Final Exam PSY 1400 (flashcards from all exams)
Negative Reinforcement-avoidance
Consequent prevention of a stimulus change (SRa-)
Negative Reinforcement-escape
Consequent removal or reduction of a stimulus (SRe-)
Refer to the question above regarding the 3 term contingency. We also discussed a 4 term contingency. What is the first term in the 4 term contingency? _________________
Context
According to the book and the lecture, Charles Darwin had an impact on the history and development of behavior analysis. What was that effect?
Darwin was the first notable scientist to suggest that human and animal behavior could be studied scientifically.
What was Darwin's contribution to behavior analysis?
Darwin's natural selection holds that humans evolved from other animals. As such, he felt that we could learn something about human behavior by studying animal behavior.
body and mind/soul
Descartes' Framework, dualism, explains there are two entities in the world. What are these entities
Step 4:
Did the measure used establish internal validity? If a reversal or multiple-baseline design was used, the answer is yes.
_________ training is the technique used to teach Gambian pouched rats to detect landmines.
Discrimination
To complete this training, the Gambian pouched rats are taught to scratch at the ground when they smell TNT. Scratching at the ground in the presence of any other smell is never reinforced. The smell of TNT gradually comes to function as a(n) _____ _____; that is, the rats reliably learn to scratch at the ground whenever they smell TNT.
Discriminative Stimulus
Questions for outcome recording:
Does the behavior occur as uniform instances? Does the behavior leave a result? (Both yes = Outcome recording)
Questions for event recording:
Does the behavior occur as uniform instances? If yes, ask: Does the behavior leave a result? If no = event recording
Research conducted by Schultz and his colleagues suggests that rewarding events increase activation of ____________ neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the brain. This is one contemporary neuroscience understanding of how rewarding events affect behavior.
Dopamine
Step 2:
Draw the trend arrow through the last three data points in each condition. Are they stable?
Morrow reflex
Drop the head of the baby, the arms flail
After collecting data for a week, Harvey finds that the fork-lift driver is not meeting his quota. He wants to know if the quota is unreasonable; is it even possible for the driver to load 20 trucks a day? To find out, he's going to quantify how long it takes the driver to load the first truck of the day. Now which direct-observation technique is most appropriate?
Duration Recording
Who was the first scientist to demonstrate that reinforcers increase the probability of behavior?
E. L. Thorndike
Who was the first scientist to study the process that would eventually be called operant conditioning? Hint: He worked with cats and proposed the Law of Effect.
E.L. Thorndike
In the book and film series Lord of the Rings, the character Golem is obsessed with acquiring the one ring (he lost it to Mr. Bilbo Baggins and has searched for it ever since). When Golem lost the ring, we would say that this event functioned as a(n) ____________________. This event was a stimulus change that increased the reinforcing efficacy of finding a ring (before this event occurred Golem was not terribly interested with finding a ring). This stimulus change also increased the probability of searching activities because, in Golem's past, searching had been reinforced with finding that which was lost.
EO (Establishing Operation)
Nonuniform behaviors
Each response can take very different amounts of time
Sometimes, if you are not careful, your behavioral definition will subtly change over time as you make observations (this might take months to occur). When this happens, you have a problem - your observations will not be believable. What do we call this problem?
Observer drift
Outcome recording:
Observing the result of a behavior. Observation takes place after the response, sometimes long after. Result continues to exist after the response has ended. Produces a unique result
According to the _________________________, extinction proceeds more slowly when the operant response was reinforced intermittently, and proceeds more quickly when it was reinforced every time.
Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)
The learning necessary to transform a neutral consequence into a conditioned reinforcement is _____________ learning.
Pavlovian
Before conditioning in Pavlov's experiments, food was the....
Unconditioned stimulus because the dog hadn't learned anything about the environmental conditions preceding the food.
Primary Reinforcer
a consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in sustaining life of the individual or the continuation of the species
Reinforcer
a consequence that increases operant behavior above its baseline level
Generalization
linking things to other things by physical traits
In a classic experiment, Rachlin and Green reported that pigeons were capable of avoiding their own impulsive decision making when they
made a commitment response.
5th Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
punish every time
Behavioral Definition
precise specification of the topography of the target behavior, allowing observers to reliably identify instances and non-instances
Schedule of Reinforcement
precisely specifies the nature of the contingent relation between a response and its reinforcer
Does reinforcement increase the probability of cheating?
yes, if cheating can produced the positive reinforcer more easily than engaging in the desired behavior, some people will succumb to temptation
Private Behavior
you are the only person who can observe it
Many school teachers arrange a ________ _______ contingency when they reinforce raising your hand and extinguish talking without being called upon first.
Differential Reinforcement
_____ _____ is the combination of extinction (problem behavior) and reinforcement (desired behavior).
Differential reinforcement
Shaping
Differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior
A(n) ________ __________ is an environmental and/or biological event that (1) temporarily increases the value of a specific reinforcer and (2) increases the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer.
Establishing operation
4 Principles of Pavlovian conditioning
1. Use and important US 2. Use a salient CS 3. Use a CS that signals a large delay reduction to the US 4. Make sure the CS is not redundant
Secondary Effects of Operant Extinction
1. extinction-induced emotional behavior 2. extinction burst 3. extinction-induced variability 4. extinction-induced resurgence
5 Strategies for Forming Good Habits
1. find the antecedents that evoke bad habits 2. replace them with stimuli that will, one day evoke a good habit 3. set the bar very low 4. experience intrinsic reinforcers when engaged in desired behaviors 5. gradually increase the daily goal
4 Guidelines for Effective Use of Timeout (from positive reinforcement)
1. provide no more than one verbal warning2. Significantly reduce access to reinforcers3. End after no more than 5 minutes, even if the child is not sitting quietly4. Every instance of the problem behavior produces a time-out
What tactics are useful in promoting generalization?
1. teach behaviors that will contact natural contingencies of reinforcement 2. train diversely 3. arrange antecedent stimuli that will cue generalization
4 Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning
1. use an important unconditioned stimulus (US) 2. use a salient conditioned stimulus (CS) 3. use a conditioned stimulus (CS) that signals a large delay reduction to the unconditioned stimulus (US) 4. make sure the conditioned stimulus (CS) is not redundant
When Jim counted the number of cars that failed to make a complete stop at the stop sign, he counted 15. Gerry, who was on the other corner, counted only 12. What was their IOA (you can use a calculator)?
100%xA/(A+D) 100%x12/(12+3) 1200%/15 80%
Computing Trial Reliability
100%xA/(A+D) A = agreements D = disagreements x = multiplication Divide the number of agreements by the number of trials (A+D) and times that by 100%.
Alternating Treatments Design
2 or more phases are rapidly alternated in random order which allows to quickly see causal variables
Please calculate the IOA for these two sets of observations. One set of observations was made by Otis and the other was made by Gomer. They both indicated whether or not the behavior of interest occurred during the observation interval by recording either a Yes or a No. Otis Gomer yes no no yes no yes no no yes no no yes yes yes IOA = __________%
29
A variable-interval (VI) 20-second schedule arranges reinforcers at a rate of 3 per minute. If a VI schedule is programmed on the left lever in an operant chamber for rats, Rl = ______.
3
In the diagram above, the inter-trial interval (ITI) is 30 mins and the CS->US interval is 3 mins. Use the equation in the book to calculate the delay-reduction ratio.
30/3 = 10
Calculate inter-observer agreement (IOA) below: Juan: 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 Carla: 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 IOA = _____%
60
What percentage of the rat's responses does the matching law predict will be allocated to the left lever? To calculate this, simply multiply the proportion from item 7 by 100.
75%
A generally acceptable level of IOA for an previously used behavioral definition is > ________%
90
Here are the results of a direct observation session in which James and Jerry measured the frequency of coughs in a patient suspected of having whooping cough. Please calculate their IOA (you may use a calculator). Jerry Jim 200 180 IOA = ________%
90%
The goal of IOA
90% or more reliability 80% or more may be accepted for subtle or complex behavior, or when they are using a new behavioral definition. If you're inventing the behavioral definition: seek 80% reliability.
Imagine that you want to observe how often your roommate says "like" when they are talking. You decide that you will continuously observe her behavior for 5 minutes. Which direct observation technique would be most appropriate?
Event recording
If an organism fails to learn through Pavlovian conditioning it is less likely to survive long enough to procreate and pass on its ________ to its offspring.
Genes.
Using Reinforcers to Positively influence behavior
Government uses financial incentives to encourage cooperative behavior
When conducting experiments, most social scientists use _____________ designs whereas most behavior analysts use _____________ designs
Large-group... single-subject
Given the values in questions 4 and 5, the matching equation predicts the rat will prefer the _________ lever.
Left
Positive, SRe, or SRa? Frank was an alcoholic most of his adult life. When he was young, he physically abused his wife and child before she threw him out. Decades later, Frank learns that his son is trying to reach him. He would like to meet his son and tell him how sorry he is but he is worried that his son may want to call him and yell at him for being a worthless human being. Every time his son's phone number appears on his cell phone, he presses the Decline button. He can't bear to hear his son tell him how worthless he is, so he prevents this event from occurring by declining the incoming call.
Negative SRa
Positive, SRe, or SRa? The husband and wife decided after having their 4th child that that was enough. The husband consulted with the doctor about having a vasectomy. As the husband signed the consent form for the operation, he knew this would prevent the couple from having additional children.
Negative SRa
Positive, SRe, or SRa? The lawyer lied to the US Congress because, if he told the truth, he would go to jail for a long time. Successful lying prevents the jail sentence from occurring.
Negative SRa
Positive, SRe, or SRa? Broden's lips were chapped and they hurt, so he applied some Chap Stick. The pain was almost immediately relieved after he did this.
Negative SRe
Charlie works about 8 overtime hours per week. He says he hates it, but it helps his family make ends meet. On Monday, Charlie lost his temper and yelled at his boss. His boss told him that he was barring him from working any overtime hours for the rest of the week. After that, Charlie was careful to hold his tongue when he was angry with his boss. Barring Charlie from working overtime hours is...
Negative punisher
_____ choice is choosing the larger-later reward and foregoing the smaller-sooner reward.
Self-control
_____ _____ responding is the behavior of relating two stimuli as, in many ways, the same
Symmetric relational
Joseph Wolpe was a first-wave behavior therapist who discovered _______________________.
Systematic Desensitization
Behavioral scientists make a distinction between public and private events. What is an example of a private event?
Thinking about taking a shower
Who discovered (i.e., provided incontrovertible scientific evidence for) reinforcement?
Thorndike
There are four defining features of a single-subject experimental design. Which one of the following is NOT one of those defining features?
Those individuals randomly assigned to the intervention group receive the treatment; those assigned to the control group do not.
A common belief among those suffering from anxiety and depression is that ____________ cause behavior. The ACT therapist will seek to undermine this rule which impairs healthy living and leads to human suffering.
Thoughts
Reversal design (A-B-A)
Turn on and off to see if there is a functional role Weakness=If something else is responsible, turning off with not influence the behavior
Reinforcement that increases unwanted behavior
Twitter, Facebook, Drugs, Alcohol. (How much is this driven by popularity/likes?)
Descartes' Framework: Dualism
Two entities in the world: Bodies: machines Minds (or souls): not machines Believed that science does not apply to our minds because they are not machines.
Delay-Reduction Ratio (calculation)
US to US interval/CS to US interval
Delay Reduction Ratio
US → US interval/CS → US interval
By pairing an attractive person ________ with the product _________ _________, Watson's advertisements increased the probability that looking at the product _______ would produce a positive emotional response ________.
US; neutral stimulus; CS; CR.
When the US is presented and salivation occurs, we call salivating the ____________ response.
Unconditioned
When the unconditioned stimulus is presented and salivation occurs, we call salivating the ____________ response.
Unconditioned
UR
Unconditioned Response (Fear and anxiety from uncomfortable and painful dentist's office experience)
US
Unconditioned Stimulus (Uncomfortable and painful dentist's office experiences)
Pavlov discovered that the CS could lose its ability to elicit a response if it was presented repeatedly without the __________. Pavlov referred to this process as __________.
Unconditioned Stimulus; extinction
Before conditioning in Pavlov's experiments, salivating was the...
Unconditioned response, because it is the natural response to the food.
When food is placed in the dog's mouth, the dog salivates. In this case, food is the _________ _________ and salivating is the ____________ ____________
Unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response
Whole-Interval Recording
a direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether or not the behavior occurs throughout each in a series of contiguous intervals
Conditioned Stimulus
a formerly neutral stimulus that now evokes a conditioned response. Referred to as "conditioned" because the ability of the stimulus to evoke the response requires new learning (or "conditioning")
Operant Behavior
a generic class of responses influenced by antecedents, with each response in the class producing the same consequence
Stimulus-Generalization Gradients
a graph depicting increases in responding as the novel antecedent stimulus more closely resembles the SD
Typical Pattern of Responding Under a VR Schedule
a high-rate of responding with little or no post-reinforcement pause
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Preference Hierarchy
a list of stimuli rank ordered from most to least preferred
Typical Pattern of Responding Under a FR Schedule or Reinforcement
a post-reinforcement pause followed by a high-constant rate of responding that ends with a reinforcer
Typical FI Response Pattern of Nonhuman Subjects
a post-reinforcement pause gives way to an accelerating response rate that terminates with a reinforcer
How is a task analysis useful when teaching a stimulus-response chain?
a precise specification of the sequence of antecedents, responses, and consequences that comprise a stimulus-response chain
Occum's Law
all else being equal, the best explanations of behavior are simplest (lack of parsimony for 1 to cause 2)
_______________ reinforcers signal a delay reduction until the delivery of some other, backup reinforcer.
conditioned reinforcers
Generalization
conditioned responding to a novel stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus (CS)
Who is Mary Cover Jones?
demonstrated that Pavlovian extinction could be used therapeutically to reduce a fear of furry animals in a preschooler named Peter
Latency
interval between opportunity to respond and the response itself.
Duration
interval of time between start and end of behavior
Extrinisic reinforcers do not decrease _______________ _____________________ to engage in behavior.
intrinsic motivation
Visual Analysis
involves looking at a graph of time-series single-subject behavior to evaluate if a convincing change occurred when the independent variable was introduced/removed
Duration recording
measure either latency or duration of behavior
Conditioned Punisher Example
mild electric shock
The stimuli within the frame (i.e., the image, the sound, and the printed word) are in a stimulus- stimulus relation, we call this a stimulus- _______________relation.
equivalence
Sleep deprivation is a(n) ___________________ because it increases the efficacy of sleep as a reinforcer and because it increases the probability of behaviors that, in the past, have led to sleep (e.g., finding your favorite comfy chair at the library).
establishing operation
Mary Cover-Jones published a paper in the 1924 that revolutionized the treatment of phobias like that of Little Albert. What principle, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, did Cover-Jones use to decrease her client's fear of furry animals.
extinction
A red light on a traffic signal precedes and controls behavior. We would classify a red light as a(n) SD because it _______________the probability that you will depress the brake pedal.
increases
Behavior
individual livings organisms activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation
How does a token economy operate?
individuals earn tokens that signal they are nearer in time to a desired product or service (backup reinforcer) Ex: "5 points to Gryffindor", house with most points gets House Cup (backup reinforcer)
The difference between positive and negative reinforcement is...
positive reinforcement involves presenting a reinforcing stimulus and negative reinforcement involves removing/reducing/preventing an aversive stimulus.
The two goals of a science of behavior are to _________ and _________ behavior.
predict; influence
Falsifiable Hypothesis
predictions that are made and tested
Differential Reinforcement
previous reinforced behavior is placed on extinction while a second behavior is reinforced. All in common is enforce desired behavior. Incompatible behavior is extinguished as an alternative to punishment
Schedule Thinning
procedure for gradually reducing the rate of reinforcement, while maintaining the desired behavior
Biofeedback
provides a strategy for observing human activity that is otherwise difficult to observe that involves subtle movements of muscles.
Reactivity
reacting different because subject knows they are being watched
Escape Extinction
responding that meets the negative reinforcement contingency no longer removes or reduces the aversive event. As a result, responding decreases to baseline (no-reinforcer) levels
Operant Extinction
responding that meets the reinforcement contingency no longer produces the reinforcer and, as a result, it falls to baseline (no-reinforcer) levels
Frequency
response count divided by time or opportunity (20/20=1 response per minute)
Frequency
response count divided by time or opportunity to respond
A causal (IF --> THEN) relation between an operant behavior and its consequence is called a(n) ______________________.
response-consequence contingency
Primary Effect of Operant Extinction
returns behavior to baseline
In the late 1980`s after about 50 years of making their product the same way and enjoying very strong sales, the Coca-Cola company changed the recipe for Coke. The new recipe was very sweet and many people stopped buying it (overall sales suffered enormously). Later, the company reintroduced Coke and called it Coca-Cola Classic. Sales of this product when back up to where they were before the recipe change. What single-subject design does this sound like to you? ____________________________ Design
reversal
Identifying a Functional Variable
run and experiment, the difference between correlation and cause is the FV
Graduated Exposure Therapy
the client is gradually exposed to successively stronger approximations of the conditioned stimulus (CS). Before each new CS-approximation of presented, steps are taken to reduce/eliminate any fear evoked by the prior CS-approximation
Marking
the conditioned reinforcer immediately follows this response, and this helps the individual learn which response produced the backup reinforcer
1st Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals a delay reduction to the unconditioned stimulus (US)
2nd Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is coming
3rd Thing Learned in Pavlovian Conditioning
the conditioned stimulus (CS) signals which unconditioned stimulus (US) is coming
Social Validity
the consumer of the intervention, or an expert in the field indicates that the behavioral definition accurately reflects the behavior of interest
Positive Punishment
the contingent presentation of a consequence that decreases the future probability of the behavior below its no-punishment level
Negative Punishment
the contingent removal, reduction, or prevention of a reinforcer; the effect of which decreases the future probability of the behavior below its no-punishment level
Inter-Observer Agreement IOA
the extent to which two independent observers' data are the same after having directly observed the same behavior at the same time
How is backward chaining used when teaching a stimulus-response chain?
the final link in the stimulus-response chain is taught first and, once that link is mastered, additional links are added in reverse order
Magnitude
the force or intensity of a behavior
Three-Term Contingency (ABC)
the functional relation between antecedent, behavior, and consequence
Second Goal of Behavioral Analysis
to discover functional variables that may be used to positively influence behavior
Why is functional analysis of behavior used?
to positively influence behavior through extinction
Reification
to treat an abstraction (or a heuristic) as though it were a thing
reification
to treat an abstraction as though it were a concrete thing (ex. rude, sleazy, lazy)
Portability
tokens easy to keep on hand so reinforcing appropriate behavior is easier and timely.
Functional variable
variable that, when changed, reliably and systematically influences behavior
Confounds
variables that are influencing behavior within an experiment, but are not controlled by the researcher
Comparison design (A+B)
weakness=cannot rule out confounding variables
What did John Watson do after he left Johns Hopkins University and how has it affected modern life?
went to an advertising firm; encouraged the development of print advertisements designed to evoke emotional responses
Generalization
when a novel stimulus resembling the SD evokes the response, despite that response never having been reinforced in the presence of that novel stimulus
self-report
when a subject reports their own behavior
Internal Validity
when an experiment provides clear evidence that a functional relation exists between the independent variable and behavior change
Under what circumstances will behavior analysts use punishment in clinical setting?
when behavior is dangerous to oneself or others; most often used after other interventions have failed
When to use duration recording
when behavior is related to time
social validity
when consumer of intervention or expert in the field indicates that the behavioral definition accurately reflects the behavior of interest.
When to use Event recording
when interested in frequency of behavior and when goal is to record how often behavior occurs but behavior doesn't produce a distinct, observable, or lasting outcome
When to use Partial-Interval Recording
when interested in frequency of behavior does not produce distinct outcome duration of behavior is not the same every time
Duration Recording
when measuring either the latency or duration of a target behavior
Extinction-Induced Resurgence
when one operant behavior is extinguished, other (different) behaviors that were previously reinforced are emitted again
Knowing you are being watched has what effect on punishable behavior?
when punishing agents (police, parents) are watching, problem behavior is less likely to occur
What is the relation between the delay-reduction ratio and how quickly individuals acquire Pavlovian learning?
when the CS signals a small delay reduction, it takes many more trials before Pavlovian learning is acquired. As the delay-reduction ratio increases, fewer trials are required, that is, learning happens faster
social validity
when the general public or normal people agree with your behavioral definition
Why is a stimulus preference assessment used?
when the individual has a choice, their preference can tell us which reinforcer is better
Why is a falsifiable hypothesis important?
when these predictions are confirmed, they strengthen our confidence in the theories upon which they are based, when the predictions are falsified, the theory is abandoned.
internal validity
when we can say for certain that our treatment caused a behavior change
Mentalistic Explanations of Behavior
when we explain one behavior by appealing to a second, the second behavior usually occurs privately (mentally) where others cannot observe it Ex: "I decided..." appeals to private decision-making. "I felt..." and "I was angry..." appeal to private sensations.
Reinforcers
whether positive or negative, increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level
Watson
which psychologist coined the term "behaviorist"
Abolishing Operation (AO) Example
winning the lottery - decreases the value of money as a reinforcer, decreases the probability of returning to work
Do players prefer to play with punishment or without? (lecture)
with punishment
What is wrong or missing from the following IOA equation: IOA = Agreements/(Agreements+Disagreements)
x100% (at the end of the equation)
Staying with the diagram above, will the sound "baby" also elicit this emotion?
yes
Signs/Symptoms of Autism
social communication deficits, no maintaining development, don't understand relationships, restricted repetitive patterns of verbal and nonverbal behavior
Flow
state immersed and lose track of time and self
Dr. Leo Kamin conducted a famous study in the history of psychology. He found that _________ contiguity between a neutral stimulus and a US was not enough to guarantee that the neutral stimulus would come to function as a CS.
temporal
Emotion is behavior (true or false)
True
IOA
inter-observer agreement
Treatment condition:
The period of time during an experiment when they are delivering the treatment
Un-willed actions
Triggering event NOT goal directed
B.F. Skinner
"Radical behaviorism" Watson's idea that consequences affect behavior. Found that behavior that has beneficial consequences (reinforcer) were more likely to occur again. Father of modern behaviorism.
Why is it important to distinguish between positive and negative reinforcers?
- Heuristics - know your options when it's time to positively influence behavior - Loss aversion - Preference for positive reinforcement
What was the important finding of the Libet studies?
- a neural response precedes conscious willing - these findings fail to support the Theory of Will
3 Problems with the Theory that a Mental Decision-Maker wills Behavior into Motion
- choice is behavior - choice is determined - spurious reason-making
What are the benefits of direct observation?
- doesn't rely on memory - easier to ensure data collection is unbiased
What were Watson & Rayner's contribution to our understanding of Pavlovian learning?
- generalization - experiences in infancy affect developmental
Why is a behavioral definition important?
- good behavioral definitions make data collection objective, that is, not influenced by personal judgments, prejudice, or bias - accurately measure when behavior has occurred
Characteristics of Willed Actions
- no triggering event - goal directed - we don't actually observe the will
What are the drawbacks of self-report?
- people are not always truthful - social desirability bias - good subject effect - incentives - recalling our own behavior is hard
3 Components of a Behavioral Experiment
- the dependent variable is behavior - falsifiable hypothesis - manipulation of the independent variable
Why is replication important in behavioral science?
- the most important way to evaluate if scientific discoveries are true - by replicating behavioral outcomes in several individuals, in several different studies, and in several different labs or settings, confidence is more robustly established
What are the characteristics of a good behavioral definition?
- very specific; leaving no room for observer bias, prejudice, etc. to impact the data being collected. - focused on behavior; no room for heuristics like "sleazy" or "brilliant"
Why is a reification a problem in behavioral science?
- when we explain behavior by pointing to reifications (like sleazy or brilliant) we are using circular logic - to positively influence behavior, we need to find functional (causal) variables that we can turn ON and OFF. Can you turn sleaziness ON and OFF (independent of sleazy behavior)?
3 Kinds of Replication
- within-individual - across-individual - across labs or clinics
Here is how the rat actually allocated its behavior: BL = 80 responses per minute; BR = 40 responses per minute. Using these values, calculate the proportion of responses made on the left lever: Bl/(Bl+Br)
0.667
Using the values from items 4 and 5, what is the proportion of reinforcers obtained on the left lever? Rl/(Rl+Rr) = ___________
0.75
If a VI 60-second schedule is arranged on the right lever, Rr= ______.
1
What are the four useful techniques to use when teaching verbal operants?
1. Antecedent stimulus 2. Prompting and fading 3. Shaping 4.Reinforcer
Step 2 Rules for conducting single-subject research with ongoing visual analysis
1. Better to have too much treatment data than to not have enough
What is (are) the problem(s) with reification?
1. Circular logic - the only evidence for the existence of the abstraction is the pattern of behavior that the abstraction is supposed to explain. 2. If a heuristic abstraction (like "rudeness") causes behavior, then how do we experimentally manipulate the abstraction?
What are the two methods for reducing impulsive choices?
1. Commitment Strategy 2. Delay-exposure training
What are the two techniques for decreasing an undesired behavior (B2)?
1. Decrease R2 2. Increase R1
3 behavioral components
1. Dependent variable is behavior 2. Experiments test falsifiable hypothesis 3. Manipulation of IV (controlled)
Four steps of the Visual Analysis
1. Determine if the final three observations in the baseline and treatment conditions are divided 2. Is behavior in the baseline and treatment conditions stable? 3. If behavior is divided but not stable, ask if the baseline and treatment data are trending in the same direction or toward one another. If the behavior is divided and stable, skip this step. 4. Did treatment cause the differences?
Step 1 Rules for conducting single-subject research with ongoing visual analysis
1. Don't introduce the treatment if behavior is improving on its own. 2. If the behavior is getting worse, introduce the treatment. 3. Attempt to minimize bounce before introducing the treatment
What are the two ways to increase the proportion of behavior allocated to B1?
1. Increase R1 2. Decrease R2
What are 3 objections to using reinforcement?
1. Intrinsic motivation 2. Performance-inhibiting properties of reinforcement 3. cheating
3 objections to Reinforcement
1. Intrinsic motivation decreased (natural drive) 2. Performance inhibiting properties (creativity, decrease in pressure) 3. Cheating (if a positive reinforcement is produced, then they will cheat to get it)
6 Principles of Effective Shaping
1. Objectively define terminal behavior 2. Along what dimension does the learner's current behavior fall short of the terminal behavior? 3. Successive approximations shouldn't be too easy or too hard 4. Differential reinforcement: Reinforce the current response approximation and extinguish everything else, including old response approximations 5. Learner should master each response approximation before advancing 6. If next approximation is too difficult (extinction), lower the reinforcement criterion until responding is earning reinforcers again
Principles of Effective Shaping
1. Objectively define terminal behavior 2. Along what dimensions does current behavior fall short? 3. Ensure each succession is not too difficult or too easy 4. Reinforce current response and extinguish everything else 5. Make sure response is mastered before moving on to the next one 6. If too difficult, lower until reinforcers are earned again.
Chapter 4 outlined the hypothesis that Pavlovian learning plays a role in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The substance of the hypothesis was...
1. Principle of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 3: Because the US (e.g., an explosion) is infrequent, any CS that reliably precedes it will signal a very large delay-reduction to the US. 2. Principle of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 1: The US (a traumatic event) is a phylogenetically important event. 3. Principle of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 4: The stimulus signaling the delay-reduction to the US is not redundant with other stimuli signaling the US event. 4. Principle of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning 2: The CS that comes to elicit trauma are highly salient (e.g., a belligerent perpetrator).
What are the four variables that strongly influence behavior?
1. Reinforcement vs no consequence 2. Reinforcer size/quality 3. Effort 4. Reinforcer delay
Arranging Effective conditioned reinforcers
1. Use an effective back up reinforcer 2. Use a salient conditioned reinforcer 3. Use a conditioned reinforcer that signals a large delay reduction to the backup reinforcer (US-US interval/CS-US interval) 4. Make sure the conditioned reinforcer is not redundant
4 Principles of Arranging Effective Conditioned Reinforcers
1. Use an effective backup reinforcer 2. Use a salient conditioned reinforcer 3. Use a conditioned reinforcer that signals a large delay reduction to the backup reinforcer 4. Make sure the conditioned reinforcer is not redundant
Discrimination training is different than differential reinforcement in the two ways (choose the 2 correct answers): a. Discrimination training involves two antecedent stimuli whereas differential reinforcement involves only one. b. Discrimination training involves one antecedent stimulus whereas differential reinforcement involves two. c. Discrimination training involves two behaviors whereas differential reinforcement involves only one. d. Discrimination training involves one behavior whereas differential reinforcement involves two.
A & D
Convincing behavior change:
A behavior change that is visually apparent (you can see it with the naked eye)
John B. Watson
A behavioral scientist. Was the first American psychologist to argue passionately for adopting the philosophy of behaviorism. Proposed a stimulus-response psychology.
What is the shape of the stimulus generalization gradient?
A bell-shaped curve
CS-
A conditioned stimulus that has a negative effect
CS+
A conditioned stimulus that has a positive effect
Primary Reinforcer
A consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in sustaining the life of the individual or the continuation of the species (food, water, escape or avoidance of pain)
A reinforcer is...
A consequence that increases the probability of behavior.
Conditioned reinforcer
A consequence(s) that functions as reinforcers only after learning occurs (Press button to produce stimulus) Sometimes a delay-reduction to some other reinforcer
Which of the following is NOT one of the effects of extinction on behavior?
A decrease in the variability of the operant response
Inter-observer Agreement (IOA) or Reliability:
A measure of the accuracy of your observation. The agreement between two independent observers.
Social Validity:
A measure of whether you are observing what you are really interested in
Information-Theoretic account of Pavlovian Conditioning
A neutral stimulus will acquire CS properties if, and only if, that stimulus provides information indicating that the time until the next US is less than the average time between USs.
Design:
A plan for presenting and withholding the treatment
Pavlovian conditioning is...
A process by which organisms learn to predict when biologically important events (USs) will occur when other events (CSs) reliably precede the US.
Behavioral definition:
A statement that specifies exactly what behavior to observe. Specifies the included and excluded behavior.
Meta-Analysis:
A survey of all surveys to date on a specific topic
A good behavior definition contains at least two of the following:
A verb (the action taken) The response topography (what does the target behavior look like when it happens?) The outcome of the behavior (its lasting effect on the environment or what is produced as a result of the behavior)
What do the letters stand for in ACT
A- Acceptance C- Commitment T- Tracking
Chance loved BBQ sandwiches and ate them once a week. Then he got a job at a BBQ restaurant and he saw all the coagulated fat in the meat when he pulled a tray of meat out of the refrigerator. He was disgusted by the sight and, for the next couple weeks, he rarely ate BBQ sandwiches again. Seeing the coagulated fat appears to have functions as a(n) ______________________ operation because it temporarily decreased the value of a BBQ sandwich (as a reinforcer) and it decreased the probability that he would buy one and eat one.
Abolishing
A(n) _______ _______ is an environmental and/or biological event that (1) temporarily decreases the value of a specific reinforcer and (2) decreases the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer.
Abolishing operation
Once a study is underway and you have a good behavioral definition and your IOA is acceptable, how often should you assess IOA?
About 30% of the time
_____ is approaching the thought, so as to examine it flexibly, with a sense of curiosity
Acceptance
In the "Little Albert" study, Watson approached Albert while wearing a Santa Claus beard. Other than looking goofy, what was the outcome of this event and what was this testing for?
Albert began to cry and moved away from Watson. This was a test for generalization to stimuli that resembled the CS.
All creatures on Earth today learn through Pavlovian conditioning process.
All creatures on Earth today learn through Pavlovian conditioning process.
Functional communication training
Alternative response is verbal, no attention when bad behavior occurs
The book discussed Dr. Carl Hart's TedMed talk in which he argues drug use is not a moral failing, it results from a lack of...
Alternative, non-drug reinforcers
Comparison Design:
An experimental design comparing the baseline condition with the treatment condition A-B design Does not rule out alternative explanations based on time coincidences No internal validity!
Multiple-Baseline Design:
An experimental design that introduces the treatment at different times for two or more behaviors or for two or more people. Rules out both individual differences and time coincidences. Internal validity may be established
Consequences
An observable stimulus change that happens after a behavior (contingent on behavior).
What is a philosophy?
An underlying set of assumptions or a particular way of looking at the world.
What are the three terms of the three-term contingency (3 pts)?
Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence
A(n) _____ is an observable stimulus that is present before behavior occurs. A(n)_____ is an observable stimulus that happens after behavior occurs.
Antecedent; Consequence
The 3 terms of the three-term contingency are _____- behavior -_____
Antecedent; consequence
The definition of an S∆ is a(n) ___________________ stimulus that ________________________ the probability of a specific behavior because the individual has learned that that behavior ______________________ after observing that stimulus.
Antecedent; decreases; will not be reinforced
The definition of an S^D is a(n) ___________________ stimulus that ________________________ the probability of a specific behavior because the individual has learned that that behavior ______________________ after observing that stimulus.
Antecedent; increases; can be reinforced
Behavior is...
Anything a person does All human conduct
What is a determinant?
Anything that can influence or change behavior
Internal body actions
Are also behavior (like secreting stomach acids)
Subtle body actions
Are also physical behavior (such as talking, looking, and reading)
From a behavior-analytic perspective, thoughts and feelings __________.
Are instances of behavior
Eugenics Movement
Argued that behavior is genetically determined. A radical biological perspective. Enacted policies that led to the forced sterilization of over 60,000 people in the US alone.
Self-Reports
Ask individuals if they have engaged in behavior and how often and for how long. Avoid because sometimes not truthful or flawed memory
The organism notices that the neutral stimuli and the US are associated.
Associative Strength
What is the philosophy of behaviorism?
Assumes that behavior is lawful (it has determinants) and can be understood if studied systematically.
Where we choose to direct our _____ also appears to be predicted by Herrnstein's matching equation.
Attention
In the lecture it was discussed that behavior analysts have been successful in using their principles of behavior to treat what disorder?
Autism
Delay-bridging
Award reinforcers immediately and good behavior continues
If I train A -> B, and then I train A -> C, then among humans which relation(s) will emerge without additional training?
B -> A C -> A B -> C C -> B
Who accidentally discovered the first schedule of reinforcement (when he was trying to save food pellets)?
B.F. Skinner
Skinner Boxes
B.F. Skinner, 1938, 30 second delay treat for rat. "Ka-Chunk" sound was reinforcer
Little Albert Study
Baby presented with a small white mouse (NS) with no fear. Then presented the small mouse while banging loudly on a metal pole (US) that scared Albert (UR). Repeated. Albert learning that the presence of the mouse leads to scary banging. Mouse became CS and fear of the mouse was CR.
The period in which behavior is observed before the intervention is implemented is called the _________________.
Baseline phase
In the Chapter 1 lecture, we outlined some problems with the idea the Theory of Will (i.e., that at an uncaused conscious will causes behavior). That portion of the lecture ended by suggesting that if the Theory of Will is true, then you should "leave now and never return." Why?
Because if behavior has no cause, predicting and positively influencing behavior is impossible.
Why don't behavior analysts use large-group designs?
Because they are interested in the behavior of individuals To use a large-group designs you need a large number of individuals with the same diagnosis Most behavior analysts, counselors, clinical psychologists, etc. are treating a handful of people at a time. People don't want to be assigned to the control group In a single-subject design everyone gets the treatment Inferential statistics are a useful set of tools, but psychologists are not very good statisticians. Single-subject designs encourage the researcher to present their individual data graphically and let the consumer decide if it was successful
How often do you assess IOA?
Before the study starts: every time Once IOA is at an acceptable level (>90%): start the study Once the study is underway: assess IOA only periodically (30% of the time)
The activity of a living organism, occurring inside or outside the skin, that may be affected by internal or external stimuli is known as...
Behavior
The matching equation makes predictions about choice by specifying how _____ will be allocated between the alternative sources of reinforcement.
Behavior
The problem with using private events to explain behavior is that most of the time, they are just another instance of ____________ and, therefore, must themselves be explained.
Behavior
In Herrnstein's matching equation BL and BR refer to _____ allocated to the left and right choice alternatives respectively.
Behavior (responses)
The natural science that studies the biological and environmental determinants of behavior is ___________.
Behavior analysis
Charles Darwin
Behavior analysts believe that human behavior can be studied scientifically. We study animal behavior because it tells us something about human behavior.
Visual analysis:
Behavior analysts look at a graph of behavior so they can answer the following question: Did the treatment produce a convincing behavior change?
Sir Francis Bacon
Behavior analytic discoveries are practical - they better the human condition.
What are the assumptions of behavior analysis?
Behavior is determined and the scientific method is a valid way to discover those determinants.
"Operant"
Behavior that is affected by reinforcement. Rats and pigeons "operated" things in their environment in order to obtain reinforcers. i.e.: pushing the lever was the operant, the food was the reinforcer. Founding father of behavior analysis.
Behavior analysts view anything that people do, including mental and physical activities, as forms of __________.
Behavior.
What empirical findings suggested that a third wave of behavior therapy might be needed?
Behavioral Activation Therapy (BAT) proved to be more effective than CBT but BAT did not use the cognitive restructuring components used in CBT.
A ______________________ specifies the behavior of interest with sufficient detail so that anyone could read it and be able to distinguish instances from non-instances of the behavior
Behavioral Definition
According to the book, the first tactic in using the behavioral strategy is to develop a _________.
Behavioral definition of the problem behavior
Direct Observation
Behavioral measures are recorded as the behavior occurs
Two types of determinants:
Biological (such as genes, hormone levels, and neurochemical processes in the brain) Environmental (things you experience through your senses)
For experiments conducted in behavior analysis, the ___________________ variable is always an objective measure of behavior.
Dependent
The CS that was well established in Phase 1 appeared to have blocked the US from acquiring any CS function during Phase 2.
Blocking
According to Rene Descartes' dualism, our _______ are machines that obey the laws of nature. Our _______ are not machines, are exempt from these laws, and can consciously will our behavior.
Bodies.... Minds
Libet Study
Brain fired first, the the person said they made the decision, then the finger lifted.
One measure of reinforcer efficacy is choice - if salted caramels are chosen more often than Laffy Taffy, then salted caramels are the more effective of the two reinforcers. But choice does not tell us how much more reinforcing salted caramels are than Laffy Taffy. For this we need to measure the maximum amount of behavior the reinforcer will maintain, a measure known as the ___________________________.
Breakpoint
We conduct experimental research on applied interventions so that we may rule out alternative explanations. One type of alternative explanation that the book talks about is time coincidences. What is a time coincidence?
By coincidence, your intervention started at the same time that something else changed in the participant's life. That "something else" was the real cause of the behavior change.
Correlation does not imply ____________________.
Causation
Who discovered schedules of reinforcement?
Charles B. Ferster and B.F Skinner
_____ is a voluntary behavior occurring in a context in which alternative behaviors are possible.
Choice
In the lecture we discussed several problems with reification. The first was ______________. That is, the only evidence for the reified "thing" is the behavior it was supposed to explain.
Circular logic
Ivan Pavlov discovered:
Classical conditioning
Benefits of specifically defined behaviors (2):
Clearer communication with others Consistent observations
When using the _________________ strategy, the individual chooses the larger later reward well before they encounter the temptations of an immediately available smaller-sooner reward. Importantly, this strategy requires that the decision-maker "lock in" their choice, so they do not change their mind later on, when the immediate temptation in encountered.
Commitment
Frequency Reliability
Compares the total count between two observers Used when each observation cannot be compared, such as with simple outcome or simple event recording.
Which one of the single-subject designs does not have good internal validity?
Comparison design
Step 3 Rules for conducting single-subject research with ongoing visual analysis
Complete the 4 steps!
The graph below shows the results of a series of experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram. What do these studies demonstrate?
Compliance generalizes to novel settings to the extent that that setting resembles the SD.
A ________________ punisher is a contingent consequence that signals a delay reduction to a backup punisher.
Conditioned
When the CS is presented and salivation occurs, we call salivating the ____________ response.
Conditioned
CR
Conditioned Response (Fear and anxiety)
CS
Conditioned Stimulus (Seeing the dentist's office)
A behavior that is influenced by an environmental condition is called...
Conditioned behavior or classical/Pavlovian conditioning
In the Harry Potter books and movies, the professors at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry sometimes awarded students "house points" for desirable behaviors such as telling the truth, helping another student, or demonstrating bravery. At the end of the term, the house with the most house points earned the House Cup (which was a good thing). If these house points increased the students' prosocial behaviors, they would be classified as...
Conditioned reinforcers
After conditioning in Pavlov's experiments, salivation was the...
Conditioned response, because the sound will produce salivation even when no food is present.
After conditioning in Pavlov's experiments, the sound of the tuning fork was the...
Conditioned stimulus, because the sound of the tuning fork without the presence of the food will produce salivation (conditioned response).
If stimulus X reliably precedes and predicts an aversive event, X will come to elicit a fear response. After conditioning has occurred, X is referred to as a(n) ________ __________. The aversive event is referred to as a(n) __________ __________. The response elicited by X is called a(n) __________ __________.
Conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus; conditioned response.
Reinforcers
Consequence that Increases future probability above the baseline
Rewards
Consequences that we think will increase behavior above the baseline but don't know for certain
At the prison, inmates could earn tokens which could later be exchanged for TV privileges, a hot shower, outdoor exercise time, etc. These tokens were supposed to reinforce appropriate behaviors such as reading a book or talking to your neighbor without cursing. One day the behavior analyst returned to the prison and found that the well-meaning prison chaplain had given everyone free tokens. He felt that the prisoners would behave appropriately if they were given unconditional love. What dimension of effective reinforcement did the chaplain ignore? We are looking for a one-word answer.
Contingency
IF the behavior has been emitted, THEN the reinforcer can be delivered. This simple statement describes a ________________.
Contingency
One complaint of conservatives about the welfare system of the 1980's (and before) was that money was given for free without requiring the welfare recipient do anything to earn it. Which principle of effective reinforcement were these conservatives most concerned with?
Contingency
What are the four reinforcer dimensions that influence how effective the consequence will be in maintaining behavior?
Contingency Reinforcer Size Reinforcer Quality Reinforcer Immediacy
Rule-governed or contingency shaped?The student was unable to study at her usual time, in the evening. So, she studied in the morning, before she went to work. After studying in the morning, she found that she remembered the course materials better than when she studied at night. As a result, she earned better test scores and was better able to use what she was learning in her daily life. Going forward, the student chooses to do her studying in the morning, before she goes to work.
Contingency shaped: It seems she discovered this adaptive behavior on her own, without anyone providing her with a verbal rule. It was reinforced when she better remembered the materials and earned better test scores.
Rule-governed or contingency shaped?Marge is a waitress at the diner. On Friday a man comes in for a cup of coffee. She provides him good service, filling his cup whenever it nears empty. He leaves her a sizable tip. On Saturday the man returns and orders a full breakfast. Marge goes out of her way to provide the man with excellent service. Once again, he leaves her a big tip. The man returns a year later and Marge, once again is rewarded for the excellent service she provides him.
Contingency shaped: No rules are described.
_____ behavior is acquired and maintained by interacting with the contingencies of reinforcement alone
Contingency-shaped
Imagine that a rat in an operant conditioning chamber is performing very well. He moves the pole and we give him a food pellet every time. Then we start a new phase. Now we will give him food pellets once, on average, every 15 s, regardless of what he is doing. With this phase change we have switched from _____ to non- _____reinforcement.
Contingent
In a _______________________________procedure, the applied behavior analyst extinguishes slow responding and reinforcers rapid responding.
DRH (differential reinforcement of high rate)
Which differential reinforcement procedure reinforces periods of doing anything but the target behavior? The outcome of this is a decrease in the future probability of the targeted behavior.
DRO
Punishers
Decrease future probability below pre-punishment levels
When the conditioned stimulus precedes the US, this Pavlovian conditioning procedure is called __________ conditioning.
Delayed conditioning
When the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, it is called...
Delayed conditioning
Direct observation:
Directly observing the behavior of interest, which prevents reliance on the recall of untrained observers. Uses trained observers Immediately record what they see
IOA= (Agreements/Agreements+___)x100
Disagreements
When rewards are delayed they lose some of their value. This devaluation of delayed rewards is called delay _____.
Discounting
Interval recording
Divide the overall time into intervals. If the behavior occurs any time within that interval, a response is recorded. Intervals must be continuous. Only or 1 responses recorded per interval. Record 1 response if the behavior started in, ended in, or covered the entire interval.
_____ is a verbal operant in which the response resembles the verbal antecedent stimulus and is maintained with a variety of socially mediated reinfocers
Echoic
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?The new employee extends his hand toward Carla and says, "Hello, nice to meet you." Carla replies, "Hello, it's nice to meet you as well."
Echoic: The form of Carla's verbal response closely resembles that of the new employee. A variety of socially mediated reinforcers maintain such echoics; e.g., the new employee might smile when Carla echoes back his pleasantry
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Mom says, "Simon says, say 'moose'." Jason replies "moose". Jason remains in the game.
Echoic: The form of Jason's verbal response closely resembles mom's "moose". Remaining in the game is a socially mediated reinforcer
According to the book and lecture, who was the first to scientifically demonstrate that consequences influence behavior?
Edward L. Thorndike
Who discovered reinforcement?
Edward L. Thorndike - the first scientist to demonstrate that reinforcers increase the probability of behavior
Discovery of Reinforcement
Edward Thorndike in 1911, Cats in a puzzle box (pushing lever, speed increases with successive reinforcers)
While still in academia, John B. Watson studied how conditioned stimuli could come to influence human __________.
Emotion
The _____ function of verbal stimuli, despite those stimuli having never acquired Pavlovian CS function
Emotion-evoking
Every Sunday night I take the garbage can out to the curb. The consequence of this behavior is that, on Monday morning, the garbage person empties the can, relieving me of several pounds of smelly rubbish. Said another way, by taking the garbage can to the curb is maintained by the contingent removal of garbage. This describes a(n) _____ contingency.
Escape/ escape reinforcement/ negative reinforcement
Cammy was sick for a whole week and was unable to work out. After the week of illness passed, she said she was super-motivated to get back to the gym. Indeed, she was the first person at the gym the morning after she felt better. The illness appears to have functioned as a(n) __________________ operation because it temporarily increased the value of a workout (as a reinforcer) and it increased the probability of getting to the gym early.
Establishing
Manish is interested in how much he smokes. He puts a piece of paper in his pack of cigarettes such that every time he smokes, he makes a check mark on the paper. At the end of the day he counts the check marks. Which direct observation technique is Manish using?
Event recording
One direct observation technique should be used when the behavior produces no effect on the environment and is of a uniform duration. Which one is it?
Event recording
Which of the direct observation techniques provides the most accurate accounting of the behavior that actually occurred?
Event recording
If outcome recording is not possible, what is the next best choice?
Event recording The most accurate direct observation technique
Private Events:
Events that happen inside your skin where it cannot be observed by others. I felt I decided I was angry
Public Events:
Events that happen outside the skin and can be observed by others. Focus on studying these, rather than studying private events.
Trial reliability:
Every chance to observe the behavior is a trial. Each pitch of a baseball is a trial to see if it is thrown well. Each question is a trial to see if the student answers them correctly. Most rigorous form of reliability. Cannot use trial reliability with outcome or event recording, only with interval and time-sample recording.
Before a study begins (when you are determining if your behavioral definition and observation techniques are adequate) how often should you assess the reliability of your observations?
Every time
Getting help
Everyone who seeks help wants a behavior change
Pavlovian learning is demonstrated when the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS). We know the CS has acquired this behavioral function when it...
Evokes the conditioned response
As the associative strength of the CS-US relation increases, the organism comes to ________ the US to be delivered when it detects the CS.
Expect
____________ increases the more times the neutral stimuli and US are presented together.
Expectation
Two important principles of the Rescorla-Wagner Theory...
Expectation and Surprise
A CS can lose its ability to elicit the CR if the CS was presented repeatedly without the US.
Extinction
Mary Cover Jones used Pavlov's __________ procedure to treat Peter's fear of furry animals.
Extinction
On Jim's old computer, pressing the F3 key saved his file and Jim pressed this often when he wanted to save his work. When Jim got his new computer, the F3 key did nothing when pressed. After a while, Jim stopped pressing the F3 key. This gradual reduction in pressing the F3 key is one of the reliable effects of ___________________________.
Extinction
The primary effect of operant ____________________ is a gradual reduction in the response, when it no longer produces the reinforcer.
Extinction
Implementing extinction is very difficult if it is the only intervention used. Parents, for example, will often give in to their child's tantrum and, thereby reinforce problem behavior rather than extinguish it. For this reason, one of the most popular, and effective interventions for decreasing problem behavior is differential reinforcement. Differential reinforcement combines two procedures commonly used by behavior analysts. The first is _____ and the second is _____.
Extinction; reinforcement
The first response emitted after a uniform period of time has elapsed (e.g., after 30 s) is reinforced. This describes which reinforcement contingency?
FI
Sarah would frequently throw temper tantrums at home but not at school. The behavior analyst called in by Sarah's parents found that tantrums were reinforced at home with attention and the removal of unpleasant tasks (e.g., homework, chores). At school, tantrums were ignored (at least that is what the teacher says, because the behavior analyst never saw a tantrum at school). Home is a(n) __________ for throwing tantrums.
FR 10
Little Albert was scared of other white, fluffy animals and Santa's beard.
Fear generalized to other stimuli
According to the definition of behavior given in class, which of the following would NOT be an example of behavior?
Firing of a cortical neuron bathed in cerebral spinal fluid and held in a petri dish. (There is no person doing it)
Effective shaping can create a sense of _____________. Video game programmers know this, and they use shaping to increase the probability that players experience that desired state in which they feel immersed in a rewarding activity, and in which they lose track of time and self (Nakamura & Chikszentmihalyi, 2014).
Flow
According to the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE), a behavior that was reinforced _____________ will decrease rapidly after operant extinction begins.
Frequently
Sometimes a stimulus will make an organism salivate (e.g., if you put a piece of gum in your mouth, you will begin to salivate). The _________ of gum is to cause an organism to salivate.
Function
If these rats happen upon something that smells a lot like TNT, but is not TNT, they are probably going to scratch the ground. If they scratch the ground when they smell this novel stimulus, this behavior would be an example of...
Generalization
During ___________________ _____________________ therapy, the client is gradually exposed to successively stronger approximations of the CS; before each new CS-approximation is presented, steps are taken to reduce/eliminate any fear evoked by the prior CS-approximation.
Graduated exposure
__________________ is the gradual reduction in reflex responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting, unconditioned stimulus (US).
Habituation
Heuristic Descriptions
Help us remember a long term pattern of behavior, useful in predicting future
A lot of uncertainty about when the next stimulus will occur is an example of...
High entropy
The only species to unequivocally demonstrate stimulus equivalence is the ________________ species.
Human
The shape of the delay-discounting function is _____.
Hyperbolic
What goal does the ACT therapist try to get the client to embrace?
I am fused with the content of my cognition. I need you to break the functional relation between these thoughts and my emotions.
Carlos skis only for 3 hours a month. He runs for 12 hours a month. According to the principle you identified on the previous question, Carlos will ski more hours per month if we arrange this contingency..
IF Carlos skis for an hour --> THEN he can run for an hour
How do you calculate IOA (Inter-Observer Agreement)?
IOA = Agreements/ (Agreements + Disagreements) x 100
Step 3:
If divided but not stable, is the baseline trending toward the treatment or away from it? Is the treatment trending toward baseline?
Uniform behaviors:
If each instance of the behavior takes about the same length of time as every other instance
Internal Validity:
If we can say that the intervention caused the behavior change, then the experiment has internal validity.
Critiques of Mentalistic Way of using Motivation to Explain Behavior
If your goal is to influence behavior, mentalizing motivation is unhelpful. When motivation is mentalized, it becomes a reified thing that is supposed to explain behavior, but it explains nothing, and worse, it may make people feel bad about their "self"
_____ choice is choosing the smaller-sooner reward and foregoing the larger-later reward
Impulsive
When does choice occur?
In a context in which alternative behaviors are possible
What goal does the psychological client usually come to therapy with?
In order to get on with my life, I need to stop having these negative thoughts and feelings.
What was the conclusion reached from the Libert studies?
In the case of simple motor responses, neural activity precedes will.
Direct observers must make their observations in locations where they cannot see or hear the other observer. When the observers are not affected by these sights or sounds we say that the observers are _____________.
Independent
For experiments conducted in behavior analysis, the ___________________ variable is always a publicly observable change, controlled by the experimenter, which is anticipated to influence behavior in a specific way.
Independent
Two types of alternative explanations:
Individual differences Time coincidences
When behavior changes after the introduction of an intervention, that's great. But from a scientific perspective we need to decide if the intervention caused the behavior to change or if there are plausible alternative explanations. The book discusses two classes of alternative explanations for the behavior change. They are ________________.
Individual differences and time coincidences.
Behavior may be defined as a(n) _____________ living organism's activity, public or private, which may be ____________________ by external or internal stimuli.
Individual; Influenced
Phylogenetic behavior
Innate, genetically "programmed" behaviors common to all members of the species. Better chance of survival if in an ecological niche
What does IOA stand for?
Inter-observer agreement
When an experiment has _____________, we can conclude that the intervention was responsible for the behavior change; i.e., there are no alternative explanations.
Internal validity
Helena has been doing poorly in school so she decides that she is going to record how frequently she studies and compare this with the amount her friends study. She sets her watch to beep every five minutes. If she was studying at any point during the 5-minute interval, she records this as a check mark on her observation sheet. At the end of the day, she finds that she has 20 marks on her sheet. Helena has used the ________________________ method of direct observation.
Interval recording
In the direct observation method known as _______________________, contiguous intervals (i.e., back-to-back intervals) are used to record behavior that is not of a uniform duration each time it occurs (e.g., sometimes you study for 5 minutes and sometimes you study for 5 hours).
Interval recording
Two methods for observing nonuniform behaviors:
Interval recording Time sample recording
While using interval recording you observe the behavior start in interval 1, continue through interval 2, and end in interval 3. In which interval(s) do you record that behavior happened?
Intervals 1, 2, & 3
_____ is a verbal response occasioned by a verbal discriminative stimulus, but the form of the response does not resemble that stimulus
Intraverbal
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Gregory asks his nephew, "How old are you?" His nephew replies, "I'm free." Gregory replies, "You're three? I thought you were four or five. You are such a smart child."
Intraverbal: The nephew's verbal response was occasioned by the verbal SD - "How old are you?" The response, "I'm free" does not resemble this verbal SD. The intraverbal appears to be maintained by Gregory's reply.
Step 1:
Is the data mutually exclusive?
Why do behavior analysts take the time to develop behavioral definitions?
It allows them to specify exactly what behavior to observe and record. This is necessary for purposes of scientific measurement.
What does it mean to say that behavior is determined?
It means that behavior has a cause, or multiple causes; these causes are knowable biological and environmental variables.
Why is it important to assess reliability (i.e., IOA)?
It's our best measure of the accuracy of our observations To rule out experimenter bias To assess observer drift
Which psychologist first coined the term "behaviorist" to describe an individual who wanted to develop a natural science of behavior by discovering how environmental events influence behavior?
John B Watson
The first psychologist to call himself a "behaviorist" and to advocate for a natural science approach to the study of behavior was _____________.
John Watson
Stimulus equivalence emerges developmentally as children acquire _________________.
Language
Group Designs
Large numbers of at least 30, randomly assigned to different groups, evaluate post-treatment group differences, use inferential stats to look for a significant difference
As discussed in the book, there is good evidence that negative reinforcement is a more effective procedure than positive reinforcement. For example, employees will work hard to avoid a pay cut, but they are less willing to work hard for a comparable pay raise. This findings is known as...
Loss aversion
Behavioral economists discovered that the value of avoiding a loss (SRA-) is greater than the value of acquiring a gain (SR+). Behavioral economists call this...
Loss aversion
How to avoid observer drift:
Make sure your behavioral definition is clear and that it is written down.
_____ is a verbal operant occasioned by a motivating operation and maintained by the verbally specified reinforcer
Mand
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Bobby is a little bit thirsty when he sees his father walk into the living room with an ice-cold beer. Bobby says, "Daddy, can I have a sip of your beer?" Bobby's father gives him a sip.
Mand: Asking for something is often a mand. Bobby does not demand a sip of the beer, but his request is occasioned by a motivating operation - whatever made him thirsty. The reinforcer - the sip of beer - was specified by Bobby's request
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?The psychiatrist is conducting an evaluation of a new patient. She holds up a Rorschach ink-blot card and says, "Tell me what you see." The patient says, "I see an elephant. Here are its ears, its mouth, its trunk." The psychiatrist nods knowingly.
Mand: The verbal response is occasioned by a motivating operation - to conduct the psychiatric evaluation, she needs the patient to respond to the Rorschach card. The reinforcer that maintains the psychiatrist's mand is the patient's verbal response.
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Marina says, "Take the picture of me in front of the fountain!" Her Instagram boyfriend complies.
Mand: This verbal response is occasioned by a motivating operation - Marina wants a picture of herself so she can post it on Instagram. The reinforcer that maintains this mand (the boyfriend takes the picture) was specified by the verbal response
Cautions with using stats
Many inappropriate ways to use (replication crisis) many subjective decisions made using them (data) Know the difference between significance.
Presenting a brief, salient conditioned reinforcing stimulus (like that produced by a clicker) immediately after the desired response can help the individual to correctly identify which response produced the reinforcer. This _______________ procedure is particularly effective when the reinforcer is delayed.
Marking
Pavlovian extinction
Mary Cover Jones, used to treat phobia's, Repeatedly present CS without the US and the CS stops evoking the CR (Graduated Exposure Therapy)
Applied Behavior Analysis
Most effective treatment, 30-40% improve, it can take a lot of time and money to complete this.
The book discussed two problems with everyday concepts of motivation. Which of the following is NOT one of those problems?
Motivation is biologically determined (environmental causes are excluded from analysis).
Imagine that the experimenter who collected the data (in the graph in the above questions) is still enthusiastic about the possibility that the treatment is effective. As you look at those data, can you think of a single-subject design that the experimenter should use in his/her next experiment. What single-subject design do you recommend? The _________________________ design.
Multiple baseline
In order to be certain that the reinforcer caused the increase in behavior, you must use either a __________ or a __________ design. (these are the two single-subject designs that support statements of causation)
Multiple baseline reversal
If it would be unethical to remove an effective treatment (because the behavior would deteriorate and that may be dangerous to the individual seeking treatment) then which single-subject design is recommended?
Multiple-baseline design
Some treatments produce permanent effects that do not reverse when the treatment is withdrawn. When this is the case, which research design is recommended?
Multiple-baseline design
_____ training is training an individual to symmetrically relate arbitrary stimuli, over and over again, with multiple examples
Multiple-exemplar
A red light on a traffic signal precedes and influences behavior. We would classify a red light as a(n) _____ _____ because it _____ (in this second blank you should answer either increases or decreases) the probability that you will press down on the brake pedal with your foot. You have previously learned that this response, when emitted in the presence of red traffic lights, allows you to avoid an accident (SRA-)
Negative reinforcer; increases
NS
Neutral Stimulus (Seeing a dentist's office for the first time = no emotional response)
Before conditioning, the sound of the tuning fork was a _________ _________.
Neutral stimulus
Before conditioning, the sound of the tuning fork was a _________ __________.
Neutral stimulus
Before conditioning in Pavlov's experiments, the sound of the tuning fork was the....
Neutral stimulus because the dogs had not learned that the sound of the tuning fork will precede the delivery of the food.
During the Pavlovian conditioning process, the function of the sound of the tuning fork is changed from a __________ stimulus to a _________ stimulus.
Neutral; conditioned
Assuming that Jim & Gerry were using a well-established behavioral definition, was their IOA (80%) acceptable?
No
Is this correct? Effective punishers involve physical pain; spare the rod, spoil the child.
No
Is this correct? If the problem behavior has not occurred for some period of time, deliver another punisher; this demonstrates to the patient that the punishment contingency remains in place.
No
Two characteristics of willed actions
No triggering event Goal directed
Less willed actions
No triggering event NOT goal directed
Single-Subject Experiments
One person at a time Observe one person's behavior before treatment and during treatment Rules out individual differences Single-subject refers to the minimum number of subjects needed to compare baseline and treatment, but often test more than one subject
Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning
One way in which organisms learn to more effectively interact with their environments.
According to the book and the lecture (combined), which of the following is NOT a characteristic of single-subject designs?
Only one participant completes the study (i.e., published studies that use single-subject designs describe interventions completed with just one participant).
The book defines _________ _________ as, a generic class of responses influenced by antecedents, with each response in the class producing the same consequence.
Operant behavior
1 factor theory
Operant conditioning alone can explain SRa- momentarily preventing aversive event
A habit is defined as ____________________ behavior that is (1) evoked by antecedent stimuli and (2) persists despite the imposition of a(n) __________ _____________.
Operant; abolishing operation
Which direct-observation technique is most appropriate to measure the driver's behavior: Harvey manages the fork-lift driver on the loading dock at the warehouse. The driver's quota is 20 trucks loaded per day. Harvey is busy most of the day, but he could make some direct observations of the fork-lift driver at lunch time. Alternatively, Harvey could just count the number of trucks that are fully loaded and sitting in the parking lot at 5 pm.
Outcome Recording
Carly wants to see how effective the new "No Smoking" signs are that were posted at the entrance to her office building. She doesn`t have time to sit outside the building all day watching to see if people are smoking where it is prohibited. She decides to simply count the number of cigarette butts in the garbage cans close to the signs. Carly is using the ____________________________method of direct observation.
Outcome recording
One direct observation technique is preferred over the others because it is very accurate and it is easier to administer than the others. Which one is it?
Outcome recording
Which method of Direct Observation is preferred and why?
Outcome recording Easier and just as accurate as event recording
Two methods to observe uniform behaviors:
Outcome recording Event recording
What are the four direct observation techniques use by behavior analysts?
Outcome recording Event recording Interval recording Time-sample recording
Calculating Frequency Reliability
Overlaps = agreement Nonoverlaps = disagreement 100%xA/(A+D) Same formula as trial reliability
A verbal stimulus, like "dog" has a __________________ function if it evokes an emotional response, despite that verbal stimulus never having acquired a Pavlovian CS function.
Psychological
Harvey found, over the last 5 days, that the fork-lift driver loaded the first truck in 15 minutes or less. That means the driver could load over 30 trucks a day, well above the 20-truck quota. Harvey wants to find out how often his driver is loading trucks during the rest of the day. He decides to install a hidden camera on the dock. He plans to turn it on several times a day for 10 minutes and record if loading-behavior is occurring at all during those time periods.
Partial-Interval recording
Mary Cover-Jones published a paper in 1924 that revolutionized the treatment of phobias. What principle, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, did Cover-Jones use to decrease her client's fear of furry animals.
Pavlovian Extinction
What is the difference between Operant Behavior and Pavlovian behavior?
Pavlovian has only AB, whereas Operant has ABC
A simple automated training technique which incorporates the six principles of effective shaping is called a _____ _____ of reinforcement
Percentile schedule
Autism
Pervasive developmental disorder identified during childhood
_____ is rule-governed behavior occurring because of socially mediated consequences
Pliance
Pliance or tracking?If you know what's good for you, you will clean your room right now." The child begins cleaning the room.
Pliance - Cleaning the room is an example of rule-following that occurs because of a socially mediated consequence: avoidance of an unspecified consequence.
Pliance or tracking?The shift supervisor says, "Whoever sells the most desserts tonight wins a $50 gift certificate." The waitstaff works hard to sell desserts to their customers.
Pliance - desert selling occurs because of a socially mediated consequence: the promise of a gift certificate.
Positive, SRe, or SRa? Erik's phone signals he has received a text. Erik is driving and knows he should not look at the text but he has been expecting an important text letting him know if his brother has been released from the hospital. Erik grabs his phone and looks at the text. The text informs him that his brother is still in the hospital, so Erik drives there and pays him a visit.
Positive
Conceptualizing motivation as a mentalistic force is perfectly acceptable if our only goal is to predict behavior (those with low motivation will perform poorly and those with high motivation will perform well). But this everyday concept of motivation is not helpful if we also want to _____ _____ behavior
Positively influence
Behavioral Definition
Precise specification of the target behavior allowing observers to reliably identify instances and non-instances
In a stimulus preference assessment, several different goods are available and the individual is allowed to choose one and use/consume it. The good that is consistently chosen first will be placed at the top of the ______________________ _______________________. This good is the most likely to function as a reinforcer.
Preference Hierarchy
According to the ___________________ principle, access to a high-probability behavior will always function as a reinforcer when made contingent on emitting a low-probability behavior.
Premack
Important components of systematic desensitization:
Present an approximation of the CS that does not elicit the emotion. After the approximation is tolerated, present another, closer approximation of the CS. Repeat, being careful not to present approximations that will elicit the unwanted emotion.
Positive Reinforcement
Presentation of a consequence that increases behavior (SR+)
Alternative explanations:
Prevent you from being sure that your results mean what they say they do Until you can rule out all alternative explanations, you can't be sure that the desired effect was caused by the treatment.
A ______ reinforcer is a consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in sustaining the life of the individual or the continuation of the species.
Primary
A consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in sustaining the life of the individual or the continuation of the species is called a _______________ _____________.
Primary Reinforcer
Scott dated a married woman. He didn't know that she was married until her husband showed up at Scott's apartment and punched him squarely in the face. It has been 20 years since this incident occurred and, during that time, Scott never dated another married woman. The punch in the face appears to have functioned as a...
Primary punisher
Reinforcement
Process/procedure whereby a reinforcer increases operant behavior above baseline level. This is a process, not a moral good. No guarantee that behavior will be good/desirable.
Baruch Spinoza's Rejection of Dualism
Proposed that: Humans are entirely physical Because there is no spiritual mind, behavior must be determined by biological and environmental events.
The textbook outlines four guidelines for effectively using timeout from positive reinforcement. Which one of the following is NOT one of those guidelines?
Provide no more than three verbal warnings before putting the child in timeout.
A(n) ____________________ is defined as a contingent consequence that decreases the future probability of behavior.
Punisher
Vivitrol is a once-a-month shot given to opiate-addicted individuals after they have been through a detoxification program. Vivitrol is a molecule that binds to dopamine receptors, which prevents heroin and other opiates from having most (but not all) of their positive-reinforcing effects. The makers of Vivitrol decreased the reinforcing efficacy of heroin by manipulating what dimension of effective reinforcement?
Quality or size
Here is a second set of data from this same subject: Source Responses Reinforcers __________________________________ 1 5 3 2 63 19 __________________________________ Thinking back to the book/lecture materials on Herrnstein's matching law, i.e., B1/(B1+B2) = R1/(R1+R2) please fill in the blanks below:
R1= 5 R2=63 B1= 3 B2= 19
Here are some data that we collected with human subjects making choices about how to earn money. There were two sources of reinforcement. Both sources operated according to a VI schedule of reinforcement. Source Responses Reinforcers __________________________________ 1 67 19 2 5 2 _________________________________ Thinking back to the book/lecture materials on Herrnstein's matching law, i.e., B1/(B1+B2) = R1/(R1+R2) please fill in the blanks below:
R1= 67 R2= 5 B1= 19 B2= 2
Private events
Refer to complex human actions that people often see as mental. Happen inside the body/mind. (thinking and visualizing) Does not cause behavior, but often precedes it.
Difference between reflex behavior and operant behavior:
Reflex behavior= involuntary behavior Operant behavior = voluntary behavior
Elicit
Reflexive response
To treat an abstraction as though it were a concrete thing is the definition of ____________________.
Reification
In Herrnstein's matching equation RL and RR refer to the rates of ______________ programmed on the left and right alternatives, respectively.
Reinforcement
Josh usually cries to get an early snack. On Wednesday night, when Josh cried before snack time, the parents ignored it. A few minutes later, Josh cried, cursed, and started throwing things at his parents. They were horrified. They lovingly calmed him down for 5 minutes and then gave him a bowl of ice-cream. Thereafter, the parents an increase in Josh's cursing and violet behavior. It appears that the parents have used what behavioral procedure?
Reinforcement
Constraint induced therapy has proven to be effective not only in promoting the reacquisition of motor behavior lost in a stroke, but also in new neural activity in the human motor cortex. Constraint induced therapy uses which behavioral principle to promote this learning?
Reinforcement Extinction Differential reinforcement Gradual increase in the reinforcement contingency after preceding contingency is mastered
_____ is the process or procedure whereby a _____ increases operant behavior above its baseline level.
Reinforcement; reinforcer
A contingent consequence that increases the future probability of the target behavior is called a ______________________.
Reinforcer
Non-disruptive
Reinforcing on-going behavior is easier than with backup reinforcer
Reversal Design (ABAB)
Replication within 1 individual, do this with a 2nd individual, both get the intervention, Average is not across both subjects
A mathematical equation that describes how and when a neutral stimulus will acquire CS function.
Rescorla-Wagner Theory
What theory did Kamin's blocking experiment support and which did it refute? It supported __________________ and it refuted _________________.
Rescorla-Wagner theory; temporal contiguity theory
Evoke
Response to a stimulus
Rule-governed or contingency shaped?Stenny thinks the stop sign at the corner of 7th and Main streets is stupid. No one is ever there, so stopping seems unnecessary and it slows him down. Nonetheless, Stenny stops every time he comes to the corner of 7th and Main.
Rule-Governed: Stenny is following the rule posted on the stop sign. Because the rule is not well suited to the operative contingencies of reinforcement and punishment, we can be sure that his behavior is not contingency shaped.
_____ behavior is influenced by a verbal description of the operative three-term contingency
Rule-governed
Rule-governed or contingency shaped?When he was young, Steve was told to chew his food 40 times before swallowing. He followed this rule throughout his life, despite never experiencing any negative consequences when he occasionally chewed less, nor any positive consequences for chewing 40 times.
Rule-governed: The verbal rule was followed, but not because of any reinforcement or punishment contingencies
Sarah would frequently throw temper tantrums at home but not at school. The behavior analyst called in by Sarah's parents found that tantrums were reinforced at home with attention and the removal of unpleasant tasks (e.g., homework, chores). At school, tantrums were ignored (at least that is what the teacher says, because the behavior analyst never saw a tantrum at school). Home is a(n) __________ for throwing tantrums.
SD
Discrimination Training in African Rats w/ Landmines
SD explosives → digging → reinforcer is possible SΔ explosives → digging → no reinforcer possible
A few years ago, my daughter made a cute card in which she asked if I would take her to Lagoon (a local amusement park). I thought it was so adorable that I took her to Lagoon. Subsequently, she made a similar card and gave it to my wife. It would appear that making cute cards is operant behavior maintained with...
SR+
When my son took swimming lessons he hated getting water in his eyes. When it was his turn to put his head under the water, he threw a tantrum. The teacher gave him a "time out," which allowed him to avoid the dunk. After that day, my son reliably threw a tantrum when it was his turn to put his head under water. The teacher seems to have inadvertently used a _______________________ procedure. SRL-
SRA-
The subway in Mexico City is very reliable. It arrives in the station every 3 minutes. Gary enters the station just as a train is pulling out. Gary sits down on a bench and reads his paper. He looks for the train a few minutes into his wait. As time goes by, he looks down the tunnel for the train more frequently. This PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR is called a fixed-interval _____________________.
Scallop
The subway trains in Mexico City are very reliable. They arrive in the station every 4 minutes. Madison enters the station just as a train is pulling out, so she knows it will be a little while before the next train arrives. Madison sits down on a bench and scrolls through her social-media feed. A few minutes later, she looks up to see if she can see a train coming down the tracks. Nothing. Maybe 30 s later, she looks down the tracks again but doesn't see a train. About 30 s later, she puts her phone away, stands up and continuously looks down the track until she can see the train approaching at a distance. This pattern of behavior is called a fixed-interval...
Scallop
Sir Francis Bacon introduced to the world a fourth way in which to deal with difficult situations. What was that fourth way?
Science
Structuralist Movement
Scientists studying behaviorism interested in the structure of the human mind. Unsuccessful, abandoned in 1930s.
Behavior analysts don't like to use ____________-_______________ measures of behavior because people often can't remember their own behavior, and people are often motivated to exaggerate how often they engage in socially acceptable behaviors such as exercising and washing your hands after using the toilet.
Self-report
Behavior analysts don't like to use ______________ measures of behavior (they prefer direct observations).
Self-report
The book describes a method of observing behavior in which one tries to remember the behavior of interest at a later time. The unreliable method of data collection is called ______________.
Self-report
Behavioral game theorists have arranged games like the Public Goods Game (4 players decide whether or not to contribute $1 to a group project, with everyone in the group equally splitting the money earned from the project). When this game is played without punishment the stable pattern of behavior is ____________________. When the game is played with the opportunity to pay to punish the behavior of others, the stable pattern of behavior is _______________________.
Selfishness; cooperation
There are 3 approaches to promoting generalization that the book talks about. Which one is the following an example of: The behavior analyst has trained an adaptive behavior in a small room containing an orange chair and a wooden desk. She wants the adaptive behavior to generalize to the child's home. So, she takes the orange chair to the client's home and puts it in her room.
Similar stimuli
science
Sir Frances Bacon suggested we turn to this to better the human condition
Observer drift
Slight, unconscious changes to the behavioral definition over time that can negatively impact the validity of the data.
When the behavioral definition captures the important characteristics of the target behavior (e.g., the teacher agrees that your definition of "on-task" is an accurate description of what he/she means when he thinks of on-task behavior) we say that the definition has good _________________________
Social validity
According to Rescola-Wagner theory, learning occurs when the organism is _________ by an event occurring in the environment.
Surprised
Learning happens when the organism is ____________ .
Surprised
biological and environmental
Spinoza proposed that behavior is determined by what events?
The textbook shows these data, collected by B. F. Skinner (1938) to illustrate that when the individual returns to a second extinction session, with no reinforcement of the operant response in between, the behavior suddenly begins anew. What is this phenomenon called?
Spontaneous Recovery
Imagine that Mary Cover Jones worked with her client, Peter, for one session. At the end of the session, Mary presents the furry animal and Peter shows no fear. Two days later, Mary returns, rabbit in hand, and Peter demonstrates a moderately strong fear response. Pavlov discovered this behavioral phenomenon too. He called it ____________.
Spontaneous recovery
Imagine that Mary Cover Jones worked with her client, Peter, for one session. By the end of the session, Dr. Cover Jones presents the furry animal and Peter shows no fear. Two days later, Peter returns to the therapist's office, encounters the rabbit, and experiences a moderately strong fear response. This increase in conditioned responding following the passage of time since the last session is known as...
Spontaneous recovery
Reversal Design:
Start with a comparison design, then reverse from treatment back to baseline. A-B-A or baseline-treatment-reversal to baseline. Rules out both individual differences and time coincidences. Internal validity may be established
There is a robust correlation between _____ delay discounting and substance-use disorders.
Steep
Visual Analysis How-To
Step 1 - draw a trend arrow through the baseline data to predict what will happen if the independent variable is never turned ON Step 2 - evaluate if behavior in baseline is too variable (bouncy) to have confidence in the prediction of the trend arrow Step 3 - draw trend or level lines through the intervention data. Evaluate if there is a convincing change in trend or level (whichever change is of interest)
More than one stimulus is referred to stimuli. The plural of stimulus is ______________.
Stimuli
The definition of a ________________ is "a thing you see, hear, smell, taste, or feel."
Stimulus
The word stimulus refers to some aspect of the environment that can be observed (seen, heard, smelled, etc.) by a living organism. Thus, the color red is a _______________.
Stimulus
_____ _____ occurs when an individual treats all of the stimuli as, in many ways, equivalent to one another
Stimulus equivalence
What does behavior analysis do?
Studies the biological and environmental determinants of behavior.
A _____ reinforcer is a reinforcer that is increasingly consumed when access to another reinforcer is constrained.
Substitute
___________________________ behavior occurs when the individual behaves as though a response-consequence contingency exists when, in fact, the relation between response and consequence is noncontingent.
Superstitious
Mary Cover Jones placed Peter (a 2 year old boy deathly afraid of rats, rabbits, and most other furry objects) in a large room and placed a caged rabbit 12 feet away. Not afraid. Systematically moved the cage closer when she was certain that Peter was perfectly calm. Eventually the cage was brought next to Peter and when he expressed interest in the rabbit, it was released from the cage and allowed to hop about the room. As Peter remained calm, Mary held the rabbit and let Peter pet it. In later sessions, Peter held the rabbit, played with the rabbit, and let the rabbit nibble at his fingers.
Systematic desensitization
Today, Mary Cover Jones' technique is called ___________ ___________.
Systematic desensitization
_____ is a verbal operant occasioned by a nonverbal stimulus and maintained by a variety of social reinforcers
Tact
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Jango is flying in to Paris for the first time. He looks out the window and sees the Eifel Tower. He excitedly says to the person sitting next to him, "Look, it's the Eifel Tower!" The person next to him looks out the window and nods, saying, "I've never seen it from the air."
Tact: The verbal response is occasioned by the sight of the Eifel Tower. The tact is socially reinforced by the passenger's nodding and appreciative reply.
Echoic, mand, tact, or intraverbal?Simone has an office with a window and sees that it is snowing outside. She loves the snow and walks to the interior of the building, where her co-workers do not have access to a window. She says, "It's snowing! It's snowing!" Her coworkers respond positively to this news, though not as positively as Simone.
Tact: The verbal response is occasioned by the sight of the snow. The tact is socially reinforced by her co-workers' positive responses.
Applied Behavior Analysis
Taking the basic principles of behavior and using them in applied settings. I.e.: treating people with mental retardation, schizophrenia, autism, and other disabilities
Reactivity Effect:
The behavior of the individual being observed changes simply because they are being observed.
Response-consequence contingency
The causal relation between an operant behavior and its consequence.
The book discusses three things learned during Pavlovian conditioning. The second of these was discussed while referring to the inset figure. What is the second thing learned during Pavlovian conditioning?
The conditioned stimulus signals when the unconditioned stimulus will occur
Operational Definition
The operations used to measure the concept being defined. Not the same as a behavioral definition
Baseline:
The period of an experiment without treatment
Social Validity:
The correlation between ratings by outside judges and observations by trained observers.
When a behavior analyst is assessing the reliability (IOA) of his/her observations, what is being assessed?
The degree to which his/her observations agree with those made by another observer.
In the "Little Albert" study, which of the following functioned as a CR?
The fear response emitted by Albert
Edward L. Thorndike
The first scientist to definitively demonstrate that consequences influenced behavior (cat puzzle boxes)
In the "Little Albert" study, which of the following functioned as a CS?
The furry object
Mutually Exclusive:
The last three data points in each condition have no overlapping values
Treatment:
The method introduced to modify the rate of a behavior
Self-report observations:
The observer relies on their memory of the behavior. (i.e. questionnaires and interviews)
Punishment is common in nature, in our everyday lives, and is a procedure frequently used by parents, managers, and the police. However, punishment is much less often used by behavior analysts who work in clinical settings. For these clinical behavior analysts, punishment is only used when...
The problem behavior is dangerous to self or others
Returning to the experiment described in Question 5, what will happen to our rat's rate of moving the pole after this phase change?
The rate of moving the pole will decrease
Uncondtioned Stimulus
The stimulus that already evokes an uconditional response. Ex. Meat(UCS)-->salivation (UCR).
Behavior analysis:
The study of environmental events that change behavior.
What is a variable?
The thing that the behavioral scientist studies because he/she thinks it will affect behavior
The behavior is stable when...
The trend arrow drawn through the first and third of the last three data points in each condition is flat or very nearly flat.
Why do behavior analysts use reinforcer surveys and stimulus preference assessments?
These are used to identify potentially effective reinforcers
Heuristic terms such as "grumpy" are useful in what way?
They are useful if your goal is to predict behavior
In the second wave of behavior therapy, the human mind was conceptualized as a computer, an information processing device. The mind takes in the stimuli in the environment, processes them in some way, and then produces an output - emotions and behavior. What new technique (i.e., something not previously used) did second-wave therapists use to treat individuals suffering from psychological problems such as anxiety and depression?
They challenged the content of their client's cognition and attempted to replace it with more rational self-talk.
Common between Experimental designs?
They turn the independent variable on and off
Janet was concerned that her infant son was spending too much time sleeping on his stomach. Because she didn`t have enough time to watch her baby sleep all the time (she needed to sleep too, you know), she decided to peek in on her child and record his sleeping position once every 30 minutes or so. Janet limits her observation to a very quick peek (about 3 seconds). Janet is using the _____________________________ method of direct observation?
Time Sample
One direct observation technique involves quickly looking at the individual(s) to see if they are engaged in the behavior at the moment that you look at them. It's almost as if you are taking a picture of the person when you are making the direct observation - if they are engaged in the behavior at that moment, then you record the response. If not, then you indicate that the behavior did not occur. Which direct observation technique is this?
Time-sample recording
One direct observation technique is appropriate when you are observing more than one person (or more than one behavior) at the same time. Which one is it?
Time-sample recording
Which method of direct observation is least accurate?
Time-sample recording Only used when simultaneously observing multiple behaviors or multiple people.
Most people today have first-hand experience with the negative punishment technique known as ______ _______ ______ ______. This method of punishment was pioneered in the animal lab and adapted for use with humans by Dr. Montrose Wolf. This effective method of punishment has largely replaced the physical punishments previously used by parents; e.g., smacking, hitting, spanking, and whipping with a switch.
Timeout from positive reinforcement
What are the goals of behavior analysis?
To accurately predict behavior, and to discover functional variables that may be used to positively influence behavior.
Why do we want to predict behavior?
To create positive responses
Purpose of a single-subject design:
To expose the same person to all conditions in the experiment, thus eliminating the alternative explanation of individual difference.
Why explain behavior?
To predict behavior. To influence behavior.
What is reification?
To treat an abstaction as though it had concrete existence.
What is reification?
To treat an abstraction as though it had concrete existence.
A conditioned reinforcement intervention known as the ________ ________ was pioneered in mental institutions, and was later adapted for use in schools and business settings. The intervention is a set of rules governing the delivery of response-contingent conditioned reinforcers (e.g., points) that may be later exchanged for one or more backup reinforcers.
Token economy
____ is rule-following occurring because the instructions appear to correctly describe operant contingencies that operate in the world
Tracking
Pliance or tracking?A man sits in Angel's section of the diner. As she is approaching him, Marge stops and says, "Give that man really good service; he's a good tipper." Angel provides good service and receives a large tip in return.
Tracking - Angel followed the rule, not because of any consequences that Marge would deliver, but because Marge's rule appeared to correctly describe a contingency of reinforcement - IF you provide good service, THEN you will get a good tip.
Pliance or tracking?Lynn's toilet is overflowing and she needs to turn the water off now! She reaches down to the water supply knob and remembers her dad's rule, "Righty tighty, left loosey." She turns the knob to the right and the water stops flowing out of the toilet and onto the floor.
Tracking - Lynn's father was not there to provide any consequences for rule following. Instead, she follows the rule because it correctly describes are reinforcement contingency - IF the knob is turned right, THEN the water supply will be shut off.
Pliance or tracking?In April, Atticus told his father that the Lady Gaga episode was the worst episode of the Simpsons. In June, his father is channel surfing and the Lady Gaga episode of the Simpsons comes on. Atticus' father changes the channel.
Tracking - the father changes the channel, not because Atticus is present to deliver a consequences, but because Atticus' rule appears to correctly describe an operant contingency
One-time treatments:
Treatments that are ongoing Can't use a reversal design with these types of treatments because you can't "undo" the treatment.
Two forms of IOA:
Trial Reliability Frequency Reliability
As a child, Gregory was often in trouble with his parents. When he engaged in inappropriate behavior, his father would always whip him with a belt after coming home from work (it was the 1960s). Despite these many spankings, Gregory kept engaging in mischievous behaviors. What Gregory's parents did not know was that while waiting for his father to come home, belt at the ready, Gregory was putting on 3 pairs of underwear and 3 pairs of jeans. Thus, as the belt whipping was occurring, Gregory was in no pain at all (but he did put on a good show of crying). What principle of effective punishment were Gregory's parents not able to adhere to, because of Gregory's mischievous behavior? In contemplating your answer, do not read anything into the scenario that is not clearly specified.
Use a punisher in the Goldilocks zone- neither too aversive nor so benign that it does not decrease the problem behavior
Event recording
Use if the uniform behavior does not produce a unique result. Must be observed during the occurrence of the response. Do not leave a unique result. Observer often counts how many times the behavior occurs.
When to use Outcome recording
Use when interested in the frequency of behavior and only if distinct, observable, and lasting.
Multiple-Baseline Design
Used when intervention is expected to produce irreversible effect. If it would be unethical to do a reversable design. Series of A-B comparisons conducted at lags either across different behavior, individuals, or settings.
Trial Reliability:
Used when they can compare each observation of two observers
Frequency Reliability:
Used when they can only compare the total observations
Problems with self-reports
Usually inaccurate or of unknown accuracy Lack detail Often cannot be checked Are often wrong
Pat can never tell when his drug dealer is going to be home. When he is in need of a fix, he finds himself driving past his dealer`s house over and over again. As soon as his dealer arrives, Pat sees his car parked out front, he goes in and scores what he needs. What schedule of reinforcement is looking for the dealer`s car on? (you do not need to specify the schedule value).
VI
Which schedule of reinforcement is most like gambling?
VR
Jacqueline worked at the telephone-sales office. She called 15 people before someone purchased her product. Then she called 10 people and the 10th bought what she was selling. When she started again, the fifth person that she called bought it. What schedule is she working under thus far (please specify the schedule value)?
VR 10
Most of the time when Gary calls his ex-girlfriend she doesn't answer the phone. However, Gary's ex-girlfriend occasionally feels sorry for Gary and answers the phone when she sees he is calling. When she does, Gary always gets her to say that there is a chance that they could get back together (a very small chance, but a chance nonetheless). Assuming that this bit of good news functions as a reinforcer, and that Gary's ex-girlfriend answers the phone, on average, on Gary's third call, what is the operative reinforcement schedule (please specify the schedule value; e.g., FR 14)?
VR 3
Which schedule of reinforcement maintains the most behavior and, at high schedule values, is preferred over other schedules?
VR schedules
_____ is client-selected qualities of behavior that may be continuously emitted without reaching an end-goal
Values
Austin can never tell when his drug dealer is going to be home. When he needs a fix, he drives past his dealer`s house over and over again - his dealer told him to never park out front and wait. As soon as Austin sees that the dealer's car is parked out front, Austin goes in and scores what he needs. If the behavior of interest is driving past the dealer's house, and the reinforcer is seeing that Austin's car is out front, what schedule of reinforcement is in operation?
Variable-interval
Which schedule of reinforcement a) maintains the highest response rate, b) is preferred over all other schedules, c) is described by humans as "fun", and d) is programmed into slot machines?
Variable-ratio
Alexis got a new job selling aluminum siding for people's homes; so far, she has made three sales. To make the sales, she visits the homes of those who have completed an online form requesting someone come to their house to provide a cost estimate. In her first week on the job, she visited 15 houses before making one sale. After that, she visited 5 houses before making another sale. She thought she was getting better at the job, but then it took 10 more house-visits before she made her third sale. What schedule of reinforcement is Alexis working under thus far?
Variable-ratio 10
Which of the following is not one of the three problems with reification?
Venn diagrammatic inconsistencies (Circular logic, Because you cannot experimentally manipulate a reified "thing" this means that we cannot manipulate the cause of behavior. From a therapeutic standpoint, that puts us in a bad position, When an individual believes that they possess a reified thing, like a personality, this belief seems to constrict the behavior the individual is willing to engage in. ARE PROBLEMS WITH REIFICATION)
This quote was cited at the end of Chapter 4. To whom does it refer? Dr. _________________________ was proving one thing that no amount of debate could refute - Behaviorism could make money.
Watson; who went into advertising after he resigned from Johns Hopkins University
Reasons for using Alternating Treatments Design
When trying to understand why bad behavior occurs
Visually analyzing multiple-baseline data
When visually analyzing data from 2 people, do so to each person's data separately using the same approach as before. If both were convincing differences, you could conclude that treatment caused the differences
Time Sample Recording
When you can't continuously record one behavior. Sample a behavior: observe it only a part of the time. Record a response if one behavior occurs within one of a series of discontinuous intervals. Used to sample one or more behaviors during an observation period or on multiple people.
Spinoza
Which scientist rejected Descartes' Framework?
The _________ ________ problem refers to our inability to suppress thinking of things that are verbally named. This symmetric relational responding, a behavior we acquired decades ago, can backfire if our thoughts are filled with verbal stimuli such as "sad", "anxious", or "unloveable".
White Bear
Pavlov
Who discovered classical conditioning?
Thorndike
Who discovered that consequences influence animal behavior
Darwin
Who suggested we study animal behavior to learn about human behavior?
Skinner
Who was considered a radical behaviorist
the mind is an activity of the body
Why did Spinoza reject Descartes' Framework?
Theory of will
Will happens first, the the action
Is the stimulus change a reinforcer? Anderson received his package after placing his order on Amazon. Although Anderson hates that Amazon treats their fulfillment center employees badly, he buys a lot of stuff on Amazon. It's just so convenient! However, if Anderson's orders were never delivered to his house, he would eventually stop buying things from Amazon.
Yes
Is the stimulus change a reinforcer? When Kleiner moved to Wales, he found that using an umbrella was useless in the rain because the wind kept inverting his umbrella. Frustrated with this (and how wet he was getting in the rain) Kleiner noticed that the Welsh people wore raincoats and rain pants. On his way home that evening, Kleiner bought some rain gear at a local shop. The next day, Kleiner wore his rain gear outside and avoided getting wet (not to mention avoiding wrestling with his umbrella). Thereafter, Kleiner wears his rain gear every time it is raining (which it is almost every day in Wales).
Yes
Is this stimulus change a reinforcer? MacLean cut her finger so she immediately drove to the hospital. At the hospital, she was required to complete some forms, was eventually seen by a physician, and was released with 10 stitches
Yes
The second problem with reification was _________
You can't experimentally manipulate a reified abstraction.
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer
a conditioned reinforcer signals a delay reduction to more than one backup reinforcer
Automatic Reinforcer
a consequence that is directly produced by the response - it is not provided by someone else - and which increases the behavior above a no-reinforcer baseline
Negative Reinforcement of the Avoidance Variety (SRA-)
a consequent prevention of a stimulus change, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level
Negative Reinforcement of the Escape Variety (SRE-)
a consequent removal or reduction of a stimulus, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level
Punisher
a contingent consequence that decreases the future probability of behavior below its pre-punishment level
Primary Punisher
a contingent consequence that functions as a punisher because, in the evolutionary past of the species, this consequence decreased the chances of survival
Conditioned Punisher
a contingent consequence that signals a delay reduction to a backup punisher (also learned)
Differential Reinforcement of Variability
a differential reinforcement procedure in which repetition is extinguished and novel responding is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement of Low-Rate Behavior (DRL)
a differential reinforcement procedure in which responding at a rate above a specified threshold is extinguished and responding at a rate below that threshold is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement of High-Rate Behavior (DRH)
a differential reinforcement procedure in which responding at a rate below a specified threshold is extinguished and responding at a rate above that threshold is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
a differential reinforcement procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished and abstaining from this behavior for a specified interval of time is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA)
a differential reinforcement procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished while a different (alternative) response is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
a differential reinforcement procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished while a different response - one that cannot be emitted while engaged in the problem behavior - is reinforced
Functional Communication Training
a differential reinforcement procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished while an adaptive verbal response is reinforced
Partial-Interval Recording
a direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether or not the behavior occurs during any portion of each in a series of contiguous intervals
Differential Reinforcement
a procedure in which a previously reinforced behavior is placed on extinction while a second behavior is reinforced
Discrimination Training
a procedure in which an operant response is reinforced in the presence of an SD and extinguished in the presence of an SΔ
Independent Variable
a publicly observable change, controlled by the experimenter, which is anticipated to influence behavior in a specific way
Stimulus Preference Assessment
a rank-ordered list of preferred stimuli is obtained by observing choices between those stimuli
Pavlovian Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers
a reinforcing consequence, whether it is a primary or conditioned reinforcer, increases behavior above a baseline level; individual has to learn something before the conditioned reinforcer works
backup reinforcer
a reinforcing product or service that may be purchased with other conditioned reinforcers
Habits are formed when...
a response has been repeatedly reinforced, hundreds, if not thousands of times in the presence of the same antecedent stimulus.
Token Economy
a set of rules governing the delivery of response-contingent conditioned reinforcers (tokens, points, etc.) that may be later exchanged for one or more backup reinforcers
Timeout (from positive reinforcement)
a signaled response-contingent suspension of a positive-reinforcement contingency, the effect of which decreases the future probability of problem behavior
Percentile Schedule of Reinforcement
a simple automated training technique incorporating the six principles of effective shaping
Flow
a state in which one feels immersed in a rewarding activity and in which we lose track of time and self
Typical Pattern of Responding Under a VI Schedule
a steady, moderate response rate with little to no post-reinforcement pause
Neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
Unconditioned Stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response without any prior learning (for example, a biscuit in the dog's mouth elicits salivation)
Reinforcer Survey
a structured interview or written survey that asks the individual to identify highly preferred activities
Extinction Burst
a temporary increase in the rate, magnitude, or duration of the previously reinforced response
Premack Priniciple
access to a high-probability behavior will function as a reinforcer when made contingent upon a low-probability behavior
Goals
accurately predict behavior, discover functional variables
Inter-observer agreement
agreements/agreements+disagreements×100
SD (discriminative stimulus)
an antecedent stimulus that can evoke a specific operant response because the individual has learned that when the SD is present, that response will be reinforced
SDp
an antecedent stimulus that decreases a specific operant response because the individual has learned that when the SDp is present, that response will be punished
SΔ
an antecedent stimulus that decreases a specific operant response because the individual has learned that when the SΔ is present, that response will not be reinforced (extinction)
Prompt
an antecedent stimulus that facilitates or guides the desired response when it is not happening under appropriate discriminative-stimulus control
uncondtioned response
an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus
Motivating Operation (MO)
an environmental and/or biological event that (1) temporarily alters the value of the a specific reinforcer and (2) increases/decreases the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer
Abolishing Operation (AO)
an environmental and/or biological event that (1) temporarily decreases the value of a specific reinforcer and (2) decreases the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer
Establishing Operation (EO)
an environmental and/or biological event that (1) temporarily increases the value of a specific reinforcer and (2) increases the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer
What role does exploration play in operant behavior?
an essential ingredient in operant learning is response variability in order to obtain a reinforcer to increase behavior
single subject
an experimental design where subject is observed before and after treatment
Behavior
an individual living organism's activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation
Antecedent Stimulus
an observable stimulus that is present before the behavior occurs
Habits are formed when...
an operant response has been repeatedly reinforced, hundred, if not thousands, of times in the presence of the same antecedent stimulus
What is the definition of an SD (this would be the definition provided in lecture; 3 pts)? A(n) _____________ stimulus that ______________ the probability of a specific behavior because, in the past, that behavior was reinforced in the presence of that stimulus.
antecedent increases
What is the definition of an S∆ (3 pts)? A(n) _________ stimulus that ________________the probability of a specific behavior because, in the past, that behavior was extinguishedin the presence of that stimulus.
antecedent decreases
observer drift
anything that moves you away from the behavioral definition
Applied behavior analysis:
apply the principles of behavior to modify human behavior that causes suffering.
Comparison (AB) Design
arranges a baseline (A) phase (independent variable OFF) and an experimental (B) phase (independent variable ON)
Self-Reports
asks the individual to recall if they have engaged in the behavior
2 Factor Theory
avoidance consequence is fear reduction. Issue=CS can no longer elicit fear.
Just before our cat vomits on the floor, she always makes a gag response where she opens her mouth wide and makes an AGHGHGHGHG sound. This sound is not aversive but as soon as we hear it, we run her outside so we can prevent her from vomiting inside the house (which would be aversive). Our running the cat outside is an example of an ______________ response maintained by ____________________.
avoidance; SRA-
Why are scientists (and other people) interested in explaining human behavior? Why would this be useful? TWO of the following are correct (choose the two that are correct).
b. So that they can predict behavior (e.g., it would be nice to know if a parolee is going to commit future crimes). c. So that they can influence behavior (e.g., it would be nice to be able to provide a treatment to prison inmates that would guarantee that they will not commit another crime).
What does it mean to say that behavior is determined?
behavior has a cause, or multiple causes
Operant Behavior
behavior influenced by antecedent and consequent events
First Assumption of Behavioral Analysis
behavior is determined
Assumptions
behavior is determined, mentalistic explanations
Direct-Observation
behavior is recorded as the behavior occurs, or a lasting product of the behavior is recorded at a later time
Extinction has four typical effects on behavior. The first three are as follows. First, it decreases the operant behavior that previously was instrumental in acquiring the reinforcer. Second, it increases _______________, and third, it _________________ response variability.
behavior that has previously been successful in acquiring that reinforcer; increases
communication and consistent
behavioral definitions allow for clear what and what observations with others?
Phylogenetically Selected Behaviors
behaviors we inherit them from our parents, who inherited them from their parents, and so on
What is the shape of the generalization gradient?
bell-shaped curve
Reward
beneficial consequences that we think will function as reinforcers, but we don't know yet if they will
What do breakpoints tell us about a reinforcer's efficacy?
breakpoint is a measure of reinforcer efficacy - the higher the breakpoint, the more reinforcing the consequence is
2nd Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
combine punishment with extinction and/or differential reinforcement
Does reinforcement inhibit creativity and cause people to choke under pressure?
commissioned pieces limit creativity; contingencies arranging very large rewards would appear to increase the probability of choking under pressure
4 Single-Subject Designs
comparison, reversal, alternating-treatments, and multiple-baseline design
Francis Bacon was not a behavior analyst (there was no such thing as behavior analysis in the 15-1600's). Nonetheless, he had an important impact on behavior analysis. Specifically, Bacon argued that scientists should
conduct experiments so as to discover practical solutions to problems faced by human society.
If a behavior occurs without a triggering event and the behavior appears to be goal directed, most people would say that the behavior is
consciously willed
Conditioned Reinforcer
consequences that function as reinforcers only after learning occurs
Temporal ________ means presented close in time.
contiguity
At the prison, inmates could earn tokens that they could exchange for TV privileges, a hot shower, free exercise time in the yard, etc. These tokens were supposed to reinforce appropriate behavior (e.g., reading a book, talking to your neighbor without cursing, exercising, writing a letter). One day the behavior analyst returned to the prison and found that one of the prison psychologists had given everyone free tokens. He felt that the prisoners would only behave appropriately if they were given unconditional love. The behavior analysts used that as an opportunity to explain to the psychologist that by giving free tokens he violated the principle of ____________________.
contingency
4 Dimensions of Reinforcer Efficacy
contingency, reinforcer size, quality, immediacy
What are the reinforcers that maintain the behavior of using punishment?
contingent, large, high-quality, and immediate
Event Recording
each instance of behavior is recorded at the moment it occurs
Event recording
each instance of behavior is recorded at the moment it occurs
What effect did punishment have on cooperation? (lecture)
decreases selfishness, increases cooperation
Behavior Analysis
defined by goals, assumptions and activities
4th Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
deliver punishers contingently
3rd Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
deliver punishers immediately
Response-Consequence Contingency
describes the causal (IF - THEN) relation between an operant behavior and its consequence
Shaping involves the _____________ reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior.
differential
Mrs. Hopper asked Martha to sing a C-sharp after she played it on the piano. When Martha sang off-key, Mrs. Hopper said nothing and played the note again. When Martha hit the note, Mrs. Hopper said "That`s it. Beautiful!" After two lessons, Martha could sing the C-sharp very accurately. What procedure was Mrs. Hopper using?
differential reinforcement
When Dave hits the tennis ball using his forehand stroke he almost always gets the ball over the net. When he hits the ball with his backhand, he never gets the ball over the net. Dave hits a lot of forehands and avoids the backhand. What behavioral procedure accounts for Dave's behavior?
differential reinforcement
Shaping
differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior
Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)
direct relation between prior reinforcement rate and how quickly behavior undergoes extinction
Payton Manning (the quarterback for the Denver Broncos football team) sees player #89, throws the ball to him, and player #89 catches the ball. On the next play he sees player #91, throws the ball to him, and player #91 drops the ball. In the future, Manning is more likely to throw to #89 than he is to throw the ball to #91 because of what behavioral procedure? You may assume that throwing the ball to a player is one behavior.
discrimination training
If reinforcement is changed and now it is delivered non-contingently, response rates will go...
down
Extinction-Induced Emotional Behavior
emotional responses induced by extinction that lead to frustration, anger, and even aggression
Group Experimental Designs
evaluate if the behavior of a treatment group (independent variable ON) is statistically significantly different from that of a control group (independent variable OFF). If so, then the difference is attributed to the independent variable
Multiple-Baseline Design
evaluates the functional relation between an independent variable and behavior by conducting a series of time-staggered A-B comparisons either across behaviors, across situations, or across individuals
Public Behavior
everyone can observe it happening
Empirical
evidence must be observable
Single-subject design
experiment with 1 individual, very useful for clinicians.
Problems with reification
explain behavior by reification uses circular logic (cause/effect). Does not give a FV that we can turn on and off.
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior
What are the defining features of a single-subject experimental design?
expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior
In the 1980`s many scientific psychologists left the American Psychological Association (APA) after they had been members for many years. They complained that after years of acceptable service, the APA suddenly offered them nothing (no support for scientific research, no science programming at the convention, no lobbying Washington in the name of science, etc). What behavioral procedure accounts for scientific psychologists no longer renewing their APA membership in the 1980`s?
extinction
On Jim`s old word processing software, pressing the F3 key saved his file and Jim pressed this often when he wanted to save the file he was working on. When Jim got his new word processing software, the F3 key did nothing when it was pressed. After a while, Jim stopped pressing the F3 key. This procedure that accounts for the change in Jim's F3 key pressing behavior is called _________________.
extinction
Tom wanted to go out with Caroline. He asked her out and she said "No." This was surprising to Tom because most women said "Yes" when he asked them out. Tom asked Caroline a few more times, but she kept saying "No." Eventually Tom stopped asking. Whether she knows it or not,Caroline used __________________ to get Tom to stop asking her out.
extinction
When a previously reinforced behavior is emitted but the reinforcer is not delivered, this procedure is called...
extinction
Primary Punisher Example
extreme cold or heat, absence of food or water
Stimulus-Response Chain
fixed sequence of operant responses, each evoked by a response-produced SD
Positive psychologists have found that humans who are happy report that they are engaged in goal-directed behavior that is being constantly shaped toward a better performance. Researchers like Csikszentmihalyi (2000) refer to this as _____________________.
flow
1st Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
focus on reinforcement first
Importance of Latency
for when target behavior needs to happen quickly.
What are the four dimensions along which behavior can be measured?
frequency, latency, duration, magnitude
According to the Partial Reinforcement Effect, a behavior that is reinforced _________________ will undergo extinction rapidly.
frequently
What does PREE allow us to predict?
frequently reinforced behavior will quickly return to baseline levels after extinction begins
"Could you please pass the Grey Poupon?" In this statement, the individual who is speaking is attempting to influence the behavior of the individual who is listening. Within the sentence, the speaker has used a contextual stimulus. The contextual stimulus alters the ______________of one of the objects on the table (shown below). All of the objects on the table are observed by the listener prior to the listener's reacting to the speaker's request (i.e., they are all antecedent stimuli). After hearing the speaker's request, one of the objects now functions as a _____________________and the rest function as ________________ 's.
function SD s-delta
A neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly before the delivery of a US (e.g., food). After this sequence is presented several times, the neutral stimulus will ______________________.
function as a CS
In the picture above, the image of the baby elicits a feeling of happiness. We refer to this as a _______________ relation between the image and the emotion.
functional
When a novel stimulus that resembles the SDincreases the probability of a specific behavior, we call this an example of
generalization
Habituation
gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus
Fading
gradual removal of a prompt as the response is increasingly emitted under discriminative-stimulus control
Learned behavior
habituation=gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus
Spontaneous Recovery
increase in conditioned responding following the passage of time since Pavlovian extinction
Palmar Grasp reflex
hold own weight when lifted by hand
Why are reinforcer surveys used?
identify an effective reinforcer that will increase operant behavior
Why is IOA (Inter-Observer Agreement) important?
if the behavioral definition is not objective enough that two independent observers can almost always agree on instances and non-instances of the behavior, then IOA will be unacceptably low. When IOA is low, the behavioral definition needs to be refined
Why is social validity important in behavioral analysis?
if the intervention is successful, then the consumers/experts will be satisfied with the change in this behavior
Non-Examples of Reinforcement
if the stimulus change happens before the behavior of interest
can't predict or influence behavior, maladaptive behavior will occur, voluntary behavior occurs without our willing it to occur
if will causes behavior what concerns arise?
At the prison, the guards told the prisoners that if they would avoid getting into fights, the guards would recommend that they be paroled when they came before the parole board in 3 years. What principle of effective reinforcement have the guards overlooked?
immediacy
In lecture we discussed the Ramey and Ourth (1971) study. It showed that you could quickly increase the frequency of a baby`s babbling if you delivered an attention-based reinforcer ____________ after the babbling response. If you didn`t deliver the reinforcers in this way, they were ineffective (i.e., the baby did not babble any more than he/she did in baseline).
immediately
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Functional Variable
includes all of those things that, if changed, will systematically and reliably influence behavior
Verbal Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers
information is provided indicating that the conditioned reinforcer signals a delay reduction to another reinforcer; the Pavlovian CS → US contingency is verbally described
What effect does motivation have on operant extinction?
it causes an increase in the behavior action (during extinction) far longer than without it
What does correlation does not imply causation mean?
just because two things co-occur does not mean that one of those things causes the other. Correlations tell us nothing about causation. Only an experiment can tell us if a functional relation exists.
Fair compensation
larger reinforcers for challenging or less-preferred behaviors
Motivationally robust
many different exchanges but motivation is constant
How is marking used in clicker training?
marks the correct response, which, when combined with repetition, helps them to learn the desired response
What is the stance of behavior analysts on the nature vs. nurture debate?
nature (phylogenetic influences) AND nurture (learning)
Response-Cost Punishers
negative punishers that involve the removal or reduction of a reinforcer
During the Pavlovian conditioning process, the function of the sound of the tuning fork is changed from a _________ stimulus to a __________ stimulus.
neutral; conditioned
Extinction-Induced Variability
new behaviors emitted by the organism during an extinction procedure in an attempt to contact reinforcement
What do people see and then say "the behavior is willed"?
no triggering event and a goal
The rich kid got a $50 per week allowance from his parents regardless of whether or not he ever cleaned his room. He hasn't cleaned his room for months. The relation between cleaning his room (he doesn't have to do it) and the $50 allowance is a _____________ relation.
noncontingent
Establishing Operation (EO) Example
o threat of death (or over-running hospitals) - increases the value of hand-sanitizer & PPE as a reinforcer, increases the probability of the seeking these reinforcers o absence makes the heart grow fonder - time without partner increases the value of romantic contact as a reinforcer, increases the probability of spending time and money to access that reinforcer
Consequence
observable stimulus change that happens after behavior occurs
Antecedent
observable stimulus that is present before the behavior occurs
Noncontingent Consequence
occurs after a response, but not because the response caused it to occur
Superstitious Behavior
occurs when the individual behaves as though a response-consequence contingency exists when, in fact, the relation between response and consequence is noncontingent
Taste-Aversion Learning
one-trial learning; the CS (taste) acquires its ability to evoke the CR (revulsion) after a single encounter with the CS→US (illness) relation
Limit of event recording
only used when each response lasts the same duration, used when 2 observers are not certain they are recording the same instance.
Habit
operant behavior that (1) is evoked by an antecedent stimuli and (2) persists despite the imposition of an AO
Discriminated Operant Behavior
operant behavior that is systematically influenced by antecedent stimuli
The veterinarian weighed our dog to see how well we were doing in keeping our dog on a strict diet. The vet is using which direct observation technique? _______________________ recording
outcome
PREE Acronym
partial reinforcement extinction effect
Results of the Public Goods Game Experiments (lecture)
participants begin to want to punish other players and it was reinforcing to punish
What was Mary Cover Jones' contribution to our understanding of Pavlovian learning?
pavlovian-extinction-based therapy is known as graduated exposure therapy, and it remains the most effective intervention for reducing human phobias
Shaping can be automated by arranging a ______________ schedule of reinforcement.
percentile
Outcome Recording
record the distinct, observable, and lasting product(s) of behavior, instead of the behavior itself
Outcome recording
recording the distinct, observable, and lasting product of behavior instead of behavior itself (most cost-effective)
Janice has found that she can control the behavior of her instructor simply by nodding during his lectures and acting interested. When she does this, she finds that the instructor spends more of his time looking at her when he lectures. She finds that this works on every one of her professors. What procedure is Janice to change her instructor's behavior?
reinforcement
Differential reinforcement is the combination of two procedures commonly used by behavior analysts. The first is _____________ and the second is ___________________.
reinforcement; extinction
The image below, when it appears on a computer screen, is a(n) SD because, it increases the probability that you will place the mouse cursor over it and press the left mouse button (or, if you are a Mac user, just press the mouse button). The cause of your behavior in the presence of this stimulus is that, in your life, almost every time you emit this response, there follows a(n)_______________________.
reinforcer
Information Theory
reinforcers provide information that allows the individual to predict when or where subsequent reinforcers may be obtained
Response Strengthening Theory
reinforcing consequences "stamp in" or "strengthen" behavior; each obtained reinforcer is hypothesized to strengthen the behavior it follows; the more frequently an operant behavior is followed by a reinforcer, the more firmly it is established, and the more difficult it will be to disrupt
Token Economy
set of rules governing the delivery of response contingent conditioned reinforcers
Which of the following is NOT a principle of effective reinforcement (as expanded upon in lecture):
shaping
Response
single instance of behavior
Impulsivity is defined as preferring a _______________________ reinforcer over a _________________________ reinforcer.
smaller-sooner; larger-later
Stimulus
something that you can see, hear, smell, taste, or feel
Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
specifies a constant time interval that must elapse before a single response will produce the reinforcer.
Interval Schedule of Reinforcement
specifies the amount of time that must elapse before a single response will produce the reinforcer
Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement
specifies the number of responses that must be made in order for the reinforcer to be delivered
Examples of Reinforcement
stimulus change happens after behavior, increases the behavior above baseline level, and decreases when stimulus is turned "OFF"
As the organism learns more about the association between the CS and the US, we say that the associative ___________ of the CS-US relation increases.
strength
How is forward chaining used when teaching a stimulus-response chain?
teaching the links in the stimulus-response chain in the order they will need to be emitted
According to the Reward Prediction Error theory, the first time the reinforcer is delivered after the target response is emitted, the organism is _____________________. As a result, the organism updates its _____________________. With this understanding of the contingent relation between response and reinforcer, the organism emits the response more often and, as a result, receives the reinforcer more often than it would have if no learning had occurred.
surprised; expectation of what will happen the next time it emits this response
Rescorla-Wagner theory provides an accounting of why a neutral stimulus becomes a CS. According to their account, the first time the neutral stimulus precedes and predicts the US, the organism is __________________ when the US is delivered. With continued exposure to the relation between the neutral stimulus and the US, the organism is less-and-less _______________ when the US is delivered.
surprised; surprised
Spontaneous Recovery of Operant Behavior
temporary resumption in operant responding following time away from the extinction setting
behavior
the activity of a living organism occurring inside or outside the skin, which may be affected by external or internal stimulation
Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
the amount of time that must elapse before the first response is reinforced is not the same every time
What is the difference between an independent and dependent variable?
the independent variable is changed by the experimenter and the dependent variable is measured
Alternating-Treatments Design
the independent variable(s) is turned ON and OFF rapidly to evaluate if this systematically and repeatedly changes behavior
Reversal (ABA) Design
the individual's behavior is evaluated in repeatedly alternating baseline (A) and experimental (B) phases
Latency
the interval of time between the opportunity to respond and the response itself
Duration
the interval of time between the start and the end of the behavior
Breakpoint
the maximum amount of behavior the reinforcer will maintain
What happens to the total amount of responses made per day when the price (FR requirement) increases?
the more work you have to do (larger FR value), the more we procrastinate
Intrinsic Motivation
the natural drive to engage in a behavior because it fosters a sense of competence
Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
the number of responses required per reinforcer is not the same every time
Fixed-Ratio Schedule (FR)
the number of responses required per reinforcer is the same every time
Dependent Variable
the objectively measured target behavior
Positive Reinforcement (SR+)
the presentation of a consequence, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level
Pavlovian Extinction
the procedure if repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US), the effect of which is a reduction or elimination of the conditioned stimulus' (CS) ability to evoke the conditioned response (CR)
Punishment
the process or procedure whereby a punisher decreases the future probability of an operant response
Reinforcement
the process or procedure whereby a reinforcer increases operant behavior above its baseline level
Backup Reinforcer
the reinforcer provided after the conditioned reinforcer signals the delay reduction to its delivery
Unconditioned Response
the response (in this case, salivating) reliably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US)
Conditioned Response
the response evoked by the conditioned stimulus (CS). This may not be the same as the unconditioned response (UR)
Second Assumption of Behavioral Analysis
the scientific method is a valid way to reveal the determinants of behavior
Functional Analysis of Behavior
the scientific method used to (1) determine if a problem behavior is an operant and (2) identify the reinforcer that maintain that operant
Reinforcer Quality
the subjective value of a reinforcer, which can vary from one individual to the next
Loss Aversion
the tendency for loss prevention (SRA-) to influence behavior more than presentation of the same stimulus (SR+)
Reification
the treatment of an abstraction as though it were a thing
Variable
things that are not the same each time
Extrinsic Reinforcers
those reinforcers that are not automatically obtained by engaging in behavior; instead, they are artificially arranged
First Goal of Behavioral Analysis
to accurately predict behavior
unwilled
triggered by something and has no goal
What do people see and then say "the behavior is not willed"?
triggering event
predict and influence behavior
two reasons to explain behavior
willed
untriggered and has a goal
If reinforcement is given contingently, response rates go...
up
6th Characteristic of Effective Punishment Interventions
use a punisher in the goldilocks zone
Who were John Watson and Rosalie Rayner?
used Pavlovian fear conditioning to produce a phobia of white rats in a human infant named Albert
Partial-Interval Recording
used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs by recording whether or not the behavior occurs in each of the series of contiguous time intervals (back to back)
According to the Guidelines for the Use of Extinction, you cannot use extinction to address problem behavior if __________________________________________________.
you cannot tolerate the extinction burst (i.e., you know that if the problem behavior occurs, you are likely to goof up and deliver the reinforcer). you cannot identify the reinforcer that maintains the problem behavior. you cannot prevent the reinforcer from being delivered contingent upon the problem behavior. extinction may not be safely used (e.g., the problem behavior is dangerous to self or others and an extinction burst could be dangerous).
