Final Exam

Please describe the Equity Theory of relationships

The equity theory says that people are happiest in relationships where the costs and rewards are equal for both parties involved

According to research by Duck (1982), what are the four stages of romantic breakups? Please also briefly describe each stage.

1. Interpersonal: thinking a lot about the dissatisfaction with the relationship 2. dyadic: discussing the breakup with the partner 3. social: breakup is announced to other people 4. back to intrapersonal: recovering from the breakup and forming an internal account of how and why it happened

Other strategies of social influence include the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique, and the use of propaganda. Please define each of these types of influence and a real-world example of each

- Foot in the door technique: when you get someone to agree to a small request first, they will then be more likely to agree to a bigger request the second time - An example of this would be if your friend asked you for a ride to school (even if it is a 10-minute drive out of your way) for a day because their car broke down, you are more likely to agree to take them to school when they ask if you can take them for a whole week straight - door in the face technique: when you ask someone for a large outrageous request that you know they will refuse, they are more likely to agree to your second smaller request -An example of this would be asking your parents for $100 to be able to go out to eat with your friends, and then the second time around asking for $20 - Propaganda is a systematic attempt to advance a cause you believe in by spreading awareness of your cause through manipulating or misleading information that is emotionally charged - an example of this would be Hitler utilizing propaganda to further his Nazi cause by gathering emotionally charged rallies and teaching misleading information to German children regarding the Jewish community.

Please explain how institutional racism, institutional sexism, and institutional discrimination are similar and how these three concepts are different.

- Institutional racism ais legal or illegal practices that discriminate against a group of people simply because of their race based off of societal or company prejudices. - Institutional sexism is legal or illegal practices that discriminate against a group of people simply because of their sex based off of societal or company prejudices. - Institutional discrimination is legal or illegal practices that discriminate against a group of people simply because of their age, gender, sexuality, or race based off of societal or company prejudices. All of these concepts are similar because they all group people together by how they look on the outside or how they identify. It does not give people a chance to showcase their individualities or personalities.

When thinking about the composition and function of groups, please define the following terms: social norms, social roles, group cohesiveness, and group diversity.

- Social norms: the behaviors that are acceptable for members of a group, or behaviors that a group is expected to obey - Social roles: these are shared expectations about how those within the group are supposed to behave, more specifically these roles specify how people who occupy certain positions within the group should behave - Group cohesiveness: the qualities of a group that bring the members together over a bond of mutual likeness, over activities or even similar beliefs - group diversity: the diverse composition of a group such as the differences in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions.

Please draw a distinction between stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Keep in mind that these three terms are often used interchangeably by people, but they are quite different! Also, please include an example of each term related to gender.

- Stereotyping is a generalization about a group of people where certain characteristics are applied to all members of the group, regardless of the variation of the group members. An example of this related to gender would be that all men like sports, and doing activities out in the wilderness and if they don't then they must be gay. (Which is a totally untrue statement not every man likes the same things and characteristics such as liking sports doesn't define a person's sexuality (although some people do believe this to be true)) - Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a distinguishable group of people because of their membership in that group. An example of this related to gender would be people believing that women are incapable of being a good mother and working a full-time job, and with that if a woman works a full-time job, then she must care less about her kids compared to a stay-at-home mom. (Which is not true a woman having a full-time job does not define whether she is a good mother or not) - Discrimination is an unjust/unfair treatment of someone because of their membership to/with a certain group An example of this related to gender would be women who are overweight being made fun of and ignored in a group of people simply because of their weight; because others around them believe that them being overweight is unattractive (which is untrue and a person's physical appearance does not take away from who they are as a person or take away from their beauty inside or out)

When thinking about group leadership, what are the key aspects of the Great Person Theory, of transactional leaders, and of transformational leaders? Key aspects of the Great Person Theory, of transactional leaders, and of transformational leaders?

- The Great Pearson theory: key personality traits make a person a good leader - Transactional leaders: set clear-short term goals and reward those who meet them - Transformational leaders: inspire their followers to focus on common long-term goals

How does a person's culture affect aggressive behavior? Be sure to include the impact of changing social conditions here.

A person's culture affects their aggressive behavior because we were all born with aggression, but our cultures and circumstances help determine how, when, whether, and where we express that aggression. For instance, in the last chapter, we learned about helpfulness and those levels changing based on whether a person lived in a rural or urban area. Based on that information it can be assumed that the social conditions of living in a heavily populated Urban city could bring out a more aggressive side to a person. They are constantly being surrounded by crowds of people, loud noises, and in a rush due to the high population rates and public transportation.

How does a person's gender affect aggressive behavior? Be sure to include both physical aggression and relational aggression here.

A person's gender does affect their aggressive behavior and these differences can be seem as obvious in a public social world. But within the private world and life of families and relationships, the gender differences in a aggression can become less clear. -Physical aggression or fits of extreme violence is more often seen in men. However, it has recently been found that in romantic relationships there is no significant gender differences between who is more physically aggressive with their partner. - Relational aggression or harming people through manipulation of relationships is actually seen more often in women. Relational aggressions can include talking behind a person's back, spreading false rumors, or shunning/excluding people.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A test that measures the speed with which people can pair a target face (e.g., Black or White, old or young, Asian or White) with positive or negative stimuli (e.g., the words honest or evil) reflecting unconscious (implicit) prejudices

Please define the notion of affective forecasting. Also, please say whether research suggests that people are accurate when thinking about what will make them happy in the future. Either way, please also say why.

Affective forecasting is when people can predict the intensity and duration of their reaction (emotional reaction) to a future event. Research suggests that people often look for and strive for things that are unlikely to make them happier. People often look for earning more money at a job rather than spending more time with family and friends which would improve their happiness.

How do Social Psychologists define aggression?

Aggression is an intentional behavior that is aimed at causing physical or psychological pain.

Please describe in detail Asch's (1951, 1956) classic experiment on normative social influence.

Asch set up an experiment in which he had 6 confederates of the research team and one actual participant. The experimenter would show the group cards with lines on them, and the group had to blurt out one by one which line on the second card matched the length of the line on the first card. Out of the 18 trials, in 12 of them the confederates were to answer the obviously wrong line on the second card. This then would make the last participant (the real participant) question themselves, giving them the option to answer the clearly obvious line or to conform and answer with the group. Out of all the various trials conducted it was found that 1/3 of participants conformed to answering the clearly wrong line on the second card to keep the same answer as the rest of the group

What are attachment styles in general? Please also list and describe the three major types of attachment styles in intimate relationships.

Attachment styles are expectations that are developed based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver and how that reflects on their relationships with others. - Secure attachment style: style characterized by trust, little concern for abandonment, and the idea that they are well liked and worthy - Avoidant attachment style: style characterized by a difficulty with developing intimate relationships because any previous attempts to be intimate have been suppressed or not reciprocated - Anxious/ambivalent attachment style: style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate intimacy resulting in higher levels of anxiety (higher than normal levels)

What is blaming the victim? Please include a real-world example of when this may happen. In addition, what motivates people to have a tendency to blame individuals for their victimization?

Blaming the victim allows people to see the world as a fair place, it blames individuals for their victimization. A real-world example of this would be when someone gets sexually assaulted, people blame the victim saying things like "well what did you expect wearing that, or why were you walking alone in the dark you should know better". The motivation for blaming the victim is to see the world as being a fair and just place, this allows people to keep the mindset that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

Please explain what it means when someone blames or derogates an innocent victim of aggression. Also, please include a real-world situation when this may happen

Blaming the victim makes it easier for your brain to cope with the fact that what you did was wrong, or that the situation in general was wrong but you don't want to feel guilty over it. So, your brain talks itself into the victim actually being the one at fault and that the victim is actually a bad person. A real-world situation where this might happen is someone says something that you find offensive. They weren't necessarily being overly rude or aggressive in any way but you are still offended by their words and so you hit them. To cope with the fact that what you did was wrong your brain will most likely begin to think that this person is a bad person and that they deserve what they got

How do Social Psychologists define conformity?

Conformity is when someone changes their behavior due to an influence from another person whether these influences are real or imagined.

How are coping styles generally defined? Please also report primary gender differences in coping, by including fight-or-flight responses and tend-and-befriend responses.

Coping styles are the ways in which people react to a threatening event. Primary gender differences in coping: - Men are more likely to experience the fight-or-flight method of coping which is they will either face it head on or run away. - Women are more likely to experience the tend-and-befriend method of coping where they nurture and protect others or their own offspring

What is deindividuation? Please say how this concept may be applied to a situation when people are tempted to participate in violent protests.

Deindividuation is when normal constraints on behavior loosen when people can't be identified. This can be applied to people participating in a violent protest because if people feel like they are lost in a crowd or unrecognizable to authority figures they are likely to act in ways that they wouldn't have before because they feel hidden within the crowd.

Please describe the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis.

Empathy-altruism-hypothesis states that when we are feeling empathetic towards someone, we want to help them and will attempt to help them for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of whether we gain anything.

Please define the term ethnocentrism. Also, explain how this concept is related to in-group bias and out-group homogeneity.

Ethnocentrism is when someone believes that their nation, religion, or ethnic group is superior to that of others religion, nation or ethnic group. This is related to in-group and out-group homogeneity because it attaches people to their in-group and allows them to believe that those in the out-group are vastly different and less than. It allows people to show favoritism and special treatment to those "within their group" and reflects negative attitudes to those in the "out-group". It also assumes that everyone belonging to that nation, religion, and ethnic group is similar which in turn does not allow for individuality.

How does evolutionary theory explain helping behavior? Be sure to include definitions of kin selection, the norm of reciprocity, and group selection in your response.

Evolutionary behavior helps to explain behavior because evolutionary behavior says that we tend to favor genes that will help promote our survival. So, it makes sense then that we would also continue or stop a behavior based on whether or not it helps us survive. Three ides to explain this further are: - Kin selection: behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection - Norm reciprocity: is the expectation that in helping others, it increases the likelihood that they will in turn help us in the future - Group selection: when people have a trait that makes them more likely to survive, when they reproduce, that trait is likely to be passed onto future generations.

How does evolutionary psychology explain mate selection for men and how does this theory explain mate selection for women?

Evolutionary psychology says that when looking for a mate woman are more focused on reproducing, so they want to pick a mate that will be a good match for creating children (so females can be picky with whom they choose to reproduce with). Female success is measured by their ability to raise their offspring to full maturity. Evolutionary psychology says that when looking for amate men are more interested in short term investments, and reproducing is a "low cost" for males. Men's success is measure by the quantity of their offspring.

In what ways are exchange relationships and communal relationships similar and different?

Exchange relationships are relationships based around the need for equity Communal relationships are when someone's primary concern is being responsive to the other persons needs Both of these relationship types are similar in the way that they involve thinking of your partner and what they need, not just focusing on what you need selfishly

1. Please explain Frustration-Aggression Theory. Also, include a real-world example that illustrates this theory.

Frustration aggression theory is when someone feels like they are being prevented from obtaining a goal, which increases the probably of an aggressive response. A real-world example of this would be road rage, when someone become severely frustrated while driving, they feel like the person in front of them is preventing them from getting to where they need to be.

How do Social Psychologists define groups? Also, please say why people join them

Groups are two or more people who interact, and they work together on the idea that their needs and goals influence each other. Many people join groups to tackle issues that would be hard for them to face on their own, also joining together with other people fills basic human interaction needs that we all have. People who enjoy the same things also tend to join in groups to share those common interests.

When thinking about decision making, when do groups typically make better decisions than individuals? Also, please say how is group decision making is related to the notions of process loss and to transactive memory?

Groups typically make better decisions than individuals when each member of the group actively listens to the opinions and words of each member of the group, then they all decide together what the best answer or decision would be that benefits everyone not just them as an individual. - process loss is any aspect of a group interaction that inhibits good problem solving - transactive memory is when the memory of the entire group combined is more efficient than the memory of its individual members alone

How is groupthink defined? What are the symptoms of groupthink? Also, please say how groupthink can be avoided

Groupthink is when maintain the cohesiveness of a group is more important than considering the facts on a realistic manner. The symptoms of groupthink are: - illusion of invulnerability - belief in the moral correctness of the group - stereotyped views of out-group - self-censorship - direct pressure on dissenters to conform - illusion of unanimity - mind guards Group think can be avoided by - leaders remaining impartial - seeking outside opinions of others - creating subgroups within the entire group as a whole - seeking anonymous opinions

In what ways are hostile aggression and instrumental aggression similar and in what ways are they different? Please also include a real-world example of each type of aggression.

Hostile aggression is aggression rooted in feelings of anger and aims to inflict pain or injury A real-world example of this would be a wife being really upset that her spouse cheated on her, so she starts hitting him out of hostile aggression, knowing that it will hurt him. Instrumental aggressions are aggression that is an intermediary step toward a nonaggressive goal A real-world example of this would be if you are late for catching a train and the station is really busy you may aggressively push people out of your way to make the train on time. Both of these types of aggressions are similar because in both cases someone could get hurt or be in pain due to the aggressive act, the difference between them was whether or not the pain was intentional.

Injunctive Norms vs Descriptive Norms

Inj: People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others des: People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others

When thinking about Milgram's research on obedience to authority figures, do you think parents should teach their children to obey authority figures? If so, why? If not, why not?

I think that parents should teach their kids to respect authority figures but to not always follow them if they know that the authority figure is wrong. In any sense this is a hard topic to decide one way or another because there is a difference between children not listening to an authority figure who is obviously morally compromised, and then the kids just not listening to an authority figure simply because they don't want to listen. It is hard to teach a child when or how to know when someone is really in emotional or physical danger because of an authority figure if the kids are young and don't quite grasp the idea of right and wrong. I think that parents should talk to their kids from a young age about what is right and wrong and then expand on this idea as kids get older, and maybe do check ins with them on how authority figures are treating them (such as teachers, coaches, babysitters, even family members). This way they can help the child to know when to obey and when to know when something is wrong.

Please describe the tragic 1964 event involving Kitty Genovese in New York City that led to classic research on the bystander effect.

In 1964 Kitty was returning home to her apartment during the nighttime and was brutally attacked and then killed. The attack lasted 45 minutes with 38 witnesses who saw the attack from their windows and did nothing to help or stop it, not one of them even called the police. This attack led to the bystander effect research; researchers wanted to know what would cause people to act in such cowardly ways. Why would no one at least call the police? Were they all bad people, or could the urban environment where they lived have dehumanized and desensitized them to traumas?

How does Evolutionary theory explain aggressive behavior? Be sure to include animal research here.

In evolutionary phycology is it thought that physical aggression is genetic and programmed into men because it aids/allows them to defend their family and group. Animal research was conducted and found that animals whose testosterone levels were removed to have them become less aggressive. Those animals who had additional testosterone. Pumped into the, became mora aggressive

Please describe in detail Sherif's classic Robber's Cave Study. Be sure to include the importance of a common goal in your response.

In the Robber's Cave Study Sherif created 2 groups, that don't particularly get along, of boys 1 being the Eagles and 1 being the Rattlers. He then placed the groups of boys in situations where they would need to all work together to accomplish a common goal. In one instance her had them work together to repair a damaged water supply that they would all need. In another, he had a truck break down while the boys were on a camping trip, so they all had to work together to fix the truck to finish their trip.

What is informational social influence? Also, please say in what way informational social influence is related to private acceptance and to public compliance

Informational social influence is when we rely on others to gain information, we believe that the way that other people handle a situation is correct, so we follow their example. - This is related to private acceptance because informational social influence can lead to private acceptance, which is when people conform because they believe that other people's behaviors and actions are right. - informational social influence is also related to public compliance which is when others conform to the behavior of a group or crowd without knowing what the group is doing or why.

What is the jigsaw classroom? Please also include some of the benefits of cooperative learning.

Jigsaw classroom is a classroom setting that is designed to reduce prejudice, by making students become accountable for one another's grades and assignments in the classroom. A group of multiethnic students will be placed in small groups to help raise self-esteem, and then will have to work together throughout their time in the class. The benefits of corporative learning teach the students to work together and to pay attention and listen to others within their group and classroom. It teaches them to work together because their grade depends on not only their own work, but the work of others, and often students need to pay attention to the work of their teammates in order to do well on their individual work.

1. How does learning affect aggressive behavior? Be sure to include Social Cognitive Learning Theory in your response. Also, please describe in detail Bandura's classic Bobo Doll Study here.

Learning affects aggressive behavior because many people learn from others cues and behaviors. We tend to learn unconsciously what are cultures rules are regarding aggression and how those rules are related to men and women. - Social-cognitive learning theory says that we learn a social behavior such as, aggression to altruism, through observing others and through cognitive processes such as plans, beliefs, and expectations. - Banduras Bobo Doll experiments studied children and how their aggressions levels reflected those of adults. The children would watch how the adults "played" with the doll whether they were aggressive and hit or kicked the doll or whether they were nice to it. Once it was the kids turns, they would imitate the adults, if aggression was shown the kids beat up the doll. If no aggression was shown they almost never took their aggression out on the doll.

Please describe in detail the research by Loftus and her colleagues that showed misleading questions may influence the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. What does this research tell us about the accuracy of eyewitness reports in courtrooms?

Loftus and collogues demonstrated that misleading questions asked after an incident and actually influence people's memory of the event itself. They did this by showing 2 separate groups of students slides of and automobile accident. In one group the students had a yield sign on their slides, the other group had a stop sign. They then brought both groups together and asked questions particular to the stops sign slide, and questions particular t the yield sign slide. This the confused the students on what sign did they actually see and made them begin the questions the whole set of slides that the had just viewed. This research shows that eyewitnesses in a courtroom cannot always be trusted to be accurate. It shows that in general they could just mi- remember the incident exactly how it occurred, it also shows that they could be swayed by misleading questions and arguments to answer incorrectly.

Please describe normative social influence. Also, please say in what way normative social influence is related to private acceptance and to public compliance.

Normative social influence is when we may not privately accept a groups social norm but go along with them publicly as to be accepted or liked by the group. - Normative social influence is related to private influence because we may go along with a particular groups social norm because we do in fact believe that the group is right to act/behave in the way that they do - Normative social influence is related to public compliance because we may go along with a particular groups social norm not knowing why they behave the way that they do, we just want to be accepted and like by this group.

How do Social Psychologists define obedience? Please describe in detail Milgram's classic experiment on obedience to authority figures.

Obedience is a change in a person's behavior as a direct influence of an authority figure. - Milgram's experiment on obedience to authority figures involved a participant (the teacher) and (the learner) someone who was involved with the experiment team, but the participant did not know this fact. The participants were asked to read word parings to the learner and if the learner got questions wrong they were supposed to shock the learner. The amount of voltage in shocks was supposed to increase with each wrong answer that the participant gave. The learner (who again was a part of the experiment and not actually getting shocked event though the participant didn't know this) would cry out and scream in pain and continuously ask to be let out of the study when the shocks kept increasing. But because the experimenter kept telling the participant to continue giving higher shocks with each wrong answer the learner was left "in pain". It was found that 80% of the participants continued giving the shocks to the clearly in pain learner because the experimenter (an authority figure) kept telling them to do so.

In which situations are people most likely to conform to informational social influence?

People are most likely to conform to informational social influence during the following situations: - When the situation is ambiguous, or a person is unsure of the appropriate response/behavior - When the situation involves being in a crisis because most people do not have time to stop and think about what the exact right course of action would be - When the situation involves others who are experts, people feel that if they are surrounded by people who are knowledgeable on a situation that it makes them more trustworthy to follow

When are people most likely to conform to normative social influence?

People are most likely to conform to normative social influence when they feel like they will look foolish or out of place compared to a group. People don't want to be ostracized or cast away from a group. So, they will often conform even if they know that they are right or if they know that what the group is doing is wrong. Other reasons for comforting to a group would be: - Conforming because of the importance of the group to you (how important is it for the group to like/accept you? - Conforming because the group is intimidating to you - Conforming because of the number of people in a group, as the number of people increases in a group so does the amount of added normative pressure

Please explain the importance of perceived control and its impact on adjustment. Be sure to also include how having an internal locus of control vs. an external locus of control may impact psychological adjustment.

Perceived control is the belief that we can influence our environment to decide/determine whether we experience negative or positive outcomes. Perceived control is associated with have good mental ad physical health. This is important because this mindset can help people when they are seriously ill, if they choose to keep a positive state of mind, they are more likely to recover and recover faster. Internal-External locus of control is the tendency to believe that we have control over having a good or a bad outcome in a situation. This is important to health because again it can aid us when we become sick, if we believe that we have control over the system we also believe that we can come out of the sickness and recover.

Private Acceptance vs Public Compliance

Private: Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right Public: Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying

In what ways are prosocial behaviors and altruistic behaviors similar and in what ways are they different? Please also include a real-world example that clearly represents each of these types of behavior.

Prosocial behaviors are when someone does something with their only goal being to benefit another person. An example of this would be helping a friend study for a test by quizzing them on the information. Altruistic behaviors are behaviors that describe a person who desires to help another even if it involves some sort of cost on themselves. An example of this would be a firefighter, they have a strong desire to help other people and save lives but often this could cost them their life or put them at greater risks for health problems later on. These two behaviors are similar because they both center around unselfishness, they both embody the idea of helping someone without getting or wanting to receive anything in return.

What is reconstructive memory? How does this concept tie in with the research by Loftus and her colleagues?

Reconstructive memory: is the process where memories of an event become distorted by information that is encountered after the event This is related to the research conducted by Lotus and her colleges because in that research the students changed their mind and second guessed themselves based off of the answers form other peers. That same concept is used here a person's decision is altered based ff of information hat they endured after the fact of the event.

Does research indicate that observing violence increases violence? Be sure to include general research findings in your response.

Research does support the idea that observing violence increases violence. In experimental studies it was found that watching violence increases the frequency of aggressive behavior, angry emotions, and hostile thoughts. And actively playing violent video games increases all of these feelings of aggression. In longitudinal studies found that the more violence children observe or watch the more aggressively they tend to behave one in their teenage and young adult years.

Has research found that people in more urban or rural areas are more likely to help others? Please also explain how the urban overload hypothesis ties in with your answer to this question.

Research has found that people in rural areas are more likely to help others than those who live in urban areas. The urban overload hypothesis says that people who live in cities tend to deal with more stimulations, so to avoid becoming overwhelmed by these stimulations they tend to keep to themselves.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy? How is this concept related to prejudice? Please also include a real-world example that demonstrates this concept.

Self-fulfilling prophecy states that when people have expectations for a person, these expectations can influence how they act towards that person which in turn causes that person to behave consistently with the expectations of others (making the expectations come true) This is related to prejudice because if someone has negative expectations for someone simply because of the group that they belong to, and they are likely to see that person only for the negative expectations that they afford to them. A real-world example of this would be a teacher treating a blonde schoolgirl like she is dumb simply because she is blonde. Eventually the child become nervous and anxious when answering questions or taking tests which in turn shows the teach that "they were right all along, that the blonde girl is dumb". (When in reality it was the behavior of the teacher that discouraged the young girl)

1. When thinking about attraction and the development of relationships, similarity is often thought of as the notion that "birds of a feather flock together", while complementarity is often thought of as the notion that "opposites attract"? Does similarity or complementarity have stronger research support when predicting attraction? Please include which specific factors support your response.

Similarity has stronger research support when predicting attraction. There are various factors that support this statement: - If you have similar opinions ad personality traits as another person, you are more likely to like them and want to be around them - If you have common interests or have experienced similar events or places you are more likely to like a person. For instance, if you sign up for a dance lessons class it is likely that you will connect with others in the class who also were interested in learning how to dance, then you and those people you connected with can now share in the experience of the dance lessons. - Even similar appearances can determine who you hang around with. It was found in a college library study that people who wore glasses chose to sit next to each other more often than sitting next to someone who didn't wear glasses. The same thing was found in people sitting next to each other who had the same hair color. - It is found that people are also drawn to others who are genetically similar to them.

Please define social support and reframing. Also, explain how these two concepts may help reduce stress.

Social Support: the perception that others are responsive and receptive to a person's needs. This is important to reducing stress because you need to have a social support system to be able to lean on in times of need. It is important to have people that you can count on to be with you during and after a traumatic event because is it very hard to cope with some complete on your own. It is also found that in general healthy people have a good social support system (not just for the traumatic events but for everyday life as well) Reframing: talking or writing about a traumatic event that happened to allow for a new narrative to reframe the event. Reframing allows a person to reshape the narrative of the event that they went through. It allows them to talk about it and get it out in the open instead of bottling it up and holding it all inside and putting a lot of pressure on themselves. When people reframe an event, it gives them the opportunity to tell their story and they own experience.

How do Social Psychologists define social dilemmas? Also, please say which factors determine the likelihood that conflict will escalate or be resolved.

Social dilemmas are a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will be harmful to everyone. Threats can be a way to escalate conflict, even if the threat was meant to resolve the conflict. Good and clear communication can be a good way to resolve conflict, especially if a mediator is

What is social facilitation? Also, please briefly describe Zajonc's (1969) study with cockroaches. In addition, please say how Zajonc's research findings may be applied to people.

Social facilitation is the tendency for people to do better on simple teaks and worse on complex tasks because they are in the presence of others who are evaluating their performance. In Zajonc's study about cockroaches the researchers tested how fast cockroaches got to a darkened box in a maze. They then tested the speed of the cockroaches when other cockroaches were watching them in clear boxes set up on the outside of the maze. It was found that when the cockroaches were being watched by other cockroaches their times were faster in completing the maze. (Section 9.2)

What is social loafing? Please give an example of when social loafing may be seen in a classroom setting.

Social loafing is the tendency for people to begin to relax when in the presence of others and when their performances are being evaluated, it is found that on simple tasks that people don't care about they do worse compared to complex tasks that they do find important. - an example of this in a classroom setting would be clapping your hands, or cheering loudly

What are social norms? Please also include a real-world example of this type of a norm for men and an example of this type of a norm for women.

Social norms are acceptable behaviors, beliefs, or values a group holds for its members; these can be implicit or explicit rules. - a social norm for men is to not show too much emotion, especially the emotions of sadness or even crying, if they do, they are seen as overly sensitive -a social norm for womenis to show emotions such as crying

Please define stereotype threat. Also, please include an example that illustrates this concept.

Stereotype threat or social identity threat is when a person feels like others are perceiving them as a member of their group rather than as an individual. An example of this would be asking students to identify what race they are before taking a test measuring their performance. It is found that many minority students especially African American students then feel more pressured and nervous to perform well and therefore don't do as well.

Please define stress and resilience. Also, please indicate how each of these terms is linked with both physical and mental health.

Stress: the negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people have a lot of demands from their environment that they need to cope with Stress is linked to the body because it plays a major role on out mental and psychical health, when we undergo a psychological trauma our chances of death increase due to the added stress. Resilience: is a reaction to a strifeful event that allows us to return to normal healthy functions soon after the event. Resilience is linked to the body because it can help aid in the impact that stress can have on our bodies. Studies have found that some people are more apt to resilience than others, after experiencing a traumatic event or a death of a loved one they tended to not seep into a deep depression.

1. Please define the Contact Hypothesis. Also, please list and describe the six conditions detailed by Allport (1954) that are thought to be necessary for inter-group contact to reduce prejudice.

The contact hypothesis sates that social interactions between different social groups, can and will reduce prejudice amongst these groups. I could only find 4 conditions: 1. That both groups are of equal status, and believe each other to be of equal status 2. That both groups share a common goal that generates awareness of their shared interest and common humanity 3. That the contact with both groups involves intergroup cooperation 4. That the groups contact is supported by law or local custom

Please define the diffusion of responsibility. Also, please say how this phenomenon is related to the bystander effect.

The diffusion of responsibility is when a person's sense of responsibility to help when they are a bystander decreases with the more people (witnesses) that are around them. This phenomenon is related to the bystander effect because in both cases the more people that are around to witness an event happening where someone needs help the less likely people are to do anything to help

What is the "what is beautiful is good" stereotype? How is this stereotype related to the halo effect?

The "what is beautiful is good stereotype" says that beautiful people are thought to be sociable, extroverted, assertive, sexual, and more popular than those who are less attractive. This is related to the halo effect because the halo effect states that if someone possess at least one positive characteristic then they must possess other positive characteristics

What five ideas are described in the text that can be used to help people attain sustainability? Please list these ideas and include a specific example for each idea.

The 5 ideas to help people attain sustainability are: 1. Reminding people of social norms, if people believe that a certain kind of behavior is frowned upon then they are likely to change that behavior to make the group happy. This can be said for practicing more sustainable actions and behaviors. An example of this would apply to littering, it is thought that if an area is completely free of litter besides one piece of trash. It is likely to show people that littering is wrong because the single piece of trash will look bad and stick out in an otherwise clean environment. 2. Keeping track of consumption, such as monitoring how much gas, electricity, and water a person (or a household) uses. This can be made easier to accomplish is tools and resources are provided to help people to keep track of their consumption. An example of this would be giving a community water meters in which they can easily track how much water they are using and be conscious of it. It was found that when this toll was provided and there was a shortage of eater people were better apt to know how to cut back, and did cut back on water to help the greater good 3. Introducing a little bit of competitiveness, this can help to promote conserving energy and can give people feedback if they are not following the rules or conserving enough. An example of this would be posting flyers in informational sheets about how to conserve energy. By closing windows, turning off lights and using cold water. Then weekly feedback reports were given to employees, and those who had fallen behind in conservation tended to work on it more the next week so that they weren't seen as being in the back of the pack. 4. Introducing hypocrisy, tries to make people accountable for their actions and assures that they are actually following through on actions that they are preaching. An example of this was used to help a university conserve water by asking their students athletes to take shorter showers. One way to do this was to have someone time the athletes showers this way the athletes could tell right away whether they were or were not practicing conservation. Another way was the hang up a sign-up sheet publicly where people signed their name to say that they were practicing water conservation and how much they were conserving. This way everyone was held accountable. 5. Removing small barriers to achieve big changes, a way of doing this could be to make recycling easy and efficient for people within a city/town. If you take away the reasons for their excuses such as having to load all of their recyclables in their care themselves or not having the time to drive to a recycling plant to drop off the materials, then they are mor likely to participate. One way to accomplish this is to first ensure that people understand how important it is to recycle, and then convince them that it is a necessity to do so. Another way to remove barriers is to provide a curbside recycling and also allowing residents to mix materials rather than sort out different materials into different boxes.

With the power of social roles in mind, please describe in detail Zimbardo and colleagues' (1973) classic Stanford Prison Study.

The Stanford prison study is a study where the research Zimbardo out together a mock prison and paid students to play either the role of guard or prisoner which was decided randomly. The study was supposed to last two weeks but only lasted 6 days because of the rapid progression of aggressiveness of authority displayed by the "guards". People became so enveloped in their roles that they lost sight of their identities, the guards began to humiliate the prisoners and some prisoners became so anxious and depressed that they got released early.

In what way might the findings from Sherif's Robber's Cave Study be applied to politics today, in an effort to reduce conflict between democrats and republicans?

The findings from Sherifs study could be applied to democrats and republicans because if we could find a way to get the two opposing sides to come together and work on a common goal that benefits both sides it might create a bridge between the two groups. Which in turn could humble both sides and show some comparisons between the two groups showing that they aren't as different as they would like to think and could lead to less heated conversations later on

What four ideas are described in the text that indicate how to help make people happier? Please list these ideas and include a specific example for each idea.

The four ideas to help make people happier are: 1. The quality of a person's satisfying social relationship. Even a positive interaction with a stranger can improve a personas happiness. An example of this would be being nice to a salesperson and waitperson while in public, it is likely to increase your happiness and mood as well as theirs and can even affect their interactions with future customers. 2. Becoming engaged in something that you enjoy, and even having to put effort in and work hard for it can improve your happiness. An example of this would be being on a sport team and working with your teammates to try and accomplish a win. It is found that people enjoy themselves more during the rush of trying hard and not knowing the exact outcome, rather than holing a trophy at the end of a win. 3. Accumulating experiences not things, after people have the basic necessities of life having a lot of money will not make someone happier who has less money than them. When it comes to material tangible things, people who are more materialistic are less happy over time because the excitement from a material thing does not last forever. But people who are mor interested in experiences are likely to be happier over time because they have those experiences to look back on and admire. 4. Helping others, using our money and time to positively affect someone else's life can lead to greater happiness. An example of this would be using your own money to take a friend to lunch or donating your money to charity. Both of these are very satisfying acts of service especially when nothing is expected back in return.

What are the key aspects of individuals thought to have altruistic personalities?

The key aspects of individuals who have altruistic personalities is that people will have certain qualities that cause them to help others in a wide variety of situations.

What is the key difference between empathy and sympathy?

The key difference between empathy and sympathy is that you can only be truly sympathetic for someone if you have actually experienced what they have gone through. You can be empathetic towards someone and try to imagine what it must be like for them, but you can never truly understand or have real sympathy unless you have been through what that person is experiencing

Please describe how the propinquity effect and the mere exposure effect may impact the development of friendships.

The propinquity effect impacts the development of friendships because it says that when we see or interact with people a lot, we are more likely to become friends with them. The exposure effect impacts the development of friendships says that the mor exposure we have to something (a stimulus) the more likely it is for us to like it. So, the longer we hang around with a person the more likely we are to like them which in turn inevitably leads to a friendship.

Please describe Social Exchange Theory.

The social exchange theory says that how people feel about a relationship will depend on the rewards they receive from it, costs they incur, and beliefs regarding what kind of relationship they think that they deserve, and the probability that they could find a better relationship (more specifically their perceptions of all of those factors)

Please describe how the story model is related to jury decision making. Please also give an example from the news that illustrates this concept.

The story model says that jurors try to understand and piece together the evidence and information that they hear into a story and then they reach a verdict based off of the story that they have created. Jury decision making is not always correct it was found that 25% of the time the judges disagreed with the jury's decisions on criminal jury trials. It is also controversial as to why random people get to decide the fate of someone else, what qualifies them to be able to make such an important decision. An example from the news that illustrates this concept is the Randall Adams Trial, it was found after the fact that the jury had come to a wrong decision.

Are there cultural difference in prosocial behaviors? Please include the concepts of interdependent vs. independent views of the self, and the concepts of in-group vs. out-group membership in your response.

There are cultural differences in prosocial behaviors. - With someone having an independent view of themselves they will want to help someone because they believe that it is right, and they want to do it because they are likely to feel empathy towards the person. With someone having an interdependent view of the self, they are likely to do something kind or help someone out because it will make them look good to others, or because they feel like it's what other people would want them to do. - Regarding in-group and out-group, it is found that we are more likely to help a member of our in-group because we can relate to them more. But, this doesn't mean that we won't help someone in an out-group from us, it is found that we just tend to help people for different reasons. We tend to help people in our in-groups because we are more likely to feel empathy towards these members and want to help. We tend to help out-group members because we usually get something in return such as making ourselves feel good or impressing other people.

Are there gender differences in prosocial behaviors? If so, what are these differences? If not, why not?

There are gender differences in prosocial behaviors, and many of them are learned as we grow up from young boys and girls. - In Western cultures boys learn to be more chivalrous and heroic where girls on the other hand are expected be caring and nurturing. - Out of 7,000 people 91% of men have received the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission for risking their lives to save a stranger - Women are more likely than men to engage in volunteer work that helps others and they are also more likely to provide social support to their friends

When thinking about enduring relationships, why has there been little research in social psychology in this area?

There has been little research in this area because people have differing personalities and attachment styles that can change over time. It is hard to pin-point an exact attachment style or personality that fits with another to create a long-lasting relationship when people tend to change over time. There are also various outliers of people who should not have a long-lasting relationship, but they do.

Does punishing aggressive behavior help to reduce aggressive behavior? Based on research in this area and the concept of modeling, do you think parents should use corporal punishment with their children? Either way, please also say why.

When using mild punishment, the behavior a child was displaying is seen as undesirable by the after the punishment. When using harsh punishment to reduce aggressive behavior, that actually backfires and may stop the aggression for a short amount of time but over time the behavior will continue and could worsen. I do not believe that corporal punishment should be used with children. Overtime the children can soon begin to resent their parents for using this form of punishment, therefore increasing frustration and aggressive behaviors. It can also be seen as a harsh punishment and as research shows that will only stop the behavior temporarily.