTOMATIC OR DIRECT TRANSFER OF MEANING, NEGOTIATED BETWEEN WHAT IS OFFERED AND WHAT RECEIVER IS INCLINED TO ACCEPT -Break from "all powerful" paradigm and shift from quantitative/ behaviorist 1. Media "construct" social formations and even history itself by framing images of reality (fiction and news) in predictable and patterned ways 2. People in audience construct themselves their own view of social reality and their place in it, in interact with symbolic constructions by the media

audience issues of public concern

-media use as addiction -mass audience and social atomization- group viewed as isolated individuals rather than social group, associated with more negative features -audience behavior as active (seen as good) or passive (seen as bad) -manipulation or resistance -minority audience rights -implications of new media technology- idea that it will become more fragmented

structural approach to audience persuasion

-media use shaped by media and social structure -social structure- education, economics, gender -media structure- channels, choices, and content that is available in a given place and time -our individual needs (from our social structure) and our mass media structure form our media behavior -media orientation: joint outcome of social background and past media experience. influenced by.. 1. Specific daily menu of content on offer and form presentation (media content) 2. Circumstances of the moment- free time, availability to attend, range of alternative activities (individual's circumstances) 3. Social context of choice and use, ex. Influence of friends and family -Advantage: showing connection between media system (structure) and individual audience member's social position

internet news effects

-more diverse and personally relevant sources of news, have access to global news -those who are motivated can be quickly informed -unreliability and trust- may be less affective than TV with this -the role of promoting active and informed citizenship is minimal -audience fragmentation

audience as group or public

-most commonly- social group. ex. reader of newspaper listener or station -audience shares at least one defining characteristic- shared space or community -conditions of society that go against this- totalitarian government and very high levels of commercially monopolized media

gratification set as audience

-multiple possibilities for audiences to form and re-form on basis of some media-related interest, need, or preferences -less likely to have collective identity when they result in "customized" content based on interests -"Taste culture"- audience brought into being by the media based on convergence of interests, rather than shared locality or social background

media changing affecting audiences

-multiplication of channels -conglomeration increasing some audience sizes -fragmentation of the mass audience -segmentation according to market characteristics.. media supply is matched more precisely to a relevant set of media consumers, aided by greater selection -escape of audience from management and measurement.. Has become more difficult to keep track of audience with increase choice, gives them more power -new types of audience emerge: interactive and consultative

levels and kinds of media effects

media effects- consequences of what media do media power- potential of media to have effects media effectiveness- efficiency of media to achieve given aims levels- levels of individual, groups, social institution, national society, society. Can all be affected by mass com. Most media effect research at individual level main kinds of media induced change -cause intended change -cause unintended change -cause minor change (form or intensity) -facilitate change (intended or not) -reinforce what exists (no change) -prevent change -"Reciprocal"- consequences of a person or institution becoming the object of media coverage. Ex. US student movement influenced by publicity -"boomerang" effect- causing change opposite of intended, familiar phenomenon in campaigning -"third party effects"-refers to the belief that other people are likely to be influenced, but not oneself. Like oh yeah I'm better than being affected by media -"sleeper effect"- effects that do not show up until much letter

alternative traditions to audience research

structural tradition -aims: describe composition, relate to society -data: social-demographic, media time and use -methods: survey and statistical analysis behavioral tradition -aims: explain and predict choices, reactions and effects -main data: motives, acts of choice, reactions -methods: survey, experimental measurement cultural tradition -aims: understanding meaning of content received and or use in context -data: perceptions of meaning regarding social and cultural context -methods: ethnographic, qualitative

subculture audiences lifestyle audiences gendered audiences

subculture -media have developed more "niche" markets- identify social and cultural subgroups based on taste or lifestyle -media use likely to be shaped predominantly according to early experience and identifications forged in social life or context ex. what your family watches -media use can play important role in expression of identity for sub groups of different kind ex. young people using music to retaliate to norm lifestyle -against assumption that media taste is determined by social class or education since lifestyle IS A CHOICE -looking at lifestyle is helpful for advertisers, find target audience gender -differentiation of media use according to sex -gendered audience experience- complex outcome of media content, everyday routines, and wider (patriarchal) society -women tend to watch soap operas, read romance novels -Example of men using their power to control and "get even" by only playing sports on TV

news genre

"objective clear signal which signifies an event" -timeliness and recency -unexpectedness -probability of type -fragmentary in nature -perishability -signaling functions or effects -shaped by values -interesting -facticity -different from human interest which is for entertainment -news as narrative: helps make sense of reports

Contextual factors in the portrayal of TV violence

-The relative appeal of the perpetrator -The relative appeal of the victim -the weapons used -The extensiveness and graphicness of the depiction -the realism which violence is portrayed -Rewards and punishments for acts -The consequences as shown in terms of pain and harm -humor (presence or absence) -most programs contain violence -few programs are anti-violent -most violence on TV is sanitized (cleaned up) -high risk of teaching aggression to children and teens

questions of audience research

-Media providers need to know great deal about extent of media reach for reasons of finance or policy or for organization and planning -audience is necessarry condition for media survival different ways to define audience reach.. -The available (potential) audience: all with basic skills (like literacy) and or reception capability -The paying audience: those who actually pay for media product: newspaper, etc. -The attentive audience: those who actually read, listen, etc. particular content -The internal audience: those who pay attention to particular sections, types, or single items of content -The cumulative audience: the overall proportion of potential audience that is reached over particular period of time -The target audience: section of potential audience singled out for reach by a particular source levels of audience reach.. 1. Message offered -Unlimited potential for reception. Equates audience with universal distribution 2. Message receivable -Realistic maximum limits which apply to reception, potential media public- defined by geographical reception, possession of technology, or means of boring and purchasing. also skills like literacy 3. Message received -The actual audience reached by medium. Measured by sales, admin, surveys, ratings 4. Message registered Quality of attention, degree of impact and potential effect 5. Message internalized

realism in text, gender bias in text

-Narrative often depends on assumptions about realism- helps to enforce sense of reality by invoking logic, normality, and predictable human behavior -Realism of media depends on certain attitude that what is portrayed is "true to life"- if not literally in sense of having occurred. realistic fiction that it might occur 1. Plausibility 2. Perceptual persuasiveness 3. Typicality 4. Factuality 5. Emotional involvement 6. Narrative consistency -film and TV often use "documentary" style for it -Media realism leads in a "reactionary" (rather than radical) direction because it neutralizes status quo, making it seem more normal gender - many media content have built-in bias towards the supposed characteristics of one gender for another, reasons for appealing to chosen audience or because many language codes are innately gendered ex. Soap operas- gendered as female narrative, way of characterizing settings and dialogues, positioning male and female roles ex. TV action serials- gendered in masculine way -gender of producers affect outcomes.

end of audience- media fragmentation

-New technologies bring into question sender and receiver and original idea of media audience. Interactiveness takes away spectatorship effects of change.. -increased size of audience for particular products or performers -internationalization creates larger audiences -"actual" audience is diversified -audiences recruited by tastes and lifestyles rather than actual locations fragmentation: dispersal of same amount of audience attention over more and more media sources. Nearly all choices could be individualized. Media users will have no more in common with each other than owners of same article LEADS TO INDIVIDUALIZATION four stages of audience fragmentation 1. unitary model: single audience more or less coextensive to general public. Early years of TV had little choice of channel 2. pluralism model (diversity in unity): supply of content and channels increase, more diversity and distinctive options begin to emerge in framework of unitary model (daytime and night-time TV, regional variations) 3. Core-periphery model (unity in diversity): multiplication of channels undermines unity of framework. Result of cable and satellite transmission, recording technology, new media 4. break up model (fragmentation): no longer center, many and diverse sets of media users

The structure of News: Bias and Framing and FORM

-News exhibits predictable pattern according to categories of subject matter -Framing is way of giving overall interpretation of isolated forms. Almost unavoidable for journalists, depart from pure objectivity. when info is given to news media by sources, it comes with built-in-frame, not purely objective -undergoes changes that reflects goals of sources and changing realities Ex. coverage of Iraq war, started with patriotic manner, then more ambivalent and tired as it dragged on -Content bias- where the reality of news seems to favor one side over another in conflict. -Decision making bias- motivation and mindset of journalists are unintentionally influential form -predictable globally, even though content changes -provides significance of events and types of content. based on order space -Systematic differences of news between different societies- more likely to follow cultural and institutional lines

news learning

-Overall purpose of news is judged to some criteria of information value by sender and receiver -audience motivation- previous familiarity with topics and education level -much "received" with little "processing" -probable that much of the effect of news is in the form of reinforcement of familiar themes -news is "framed" for easier understanding in schemas.. -schemas- structure of organized knowledge and individual experiences used for processing and retrieving news info. how we learn and remember it -integration of new information into pre-existing schemata -exemplification: citing of specific concrete cases to illustrate more general themes and justify general conclusions. one form of framing .....can lead to misinformation or bias when facts are represented .....greater influence on perceptions of issues when concrete examples are used rather than abstract points, more emotionally conntected differential recepetion -audience learns news based on their every day life circumstances.. 1. space- how distant events are to them 2. Power: audiences are likely to see news as concerning themselves as well as the more powerful 3. Time: audiences see events in terms of their own past and future history 4. Identity: audiences link or disassociate themselves with events, places, and people in the news FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH NEWS LEARNING -prior knowledge or interest on part of audience -perceived relevance of topic -Credible and trusted news channel or source -visual illustration -Concrete subject matter and "hard news" character -news fits an available frame of interpretation -repetition of news -narrative of text news credibility -trust is required for news to be effective -perceived fairness, lack of bias, and good faith rather than perceived accuracy or reliability -having public interest

the original audience

-Planning and organization of viewing and listening as well as of the performance themselves -Planning and organization of viewing and listening as well as of the performance themselves -Events with a public and "popular" character -Secular (not religious) content of performance- for entertainment, education, and vicarious emotional experience -Voluntary, individual acts of choice and attention -Specialization of roles of authors, performers, and spectators -Physical locatedness of performance and spectator experience

media performance discourse

-Usually based on some notion of public interest such as: freedom & independence, content diversity, news objectivity, reality reflection or distortion. -Basic assumption- quality of media cannot be directly measured, but many relevant dimensions can be assessed freedom and independence -should reflect freedom of expression -editorial vigour- content that deals with relevant and significant local matters, adopting argumentative form and providing "mobilizing information"- information that helps people act on opinions content diversity -wide range of choice for audience -many and different opportunities for access -true or sufficient reflection in media of varied reality of experience in society -criteria to measure it varies. should fit the medium objectivity -neutral, informative reporting of events -factuality- texts made up of distinct units of information that are necessary for understanding 1. accuracy 2. completeness 3. relevance -Impartiality- issue of what it means. Appreciated mainly because events involve conflict and open to alternative interpretations (ex. Political news, sports) Reality Reflection or distortion: the question of bias -Bias in news- distorting reality, giving negative picture to minorities, neglecting role of women in society, favoring political party ex.War news avoids images of death and injury, sanitizing reality ex. Foreign news concentrates on nearer, richer, powerful nations ex.More attention and prominence given to men over women in news CRITIQUE OF THIS: -Media does reflect social reality of inequality when they give attention towards powerful nationsUnlikely news will match some "average" reality- "news values" include drama, celebrity, conflict, that are abnormal and seek audience attention -"Key events" and "framing"- reality cannot be treated as if all happenings are equal -Mass media generally oriented to interests of audiences as "consumers"- audiences like many things that are inconsistent with reality reflection. -Media often to escape reality. "Distortions" are not surprising or regrettable

social distribution of knowledge

-Widely expected and major media effect- capacity to inform and keep informed a large-scale society, consistent with needs of economic and democratic process -long assumed that press/broadcasting helps differences of knowledge inequalities "closes info gap" -knowledge gap hypothesis- 1. general distribution of information among the classes. social inequalities 2. specific subjects or topics on which some are better informed than others -media operate to close gap on issues. but new media may widen gap because they are favored sources for the favored classes -US HAS LARGEST GAP -trends toward fragmented audiences

newer persuasion theory Social judgment theory

-anchor point: our perspective and opinion -latitude of acceptance: as you move away from anchor point, have strong acceptance, then moves out to rejection. -TRYING TO PERSUADE SOMEONE- EXPAND THEIR LATITUDE OF ACCEPTANCE -not just changing somebody's mind, but how you do it. -work at the edges of their acceptance to widen their range ex. if you put your hand in ice cold water, then hot water, it will seem very hot. if you put it in warm water, then get warmer, they will be more likely to accept ex. if you want college students to stop procrastinating, find values they care about then expand on those- like getting good grades ex. your anchor point is that you only want mookie to bat first. you want to expand this view and persuade them by saying okay, well do you want him to have people on base when he hits? use the increase in offense to expand their range

cultivation

-assumptions about reality based on repeated messages/ images -understanding of reality of things we typically don't have experience with -influences reality through depictions of world around us -news and entertainment sources.. primary -MULTIPLE MESSAGES FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES!!!!!! ex. understand that women should be in the house and cleaning. seen from many different commercials and TV shows

framing effects of news

-audience will be guided by journalistic frames in what it learns. news activate certain inferences, ideas, judgements, and contrasts concerning issues, policies, politicians -framing as outcome of interaction between three kinds of actor- media organizations, media (journalists) and audience 1. construction and use of media frames by journalists under routine pressures 2. transmission of "framed" news reports (cynical view of politicians) to audience 3. acceptance of frames by members of audience, with consequences of attitudes, outlook, behavior

public and private spheres of media use

-certain forms of media have distinct public character -mass media located in their use primary at home (TV, video, music, books) can be considered to bridge gap between private, domestic world and concerns with activity of wider society -Not so much the physical location of audience experience which matters as definition of meaning as public or private -public type of audiencehood- typified by occasions of consciously motivated attention to reports of events which are of wide social significance (elections, disasters) or which involve watching major live sports events or big entertainment events -the experience normally involves identification of wider grouping (fans, etc.) -"media events" unite population -Private type of audience experience- constructed according to personal mood or circumstance, does not involve any reference to society or other people -DEPENDS ON TYPE OF MEDIUM AND TYPE OF AUDIENCE

Media and Long-term social cultural change

-changes like globalization are long term -promotion of homogeneity and social cohesion.. sometimes excessively to conformity -capacity to define situations, provide frames of reference and disseminate images of social groups. Tend to constitute the "collective memory" of given national society -media become gatekeepers for change -Continuous interaction between media and society- not a one-way causal relation with cultural and social change. Outcomes are variable and unpredictable Influence of mass media likely to be indirect

integrated model for media choice

-combines audience and media factors audience factors 1. personal attributes 2. social background and family 3. media-related needs: personal benefits, etc. 4. personal tastes 5. general habits of leisure time 6. awareness- of choices and content 7. specific context use- depends on medium media factors 1. media system- characteristics of specific media outlets 2. structure of media provision- how it is given to society 3. available content options 4. media publicity- advertising of itself 5. timing and presentation- selection influenced by schedule, placement, etc. -General process of choice-making sequentially according to their "distance" from the moment of choice -most distant: personal background -Combination of perception and evaluation of personal knowledge leads to general and content preference set -internal composition of audience is always shifting

Social control and consciousness Formation

-common view that media supports values of dominant community (not on purpose)- personal and institutional choice, operational requirements, external pressure and anticipation of what large heterogeneous audiences expect -strong view- sees media with market forces -Herman and Chomsky- propaganda model: news in capitalist countries has been "strained" through "filters" -media with largest audiences support social norms - commonly define certain kinds of behaviors and groups as deivent and dangerous to society- teenage gangs, drug-takers, sexual deviants -'Blaming the victim"- for collective opinion forming, provide society with scapegoats to divert attentions from real evils -media owned by companies, etc. driven by political and economic interest

Political communication effects in democracies

-democracies and media have complex relationship.. -service: provide info and news according to interest and need. need to be independent of powerful interests -provide channels where powerful interests can address public -promote circulation of news -period campaigns for elections -continuous flow of news which reflects government -political advertising -effects of political campaigns depend more on motive of voters than intention of campaigners -larger effects when it reaches less captive audiences that was previously uninformed -basic political attitudes are too deeply rooted to be changed.. opinions on issues may be changed from learning effects -campaigns focused on maintaining status quo rather than creating change -parties and candidates associate themselves with particular issues.. Can then frame issues and set new agendas. May try to win on grounds of ideology. also attack opponents -most democracies prevent single dominant shape being given in the news - belief that news provides a good environment for influential messages since it is usually characterized by independence of source and credibility -political advertising- cannot act too much like propaganda -ads on TV can take negative form -communication actually changing an election is small, but cannot have campaign without it- essential for public support. would not be taken seriously without it

four types of media effects- alternatives. Perse

-direct effects: -immediate, uniform, observable, short term, emphasis on change -content variables- salience, realism, arousal -audience variables- not relevant -conditional effects: vary with social/psychological factors -individualized, reinforcement and change, cognitive affective and behavioral, long and short term -content variables- irrelevant -audience variables- social categories, social relationships, individual differences -cumulative effects: gradual and long term -based on cumulative exposure, cognitive or affect, rarely behavioral, enduring effects -content variables- consistent across channels, repetition -audience variables- not relevant -cognitive-transactional effects: reference to schemata and framing -immediate and short term, based on one-shot exposure, cognitive and affective, behavioral effects possible -content variables- salience of visual cues -audience variables- schema make up, moods, goals

Effects on the political institution and process

-displacement of political participation to watching TV -negative effects of political marketing and trust from voter- rely more on image of candidate and excessive reliance on polls -increased dependence on media and gatekeepers -Treatment of elections as "horse races" rather than learning about issues and policies. Tendency to concentrate on "strategic" news- campaign become the news, not the actual proposals -modern political campaigning is not mobilizing citizens to participate since it is linked to mass media -election campaigns transformed into managed events focused on advertising, PR, marketing rather than traditional politics -Critics see rise in superficiality and loss of sincerity and spontaneity Stromback- process passes through four stages 1. mediation of political info and campaigns through broadcasting 2. autonomy of media increases, so does dependence by political/ social actors. Media reality becomes more significant than actual reality 3. autonomy of media increases, so does dependence by political/ social actors. Media reality becomes more significant than actual reality 4. Actors internalize logic of media and politics become permanent campaigning.. media becomes dominant in media-politics relationship

media message makers matter

-diversity of message makers has increased -why does it matter to have heterogenous group of message makers? -differences in perspectives of points

what is theory?

-framework of understanding -an explanation communication theories: explain communication phenomenons

the communication risk

-function of mass media- provide public with possible dangers and risks ---explains disporportion of violence and crime to real world -Tendency of media to portray the world as more danger than it really is -attention skewed from normal causes (death, car crash, etc.) to rarer ones (terrorists, earthquakes).. misleading about true risks -Failure of press to give advice on many genuine risks connected with scientific innovation, environmental threats, etc.

newer persuasion theory Cognitive dissonance

-highlight inconsistencies -cognitive: thoughts, beliefs, behaviors -consonance: when our thoughts, beliefs and behaviors align -dissonance: when our thoughts, beliefs, behaviors go against each other. -poke at the dissonance, then offer resolution -the resolution must be doable ex. you complain about being freezing, but you don't wear a hat. poke at this in message- then say there are hats at BU convenient store ex. non-smoking commercial. Had people talking about the bad things that has happened to them from smoking. The call to action was giving people numbers for help

encoding/ decoding theory

-how we construct messages to interpret perception 3 ways audiences read media messages: 1) Dominate: when you first see the message, first gut reaction ex. commercial for mascara- oh yes that will make my eyes look so much better 2) oppositional: being critical of content. does not mean you are saying the opposite, but critically analyzing it. ex. commercial for mascara- says girls are not pretty the way they are 3) negotiated: looks at both sides- looks at critical elements, then how it functions in the real world ex. commercial for mascara- yes I would look better with it, but the commercial is telling me I need it to look pretty -"reading" can be enhanced by embedded cues -use different cues depending on audience you want to reach- use words and images to reach them -"coded" language- also known as "dog whistles" -certain audiences that you don't acknowledge but want to reach- they will read your message differently. ex. politics- use some words that mean some things to some people. ex "true american" coded because is message that means "white anglo protestants" ex. "make american great again"- for who? ex. Portnoy saying he is bringing back "old tevya" to tours.. means a lot to alum who understand, others just thin tradition.

critical discourse analysis

1. refer to political or social issues relevant to society or group 2. elements are speech acts- form of social interaction and wider patterns of social behavior 3. can be analyzed by studying texts of all kind 4. process of collectively constructing social reality

social-learning theory

Bandura- we cannot learn much of what we need from direct personal observation and experience alone. We have to learn from indirect sources, including mass media 1. attention 2. retention 3. production- actual application of lessons learned, may be rewarded or punished 4. motivation -Applies to every day matters- clothing, appearance, style, eating, modes of interaction -individual must be actively engaged and self-reflective.. different from imitation -Mass media rarely only source of social learning- also parents, friends, teachers, etc.

Press reinforcement of Gender Norms: 2016 presidential campaign (spouses)

Bill Clinton -asked about masculine topics -treated as political expert -not subject to same expectations as previous spouses -his wife was held to the moral shortcomings Melania Trump -asked about parental perspectives -asked to give tours of family home -domestic skills questioned -her husband was NOT held responsible for her purported bad acts

media logic and media format

Media logic: set of implicit rules that govern how content should be processed and presented in order to take advantage of the characteristics given in medium Media format: sees content as tailored to fit media formats, and formats as tailored to fit listener/ viewer preferences and assumed capacities

serials and romances

TV series- set of discrete stories which are terminated in each episode. Hero's remain constant from episode to episode while the villains (objects) differ. -organizes according to linearity TV serials- story continues without end from one episode to the next. Same cast of characters each time, illusion is fostered that they continue live in between episodes. Remain "fictively active" -organizes according to parallelism. concurrent storylines with subgroups. permanent characters interacting at different times Narrative Logic of Romance 1. hero's identity in question 2.Heroine acts antagonistically to an aristocratic male 3. The aristocratic male responds ambiguously to heroine 4. Heroine interprets the hero's behavior as evidence of a purely sexual interest in her 5. Heroine responds to hero's behavior with anger and coldness 6. Hero reiterates by punishing heroine 7. Heroine and hero are physically. Emotionally separated 8. The hero treats the heroine tenderly 9. The heroine responds warmly to hero's act of tenderness 10. The heroine reinterprets the hero's ambiguous behavior as product of previous hurt 11. Hero proposes/ openly declares his love for/ demonstrates commitment to heroine with supreme act of tenderness 12. Heroine responds sexually and emotionally to character 13. The heroine's identity is restored

persuasion-types of influence

These are not discrete categories, but they all kind of blur together adoption -trying to get someone to do or believe something new ex. trying to get someone to watch survivor.. they don't already deterrence -stop doing something they are already doing ex. supporting trump now, stop them reinforcement -if audience is doing something and you support it ex. if they are supporting the pats, and you want them to keep doing it abstinence -adopting not doing something -if you've never done something and are told not to do it ex. me juuling

Republic Motherhood

This concept suggested that women would be responsible for raising their children to be virtuous citizens of the new American republic. -the US was founded- argument FOR the people BY the people... but women were left out -women told they contribute to society by being good mothers and wives.. how they are citizens -THE BETTER THE MOM AND WIFE YOU ARE, THE BETTER THE CITIZEN YOU ARE -WOMEN ARE DEFINED BASED ON THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHERS

newer persuasion theory Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

a model of persuasion maintaining that there are two different routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route -choose route by understanding your audience central route: -audience- highly motivated and ability to think about mesage -process- deep processing, focus on quality of argument -persuasion outcome- lasting change, resistant to counter-arguments -need more logos. think about what types of things you want more info on- like joining a political party or making a big purchase ex. a car commercial- give detailed information about vehicle- speed, safety, etc. ex. voting for representative- the policies they support, etc. peripheral route: -audience: low motivation or low ability to think about message -process: superficial, focuses on surface feature's like presenter's attractiveness or the number of arguments presented -persuasion outcome: temporary change, susceptible to fading or counter-arguments -use repetition!!!!! -use celebrities!!!!! -use emotion!!!!!! -Make product scarce, make it seem like it has higher value. Like "limited edition" "limited time only" ex. show commercial for new nike sneakers- don't show actual price or features. have lebron james model them, keep showing pretty pictures of sneakers on screen

Spiral of Silence

a theory that links the mass media, social psychology, and the formation of public opinion; the theory says that people who hold minority views on controversial issues tend to keep their views silent main assumptions -society threatens deviant individuals with isolation -individuals consistently fear isolation -fear of isolation causes individuals to try to assess the climate of opinion at all times -this affects their behavior in public, especially their willingness or not to express opinions openly -people are guided by what they think the dominant opinions are to avoid isolation. CONCEAL VIEWS IF THEY FEEL THEY ARE MINORITY, then the dominant views gain even more ground

the campaign

basic features -campaigns have specific interests for specific time!!!!! -public info campaigns- benefit recipient on matters of health, safety, etc. -election campaigns -advocacy campaigns- for particular case -Campaigns in developing countries with "modernization" -commercial advertising -Government corporate-image making -public diplomacy- behalf of national foreign policy Typical elements and sequence of a public media campaign -collective source- political party, etc. -Socially approved goals, uses -several channels -different messages -different target groups -subject to filter conditions -variable information processing -to achieve planned effects that have to be evaluated -Distinctive feature of many campaigns- aim to redistribute a limited amount of public attention, action, or money (zero-sum condition). Especially for advertising. Also politics filter conditions -potential barriers that can facilitate flow of messages to public -need attention- depends on relevance of content to users and their motivation -perceptions- people interpret messages different ways. campaign success message must be interepreted as it is intended -Occurence of "boomerang" effects- ex. To modify prejudice- and it is a constant preoccupation of commercial and political campaigners to try to avoid counter-effects which will aid the "opposition." ex. Appeals on behalf of third world may create image of incompetence and inferiority of the religion or peoples involved -motivation of audience -SUCCESS OF CAMPAIGN- reasonable "fit" between the composition of the planned "target" public and actual public being reached personal influence -ideas often flow from radio and print to opinion of leaders and from them to the less active sections of population -Notion of population stratified according to interest and activity in relation to media and to topics dealt with by mass media -Notion of "two-step-flow" of communication- rather than direct contract between "stimulus" and "respondent" -Newer media seem particularly suited to developing the power of personal influence and advertisers often mention desirability of "word of mouth" endorsement and possibilities of "viral advertising" where consumers themselves do work for transmission -campaigns are at different people's interest depending on what they are focused on

agenda-setting FRAMING AND PRIMING

framing -what goes inside the frame and what does not. gives us perception and interpretation of topic -sets parameters for discussion -provide perspective for interpretation -influence on content choices on perceptions of key points -tells us what topics are important and what topics within them are important example: story of Trump and undocumented maid. story includes her experiences with him, does not include his experience of it. we only interpret her side priming -sets expectations and interests. preps audience for effect of main message, so you get result you want -gives receiver a sense of what is coming -sender guides interpretation by highlighting particular elements example: movie trailer example: mon night football song example: SNL GE home appliances- show old commercial of gendered stereotypes first, this is what they will be talking about

planned and short term media effects unplanned and short term media effects planned and long term media effects unplanned and long term media effects

planned and short term media effects -propaganda -individual response -media campaign -news learning -framing- "spin" to conceptualize news reports. priming- media sets criteria for assessing public events -agenda setting- relative attention given to items influences the rank of order of public awareness or significance unplanned and short term media effects -individual reaction- unplanned/unpredicted consequences of individual exposure. Mainly imitating and learning. "Triggers" emotional responses, sexual arousal, anxiety -collective reaction- shared situation or context, joint action -policy effects- impact of news on government policy and action by highlighting some crisis, abuse, danger planned and long term media effects -development diffusion- planned use of com for long term development, campaigns, etc. -news diffusion- spread of awareness of particular events through given population over time -diffusion of innovations- technological innovations in population, basis of advertising -distribution of knowledge unplanned and long term media effects -social control: promote conformity -socialization: learning and adopting norms and values -event outcomes: media contribution to revolutionary events -Reality defining and construction of meaning -institutional change- adaption of existing institutions to developments in media -displacement- allocation of time to media use from doing other things, like being social -Cultural and social change -social integration

propaganda and war

propaganda: deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve certain response -negative connotations -differs from simple persuasion- can be coercive and aggressive, has little regard to truth -"black"- deceptive and frightening -"white"- soft and selective use of truth -control of media has often been used to foster hate or mobilize violence -mass media essential for war propaganda- only channels guaranteed to reach whole public and regarded as trustworthy Possibilities for synergy between war-making and news-making -public demand for news is high. war satisfies news -war cases strive to be main or only source of news content conditions for successful propaganda -near monopoly of supply for info/images -has to reach people and be accepted. acceptance depends on rep of media source, absence of alternative objective information, and emotional and ideological climate of the tim -increasingly difficult in managing international opinion- world more divided with more information -US propaganda with Iraq war successful here, not abroad

questions of research method

questions of meaning -Hard to know with mass media what the sender's intention is- produced by complex organizations -impossible to extract meaning from media content texts without making assumptions which shape the meaning extracted dominant v alternative paradigm -Dominant- assumes surface of meaning of text is fairly unambiguous, can be read by investigator or expressed in quantitative terms. Numerical balance of elements in texts -Alternative- reverse- concealed meanings are most significant, cannot be directly read from data. Need to be aware of the conventions of any genre, they indicate at a higher level what is going in text. -hard to measure verbal texts

social cognitive theory

referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world observational learning through the media - we learn when we watch, learn it in terms of creating norms - one or a few messages can teach us something impact on perceptions of "normal" modeling -they model behavior for us, we pick it up goes from observation to action -ATTENTION -RETENTION -REPRODUCTION -MOTIVATION (we start to want to do it) how we learn through media use ex. we see Gronk spike the ball after a touch down, then when we score we start to do it like that obvious social learning -learning from media because you intended to. TRY to learn something ex. a youtube how-to, a TASTY food video less obvious social learning -like watching a movie ex. watching the president's men, learn about watergate less less obvious social learning ex. movies where underlying message you remember. like 13 going on 30- don't take your home and where you come for granted DIFFERENT THAN CULTIVATION!!!!! -CAN BE ONE MESSAGE -NOT RESTRICTED TO PERCEPTION OF REALITY, ACTUALLY LEARNING OCCURS

Uses and Gratifications approach

the idea that people use media messages and find various types of gratifications in some media texts rather than in others -Media and content choice is generally rational and directed towards specific goals and satisfactions- active audience -cultural features of media have small roll in attracting users -process of media selection.. 1. social or psychological origins 2. needs which generate 3. expectations of 4. mass media or other sources which lead to 5. differential exposure resulting in 6. need gratification A typology of media-person interactions -diversion: escape from routine or problems -personal relationships: -personal identity -Surveillance (forms of information seeking) -information and education -guidance and advice -diversion and relaxation -social contact -value reinforcement -cultural satisfaction -emotional release -identity formation and confirmation -lifestyle expression -security -sexual arousal -filling time

social role theory of gender

under the impact of many influences, males and females are pushed into different roles with different skills and beliefs -our understandings of roles in societies is connected to how we group individuals (age, gender, race, class, etc.) -sex and gender are not the same thing -sex: biological distinction of people -gender: social construction of masculinity and femininity -sex is "easiest" way to categorize people -not the most accurate -often relies on gender stereotyping and sex role assumptions -we have wealth of info about social distinctions and assumptions about gender ex. women don't know a lot about sports ex. women should be cleaning -established norms influence interpretations of groups and of individuals -usually focus on women, because they tend to be oppressed. but men are too.. ex. must mask emotions ex. must do sports, masculine things

agenda-setting and framing

the power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems -news media indicate to the audience the main issues and this is what the public perceives as the main issues. often used in campaigns -people think ABOUT what they are told but not WHAT they are told -politicians seek to convince voters that the most important issues are those which they closely identify with -The effect itself is likely to be counted as "peripheral" in ELM model since it arises from incidental cues of significance given by presentation -common- different mass media tend to share the same set of news priorities framing -priming effects more specific than agenda-setting -general perception of a party or politicians depends on perception of how they do on the most salient issues -what goes inside the frame and what does not. set parameters of conversation and perceptions of key points -example: national leaders will focus on foreign policy to divert attention to domestic failure agenda-setting hypothesis -Public debate is represented by a set of salient issues (an agenda for action) -the agenda originates from public opinion and the proposals of political elites -competing interests seek to promote the salience of "their" issues -mass media news selects issues for more or less attention according to several pressures, especially those from interested elites, public opinion, and real-world events -The outcome in media (relative degree of prominence of issues) both gives public recognition to the current agenda and has further effects on opinion and evaluation of political scene -AGENDA EFFECTS ARE PERIPHERAL AND SHORT TERM

agenda-setting

the power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems -the more coverage a topic gets, the more important it seems to audience. attention to topics make them more SALIENT- IMPORTANT -placement/layout ...shows how important it is. "above the fold" on newspaper, "above the scroll" online. see headline, assume it is biggest story -repetition of coverage -news attention influences what we think about. NOT our opinions but ON OUR RADAR. we rely on media to tell us what to give attention to example- New York Times top of scroll- all relates to Pittsburgh shooting. draws attention there, ignores other news

what is persuasion?

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions -most communication is trying to persuade people. "raising awareness" is not enough -trying to affect change- audience do or believe something -use particular tools to believe or do something different. audience has a choice. always based on truth persuasion v. coercion -persuasion is NOT coercion -persuasion is a choice, coercion is not -you are trying to help people make a particular choice -MUST BE A CHOICE persuasion v. propaganda -MUST BE TRUTH -propaganda gives well-reasoned arguments, but not truth -It works, but does not effectively persuade people for long term change -Can be creative and frame things, cannot lie persuasion vs. argument/ argumentation -Argumentation is a tool of persuasion. We use arguments to persuade people. But we also use other things -Arguments are different than yelling, giving rational views

Media, children, and young people

undesirable effects -an increase in social isolation -reduction of time and attention to work -increased passitivity -reduced time for play and exercise (displacement) -undermining parental authority -premature sex knowledge and experience -unhealthy eating and obesity -promotion of anxiety about self-image leading to anorexia -depression tendencies beneficial effects -Provision of a basis for social interaction -learning about wider world -learning of prosocial attitudes and behaviors -educational effects -help in forming identity -developing imagination -be cautious about many influences that contribute to these "effects" -consensus that children are better off without high exposure to TV