Final Exam

cholera bacteria causes what disease in humans

cholera: bacterial infection of small intestine. large amounts of persistent watery diarrhea

what is the primary molecular component of gallstones

cholesterol

sex chromosomes

chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual

what is the term used to describe the partially digested contents of the stomach

chyme

what function may the appendix perform

contains numerous lymphatic nodules and houses beneficial bacteria so it may have an immune function

what is the functional unit of the liver

hepatic plates called liver lobules; in middle of each lobule there is a central vein and each lobule has a branch of the portal vein and branch of hepatic artery

fenestrated capillary

leaky capillaries which promote filtration cells comprising the glomerular capillaries have large pores called fenestrae therefore these capillaries are said to be fenestrated

what cells produces testosterone in men

leydig or "interstitial cells"

opposing roles of insulin and glycogen

insulin lowers blood glucose levels. glycogen raises blood glucose levels and maintains normal blood sugar levels in the body

peristalsis

involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

what are kupffer cells

macrophages in the liver

how does ADH secretion result in an increase in water reabsorption

makes the collecting duct more permeable to water; attracted to salt

general anatomy of digestive system

mouth: chews and mixes food w saliva esophagus: transports food to stomach stomach: mixes food w acid and digestive enzymes small intestine: absorption of nutrients large intestine: absorption of water and feces is formed accessory organs: liver: produces bile gallbladder: stores bile pancreas: makes and delivers digestive enzymes to small intestine

what does human chorionic gonadotropin hormone prevent

prevents a miscarriage as it helps. maintain the pregnancy and supports fetal development

gonadotropin secretion

*Controlled by both negative and positive feedback mechanisms *Positive feedback controls LH secretion -gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) causes the pituitary gland to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and leutenizing hormone (LH). LH increases testosterone secretion by interstitial/leydig cells.

oxytocin during delivery

-increases the frequency and strength of uterine contractions

female reproductive system

-paired ovaries: produce egg cells/ovulate them -paired oviducts carry egg cells into uterus, fertilization takes place in oviducts -single uterus where embryo/fetus develops -cervix: entrance to vagina -vagina: birth canal/receives penis

primary functions of the stomach

-stores food -begins protein digestion -kills ingested bacteria -moves food into the small intestine for absorption

5 specifc functions of the kidneys/urinary system

1. eliminates wastes from the body 2. regulates blood volume and pressure 3. controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites 4. regulates blood pH. 5. produces hormones that regulate RBC production???

3 anatomical adaptation that increases the surface area of the small intestine

1. plicae circulares - slow down the movement of chyme 2. villi, covered in microvilli: contains blood & lymphatic vessels to help absorb nutrients tnd transport them 3. length of small intestine is super long

the 3-5 functions of the liver

1. stores vitamins 2. stores glucose as glycogen 3. detoxifies poisons such as alcohol 4. converts ammonia into urea 5. destroys worn out red blood cells and stores the iron

how many sperm cells are present in an average ejaculate

300 million

what is the purpose of the countercurrent multiplier system

99% of the water in the filtrate is reabsorbed by the time the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule maintain a concentration gradient of salt in the renal medulla which allows for the reabsorption of water and the production of concentrated urine

reversible reaction equation

CO2 + H20 <=> H2CO3

what hormone triggers ovulation

LH 1 egg ovulated per menstrual cycle

complex carbohydrates monomers

glucose

cycle of ovulation and menstruation

The LH surge midway through the menstrual cycle triggers ovulation, prepares and releases egg for fertilization --days 1-5: menstrual phase (sheds the endometrium: --days 6-14: proliferative phase (build endometrium) --day 15: ovulation occurs LH -days 15-28: secretory

under normal circumstances these two molecules are completely reabsorbed by the kidney nephron

glucose and amino acids

female sex chromosomes

XX

male sex chromosomes are

XY

glycosuria

glucose in the urine

the "microbiota" describes what

a community of bacteria found in the colon

urea

a metabolic waste product resulting from protein metabolism

transdermal patch

a small patch with synthetic forms of estrogen and progesterone to inhibit release of LH and FSH

what is jaundice

a yellowing of the skin and eyes due to elevated levels of bilirubin in blood

what hormone promotes salt reabsoprtion and why would this be necessary

aldosterone; NaCl is an important electrolyte that helps regulate fluid balance in the body. when aldosterone levels are high, more sodium is reabsorbed from the filtrate back into the bloodstream that helps maintain proper fluid balance and blood pressure. also helps conserve sodium

protein monomers

amino acids

tubal ligation

an incision is made in a woman's belly, both oviducts are tied in two places and a section is then removed between the two ties. no effects on physiology, estrogen levels are maintained

autosomes

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

what is the cause of the acid reflux disease

backflow or splashing of acidic stomach contents into esophagus

bicarbonate function

body's primary buffer system, helps neutralize the acidic contents of the stomach as they enter the small intestine allowing digestive enzymes to function

are ion concentrations regulated by reabsorption or secretion or both

both; reabsorption occurs when ions are transported from the filtrate in the nephron back into bloodstream whereas secretion occurs when ions are transported from the bloodstream into the filtrate. the balance helps to maintain the proper balance of ions in the body

lipase function

breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids

amylase function

breaks down starches and sugars

how is water drawn out of the proximal convoluted tubule

by osmosis, water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream due to the high concentration of the solutes in the interstitial fluid surrounding the tubule

trypsin function

digests proteins in the small intestine

lipids monomers

glycerol and fatty acids

secretion

elimination of waste products (urea) and excess water into urine inside

what is the function of bile

emulsifies fats

neck cells

found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer produce mucous to protect inner lining of stomach from acids

parietal cells

found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer secrete HCl

chief cells

found in: stomach lining, gastric glands of mucosa layer secrete pepsin which digests proteins

paneth cells

found in: tip of villus secrete enzymes that kill bacteria

goblet cells

found in: villi secrete mucus

what is insulin and what does it measure

hormone produced by pancreas that regulates the amount of glucose in the bloodstream. it helps move glucose from bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy or stored for later use the measurement of insulin in the blood can be used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.

what are the most internal microbes of the human body located

in the colon/gut essential for normal intestinal development and supply us with vitamins

function unit of kidney

nephron. 1 million in each kidney in charge of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion

where does fertilization occur

oviduct

LH

ovulation and egg release, maturation of egg, production of testosterone in males.

what stimulus promotes secretion of bile and pancreatic juices onto the small intestine

presence of food in duodenum; this stimulus leads to the secretion of CKK cholecystokinin

male reproductive system

produces and delivers sperm -scrotum produces sperm cells -sperm matures in epididymis which empties into ductus deferens. -ductus deferens receives secretions from seminal vesicles and prostate gland to form semen

oogensis

production of eggs in females by the process of meiosis and maturation

prolactin

production of milk

reabsorption

re-uptake of nutrients such as glucose back into bloodstream in proximal tubule

oxytocin

releases milk

vasectomy

removes vas deferens so sperm does not come out in the ejaculate

two regions of the kidneys

renal cortex and renal medulla

3 functional roles of the placenta

respiratory, digestive, and urinary temporary organ of pregnancy

filtration

separation of filtrate from plasma in glomerulus

why are women more prone to UTIs than men

shorter urethra

what occurs during a vasectomy

small incisions are made in the scrotum, and each ductus deferens is tied in two places. then a section is removed between the two ties. there are no physiological effects. testosterone and ejaculate fluid still present

muscle

smooth muscle that makes up the wall of the urinary bladder

components of semen

sperm; seminal veslicles; fructose, prostatic fluid; alkaline fluid, bulbourethral fluid; secrets mucus -the testes and prostate gland primarily produce semen

what is the function of the gallbladder

stores and concentrates bile

type of receptor alerts the brain of a full urinary bladder

stretch receptor

oral contraceptives

synthetic hormones used to prevent pregnancy and treat menstrual disorders

FSH

targets the gonads. in females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles (oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates sperm cell production.

what does the brush border describe

the appearance of the microvilli under high magnification enhances the surface area for absorption of nutrients and contains digestive enzymes

meiosis

the cell division process responsible for creating egg and sperm cells -results in 4 daughter cells that are genetically different and each has 23 chromosomes

what organ of the digestive system is capable of regeneration

the liver, can regrow or return to normal function regeneration capacity depends on severity and type of injury as well as overall health

what does the hepatic portal circulation describe

the movement of blood from the GI tract, pancreas and spleen to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. after blood has been processed by the liver, it leaves through the hepatic portal veins and rejoin the systemic circulation

what is amniocentesis

the sampling of amniotic fluid using a hollow needle inserted into the uterus, to screen for developmental abnormalities in a fetus.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines and there's a decrease in estrogen production

how do fats enter the lymphatics

they are digested, reassembled and repachaged then finally absorbed into lymphatic fluid

how do amino acids and simple sugars enter the bloodstream

they enter into intestinal epithelial cells are secreted into the interstitial fluid and then into capillaries which eventually drain into the hepatic portal vein and they are off to the liver

what is a chylomicron

triglycerides put back together and packaged within a shell - lipoprotein produced in small intestine responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the small intestine to other parts of the body

which pancreatic juice activates other juices

trypsin; by relaxing smooth m uscle

what does a condom prevent

unintended pregnancy and STIs

two sphincters control voluntary micturation

upper sphincter is composed of smooth muscle lower sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle

excretion

wastes or excess materials are removed from the body outside