Final Exam Review-- Logic and Critical Thinking PHIL 110 CSU

Logic

.________________ is the tool for objectively distinguishing good reasoning from bad reasoning.

Statements

._________________ are sentences that are either true or false.

phenomenon

A fact or event which can be observed and/or documented

defect

A fallacy is a ______________ in reasoning.

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

disjunctive

A _____________ statement is an either-or statement, using the inclusive, not the exclusive, definition of "or."

category

A ____________________ is any set of things, even an empty set.

Categorical Proposition

A ___________________________is a statement that interrelates two categories.

Distributed

A categorical proposition's category is _______________ when the entire statement gives information about every member of that category; it is otherwise undistributed.

categorical categories middle

A categorical syllogism is defined as a deductive argument with exactly two premises, with each statement in the argument being a ________________ proposition, with the argument containing exactly three _______________, with each category used twice, such that there is a major, minor, and ____________ term.

Straw Man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

illicit contraposition

A formal fallacy that occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the contraposition of an E or I statement

illicit conversion

A formal fallacy that occurs when the conclusion of an argument depends on the conversion of an A or O statement

antecedent

A hypothetical (or, conditional) statement is an if-then statement, with the first component being the ______________________ and the second component being the consequent.

A/O Statements

Following Boole, the categorical operations of conversion, obversion, and contraposition yield valid immediate inferences only when contraposition is of _______ or _______ statements.

E/I Statements

Following Boole, the categorical operations of conversion, obversion, and contraposition yield valid immediate inferences only when the conversion is of _____ or _____statements

G A S C A P

Generalizing Authority Signs Causal Analogy Predictive

The Category

Categorical logic is a system for distinguishing valid from invalid arguments, and the fundamental unit is ___________________________________.

categories

Complementary sets divide the universe into two ________________: A and non-A.

Valid/Invalid

Deductive arguments either fail or succeed in their attempt to guarantee their conclusion: the successes are called _______________ arguments, and the failed ones are called __________________.

Enthymeme

To complete the enthymeme means "to make explicit the implicit statement" of the enthymeme, such that the argument will be valid and will cease to be an _______________.

enthymeme

_____________ is an argument with an implied but unstated premise or conclusion. First-order enthymemes are missing the major premise, second-order are missing the minor premise, and third-order are missing the conclusion.

Philosophy

______________ is the rational search for true answers to questions fundamental to human existence.

sorites

_______________ is a chain of categorical syllogisms with implicit conclusions. One tests a sorites for validity by completing each third-order enthymeme contained therein; if each third-order enthymeme can be completed, then the sorites is valid, and otherwise it is invalid.

Objective

_______________ statements attempt to describe features of an object that is attended to by a mind

Arguments

________________ are the material instances of reasoning, consisting entirely of statements, with one or more of the statements being premises and exactly one being the conclusion.

Reasoning

________________ is the mental act of drawing new information from given information.

Subjective

_________________ statements attempt to describe the contents of one's mind.

Existential Fallacy

a formal fallacy that occurs when a categorical syllogism has a particular conclusion and two universal premises

Disjunctive Syllogism

a syllogism in which the major premise includes two or more mutually exclusive alternatives

Guarantee

deductive arguments attempt to _______________ their conclusion

immediate inference

An ___________________ is a deductive argument with exactly one premise. Immediate inferences are valid only when the premise and conclusion are logically equivalent.

citizen

An ambassador for logic is anyone who has completed a logic course and who believes that a knowledge of logic is important for each voting ______________ of the USA. Go forth, spreading the good word about logic!

contradictory

An immediate inference consisting of two __________________ statements is valid only if one of the two statements is declared to be false (e.g., it is false that All S are P).

Inductive Guarantee

Because we cannot verify or falsify our hypotheses with certainty, we need __________ arguments (which merely attempt to make probable the conclusion rather than ____________ the conclusion).

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

deductive and inductive reasoning

Arguments divide into ___________ and ________________

Probability Inductive

Due to this failure to verify and falsify our hypotheses, we need a refined definition of knowledge. Knowledge can be defined as certainty or as ____________. Rational justification can be construed as deductive (seeking certainty) or as _________________ (seeking probability).

standard

Each categorical syllogism can be translated into _______________ form.

disjuncts

Each disjunctive statement contains two _____________, a left disjunct and a right disjunct.

Errors

Each informal fallacy that has been named has a definition that can be clearly stated and understood. Knowing those definitions is necessary for correctly applying the named fallacies to actual arguments and for educating ourselves and others about how various arguments fall into error and how those _______________ can be avoided.

mood figure top

Each of the 256 categorical syllogisms has a form, which is the name consisting of _______ (letter names of major premise, minor premise, and conclusion, in that order) and ________ (determined by the arrangement of the two middle terms). Standard form requires that the major premise be on the ________.

Quantifier, Subject Term, Copula, Predicate Term

Each standard form categorical proposition divides into four parts...

Sufficiently Large Randomly

Each type of inductive argument has criteria that must be met in order to be considered strong (e.g., Arguments from Authority must use authorities that have relevant expertise, have no obvious bias, have no motive to lie, and have the physical ability to know what is claimed to be known). Generalizing arguments must have ______________ sample size, and the sample must be _______________ selected

Cogent/Uncogent

Every strong argument has either true premises or false premises or a combination of both. A _______ argument is a strong argument with only true premises; all other strong arguments are _______________.

Sound/Unsound

Every valid argument has either true premises or false premises or a combination of both. A _________ argument is a valid argument with only true premises; all other valid arguments are _______.

Existing

Existential import is a property of statements that are interpreted as having __________ members for the subject category.

Affirming the Consequent

If A then B B Therefore, A

Modus Tollens

If A then B. Not B. Therefore, not A.

Modus Ponens

If A, then B A Therefore, B

denying the consequent

If P then Q Not Q Therefore not P

Strong/Weak

Inductive arguments either fail or succeed in their attempt to make probable their conclusion: the successes are called ________________, and the failed ones are called _______________.

Justified True Belief

Knowledge is defined by Plato as ___________________

truth value

Logical equivalence is a property of pairs of statements that have the same meaning, same Venn diagram, and same____________________.

proposition

Propositional logic is a system for distinguishing valid from invalid arguments, and the fundamental unit is the __________________.

A,E,I,O

Standard Form Categorical Propositions A: universal affirmative E: universal negative I: particular affirmative O: particular negative

Universal

The Boolean standpoint denies existential import for _____________ propositions; and the Boolean standpoint affirms existential import for particular propositions.

Contradictory

The Modern (Boolean) Square of Opposition consist only of the ________________ relation between A and O statements, and between E and I statements.

consequent

The _______________ of a hypothetical statement is the necessary condition, meaning that it is required to be true for the antecedent to be true (assuming that the hypothetical statement is true).

sufficient

The antecedent of a hypothetical statement is the _____________ condition, meaning that knowing it to be true is sufficient for knowing the consequent true (assuming that the hypothetical statement is true).

middle

The category appearing only in the two premises of a categorical syllogism is the ___________ term

Modus Tollens Falsified

The fallacy of Affirming the consequent and the valid form of ______________ are relevant to the enterprise of testing hypotheses for truth. The former shows why hypotheses cannot be verified; and the latter shows why hypotheses cannot be _______________ (when we consider the presence of auxiliary assumptions).

existential

The formal fallacies for categorical syllogisms are these: undistributed middle, illicit major, illicit minor, exclusive premises, drawing a negative conclusion from affirmative premises, drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise, and _______________ fallacy.

switch the subject and predicate terms and complement subject and predicate terms

The formula for contraposition...

switch the subject and predicate terms

The formula for conversion...

change the quality, and complement the predicate.

The formula for obversion...

conclusion

The major and minor terms of a categorical syllogism gain their identity from their location in the _______________, with the subject term being the minor term, and the predicate term being the major term.

15 Fallacies

There are only ____________(number) valid forms of categorical syllogism. All of the remaining forms commit one or more formal ________________.

1. Law of Identity 2. Law of Contradiction 3. Law of Excluded Middle

There are three laws of thought, at the foundation of Logic...

Quality

affirmative or negative

mixed hypothetical syllogism

an argument that uses both hypothetical and categorical statements

pure hypothetical syllogism

an argument that uses only hypothetical statements

Make Probable

inductive arguments attempt to _____________________ their conclusion

All Statements

of obversions yield valid immediate inferences.

Metaphysics

study of being

Epistemology

study of knowledge

Axiology

study of value

Quantity

universal or particular