Final Exam Study Guide
Machiavelli: Discourses on Republics and Monarchies
"Let republics be established where equality exists, and, on the contrary, principalities where great inequality prevails; otherwise the governments will lack proper proportions and have but little durability."
Donatello
(1386 - 1466) Was an early Renaissance sculptor from Florence. He studied classical sculpture, and used this to develop a fully Renaissance style in sculpture. He was c
Prince Henry the Navigator
(1394-1460). Was an important figure in 15th-century Portuguese politics and in the early days of the Portuguese Empire. Through his administrative direction, he is regarded as the main initiator of what would be known as the Age of Discoveries. This period was full of innovation and technological advances including the Caravel. Henry founded a school for sailors and sent out expeditions to find the "river of gold" spoken of by the ancients. He did not seek to discover new lands, but rediscover lands previously outlined by the ancients. The ancients knew all there was to be known. It was just a matter of rediscovery.
Rogier van der Weyden
(1400-1464) was an Early Netherlandish painter. Although his life was generally uneventful, he was highly successful and internationally famous in his lifetime. He received commissions from, amongst others, Philip the Good, Netherlandish nobility and foreign princes. Today he is known, with Jan van Eyck, one of the great Early Flemish artists and widely as the most influential Northern painter of the 15th century. His art focused on rendering of the soul's expression through pain, happiness or anger, and the tempering of this emotional testimony to the subject matter of his work.
Leon Battista Alberti
(1404-1472) Bridges cultural currents of art and humanism, and elite versus common. He instructs painters on geometry, optics, and physics in On Painting, a display of his Sprezzatura. He used art to rise above his circumstances.
Martin V
(1417-1431) The first pope of the Renaissance papacy who returned the papacy to Rome after the Babylonian Captivity in Avignon. The church under Martin V displayed a period of spiritual renewal and the attempt to reorganize itself. Martin V was a weakened pope due to the Captivity and it took 3 years to return the papacy to Rome. He tried to reassert the power of the papacy over Italy, but it was largely unsuccessful. His successor, Eugenius IV (r. 1431-1447) was kicked out of Rome.
Lorenzo the Magnificent
(1449-1492) The son of Cosimo de Medici who rules from 1469-1492. During this period, Florence developed its own Renaissance, which Lorenzo benefited from more than either his father or grandfather. He is exceptionally well educated. It was during Lorenzo's reign that Pope Sixtus (commissioned the Sistine Chapel) encouraged enemies of the Medici to start a rebellion to free up the papal banking. This led to the Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478. After, Lorenzo loses the facade of running a republic, creates a committee of hand-picked representatives. Each meeting was accompanied by the Medici and political meetings were held in the Medici household. Lorenzo then grooms Pope Leo X for the papacy.
Columbus
(1450-1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World. In the context of emerging Western imperialism and economic competition between European kingdoms through the establishment of trade routes and colonies, Columbus' proposal to reach the East Indies by sailing westward eventually received the support of the Spanish Crown, which saw in it a chance to enter the spice trade with Asia through a new westward route. His math was really, really wrong.
Leonardo Da Vinci
(1452-1519) Incredible polymath who began the artist lifestyle at 14. He was part of the painter's guild and received commissions from patrons and religious institutions as early as 20. He lived like a gentlemen, but was still worried about finances. His works were defined by advanced understanding of shadowing and atmospheric depth. He made important medical, military, scientific, and artistic contributions to the Renaissance world.
Vasco da Gama
(1460s-1524) was a Portuguese explorer. He was the first European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia for the first time by ocean route, as well as the Atlantic and the Indian oceans entirely and definitively, and in this way, the West and the Orient. Da Gama's discovery was significant and opened the way for an age of global imperialism and for the Portuguese to establish a long-lasting colonial empire in Asia. The route meant that the Portuguese would not need to cross the highly disputed Mediterranean nor the dangerous Arabian Peninsula, and that the whole voyage would be made by sea.
Isabella d'Este
(1474-1539) One of the leading patrons in the Renaissance who was highly wealthy and educated in the humanist tradition. She is admitted into humanism, art, and the princely court and exhibits the struggle between patron and artist. In her letters, many artists refuse to bend to her will, showing the growing independence and status they had.
Michelangelo
(1475-1564) Like Da Vinci, he began his career early in the guild system and made a name for himself with innovation. He was a brilliant sculptor and painter responsible for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (Sixtus), and the statue of David. He was a platonist and was intrigued with the human soul.
Thomas More
(1478-1535) More was an Englishman and product of the Northern Renaissance characterized by christian humanism. He pursues a traditional education and became a lawyer. He counseled Henry VIII of England on how to separate from Catherine of Aragon. In 1527 he was appointed Chancellor of England, and 7 years later was executed for refusing to swear loyalty to Anne Boleyn and the new Anglican Church.
Raphael
(1483-1520) Born in Urbino with exceptional courtly manners. He was deeply loved and respected by contemporaries. Responsible for the School of Athens, which shows the emulation of ancient models like Plato, Aristotle, and others. He is considered one of the masters of the high Renaissance. His death marks the end of the artistic revolution.
Titan
(1488-1576) Venetian artist connected to the Bellini of Venice. He earned so many commissions that he owned a mansion and was made a count by Charles V. He represents the possible heights that artists could reach with their talent and ingenuity (virtu).
Vasari
(1511-1574) Was an apprentice of Michelangelo who began collecting volumes on artist' lives in the style of Plutarch. He was vetted by the Medici and aware that a Renaissance had occurred in Italy. He started with Cimabue and ended with Raphael, providing the 19th-20th century view of the artist as a genius and that the Renaissance was a glowing renewal and innovation of art. (We know this is not the whole story now).
Padua
Padua then enjoyed a period of calm and prosperity: the basilica of the saint was begun; and the Paduans became masters of Vicenza. The University of Padua was founded in 1222, and as it flourished in the 13th century, Padua outpaced Bologna, where no effort had been made to expand the revival of classical precedents beyond the field of jurisprudence, to become a center of early humanist researches, with a first-hand knowledge of Roman poets that was unrivalled in Italy or beyond the Alps.
Paracelsus
Paracelsus was a Swiss German philosopher, physician, botanist, astrologer, and general occultist. He is credited as the founder of toxicology. He is also a famous revolutionary for utilizing observations of nature, rather than referring to ancient texts, something of radical defiance during his time. Paracelsus' most important legacy is likely his critique of the scholastic methods in medicine, science and theology. Much of his theoretical work does not withstand modern scientific thought, but his insights laid the foundation for a more dynamic approach in the medical sciences.
Phillip the Bold
Philip the Good (1396- 1467) was Duke of Burgundy as Philip III from 1419 until his death. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty (the then Royal family of France). During his reign Burgundy reached the height of its prosperity and prestige and became a leading center of the arts. Philip is known in history for his administrative reforms, patronage of Flemish artists such as Jan van Eyck, of Franco-Flemish composers such as Gilles Binchois, and the capture of Joan of Arc. During his reign he alternated between English and French alliances in an attempt to improve his dynasty's position.
Phillip the Good
Philip the Good (1396- 1467) was Duke of Burgundy as Philip III from 1419 until his death. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty (the then Royal family of France). During his reign Burgundy reached the height of its prosperity and prestige and became a leading center of the arts. Philip is known in history for his administrative reforms, patronage of Flemish artists such as Jan van Eyck, of Franco-Flemish composers such as Gilles Binchois, and the capture of Joan of Arc. During his reign he alternated between English and French alliances in an attempt to improve his dynasty's position.
Julius II
Pope Julius II was Pope from 1503 to 1513. His papacy was marked by an active foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts—he commissioned the destruction and rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, plus Michelangelo's decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He also have Michelangelo create his tomb with Moses. Julius is a prime example of the papacy trying to create a princely court and new image using the patronage of art.
Eugenius IV
Pope that reigned from 1431-1447 following Martin V. After Martin V's death, the papacy under Eugenius was (again) expelled from Rome. Following the expulsion, Eugenius IV goes to live in Florence were he becomes indebted to the Medici (Giovanni). The papacy brings their banking back to Florence under the Medici, who provide Eugenius enough money to rebuild power and reenter Rome 9 years after expulsion in 1443.
Pius II
Renaissance humanist pope reigning from 1458-1464 following Nicholas V. Like pope Nicholas, Pius II worked to beautify Rome and reassert papal authority. He was a strong willed humanist individual that was known for his patronage of artists and humanists that he attracted to his court.
Nicholas V
Renaissance humanist pope who reigned from 1447-1455 who started cleaning up Rome. He enacted public works and attracted artists and architects to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica and other prestigious buildings to assert the authority of the Church. Nicholas V also founded the Vatican Library, highlighting his humanist affiliation, and commissions chapels.
Sixtus IV
Renaissance humanist pope who reigned from 1471-1484 and sought to expand the power and influence of the papacy. Like Nicholas V and Pius II before him, Sixtus IV commissioned the restoration and construction of buildings and infrastructure. He is most known for his patronage of the Sistine Chapel and for creating an organized road system and city structure that made the Vatican the literal center of Rome.
Leo X
Renaissance pope (r. 1513-1521) The second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Following the death of Pope Julius II, Giovanni was elected pope. In 1517 he led a costly war that succeeded in securing his nephew as duke of Urbino, but which damaged the papal finances. He is probably best remembered for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica, which practice was challenged by Martin Luther's 95 Theses. He seems not to have taken seriously the array of demands for church reform that would quickly grow into the Protestant Reformation. He borrowed and spent heavily. A significant patron of the arts, upon election Leo is alleged to have said, "Since God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it". Under his reign, progress was made on the rebuilding of Saint Peter's Basilica and artists such as Raphael decorated the Vatican rooms. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted the study of literature, poetry and antiquities.
Sistine Chapel
Roman cathedral finished in the 1480s under pope Sixtus.
Guicciardini on Savonarola 1494-1498
Savonarola was a wildly popular preacher in Florence who claimed to be sent by God. He called for renewal and reformation of church through scourges and tribulation. He had great prophetic visions and made Florence the center of the renewed faith. Made a strong call against vanity and pomp, leading to the burning of many great Renaissance works of art. He was executed in religious fervor. Guiccardini was obviously a fan of Savonarola's works.
Peace of Lodi
The 1500s are tumultuous due to the number of groups trying to corner the market economy. The chaos is so great between 1498-1527 that city states even establish embassies in each others courts. The Peace of Lodi in 1454 was an agreement between 5 major city states due to concern for invasion of Ottoman empire and French. It is set up so that no one state falls under another's rule to prevent major conflict for the next 40 years. It allows states to concentrate internally instead of externally. As we learned in class, it was more or less an attempt by the city states to create an agreement that supported their personal self interest.
Carrara Dynasty
The Carrara were an important family of northern Italy in the period 12th-15th centuries. As signori of Padua, their overwhelming power and patronage placed them in an isolated position far outshining any other single family.
Bologna
Under Giovanni II (1462-1506), this period was a flourishing one for the city, with the presence of notable architects and painters who made Bologna a true city of art. During the Renaissance, Bologna was the only Italian city that allowed women to excel in any profession. Women had much more freedom than in other Italian cities; some even had the opportunity to earn a degree at the university. The School of Bologna of painting flourished in Bologna between the 16th and 17th centuries, and rivalled Florence and Rome as the centre of painting. In 1506, Papal troops of Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace. From that point on, until the 18th century, Bologna was part of the Papal States.
The Courtier by Castiglione
Written in 1507 regarding the court at Urbino, Castiglione dedicates the text to the Duke of Montefeltro, who created the palace and court at Urbino. Through dialogue, the text details what it means to be the perfect courtier. In summary, the perfect courtier should be practically perfect in every way and exhibit moderation. It is the job of the courtier to service the prince and keep the prince on a virtuous path. A courtier is exempt from obeying the orders of the prince, however, if they compromise the courtier's salvation and/or virtue. This was a wildly popular text that shaped court life for the next century.
Utopia by Thomas More
Wrote around 1516 in More's earlier years. Henry VIII had already shown him favor at this point and sent him to Antwerp to negotiate a treaty. He uses Utopia to express his views in a subtle way that would not have him executed. For instance "Utopia" means "nowhere" and Raphael Hythloday means "speaker of nonsense." It is clear that Utopia was not a communist society, but a society dedicated to being as Christ-like as possible.
Harvey
in 1628, William Harvey discovered the mechanisms for blood circulation, disproving the humoral theory.
Cesare Borgia
1476-1507). He was an Italian condottiero, nobleman, politician, and cardinal, whose fight for power was a major inspiration for The Prince by Machiavelli. He was the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492-1503). He was the brother of Lucrezia Borgia. After initially entering the church and becoming a cardinal on his father's election to the Papacy, he became the first person to resign a cardinalcy after the death of his brother in 1498. His father set him up as a prince with territory carved from the Papal States, but after his father's death he was unable to retain power for long. According to Machiavelli this was due to his planning for all possibilities but his own illness.
Bruges
Bruges became important due to the tidal inlet that was important to local commerce. In the 15th century, Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, set up court in Bruges, attracting a number of artists, bankers, and other prominent personalities from all over Europe. The weavers and spinners of Bruges were thought to be the best in the world, and the population of Bruges grew immensely during the 1400s.
Castiglione
Castiglione was a Mantuan courtier who spent time in various humanist circles. He serviced the court of Urbino in the early 1500s and wrote the Courtier recalling his experiences there. He was friends with Raphael (who was also from Urbino) and took part in the Italian wars on behalf of pope Julius II.
Benvenuto Cellini
Cellini was a Florentine sculptor and goldsmith from 1500-1571most known for his detailed autobiography. His autobiography details his interactions with patrons and princely courts as an artist and provides valuable insight into the artist-patron relationship. He spent time in France with Francis I and also in Florence under Cosimo de Medici, who commissioned the Perseus from him. Main themes of the autobiography: -Artists and patrons were caught in a mutually dependent relationship. The artist needed the patronage of the patron to create and the patron needed the talent of the artist to improve their image. -Artists were ultimately at the mercy of patrons because they were not free to create as they wished: if you had no money, you did not create and you did not eat.
Charles V
Charles V (1500-1558) became the Holy Roman Emperor in 1518. Through inheritance, he consolidated great territory under his rule. He was the nephew of Catherine of Aragon and took Rome in 1527 under Clement VII to prevent the pope from annulling Henry VIII's marriage.
Claus Sluter
Claus Sluter (1340-1406) was a sculptor of Dutch origin. He was the most important northern European sculptor of his age and is considered a pioneer of the "northern realism" of the Early Netherlandish painting that came into full flower with the work of Jan van Eyck and others in the next generation.He restored the monumental scale and naturalism of the classical era to figural sculpture.
Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan 1480-1521 was a Portuguese explorer who organised the Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Born into a wealthy Portuguese family in around 1480, Magellan became a skilled sailor and naval officer and was eventually selected by King Charles I of Spain to search for a westward route to the Maluku Islands (the "Spice Islands").
Ferdinand of Aragon
Ferdinand and Isabella established a highly effective sovereignty under equal terms. Isabella and Ferdinand's achievements were remarkable: Spain was united, or at least more united than it ever was, the crown power was centralised, at least in name, the reconquista was successfully concluded, the groundwork for the most dominant military machine of the next century and a half was laid, a legal framework was created, the church reformed. Even without the benefit of the American expansion, Spain would have been a major European power. Columbus' discovery set the country on the course for the first modern world power.
Fra Angelico
Fra Angelico 1395-1455 was an Early Italian Renaissance painter who did many religious works for places like San Marco with Medici patronage. Vasari wrote of Fra Angelico that "it is impossible to bestow too much praise on this holy father, who was so humble and modest in all that he did and said and whose pictures were painted with such facility and piety."
Guicciardini
Francesco Guicciardini 1483-1540) was an Italian historian and statesman. A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli, he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance. In his masterpiece, The History of Italy, Guicciardini paved the way for a new style in historiography with his use of government sources to support arguments and the realistic analysis of the people and events of his time.
Francis I
Francis I (r. 1515-1547) was a prodigal patron of the arts, he initiated the French Renaissance by attracting many Italian artists to work on the Château de Chambord, including Leonardo da Vinci, who brought the Mona Lisa with him, which Francis had acquired. Francis' reign saw important cultural changes with the rise of absolute monarchy in France, the spread of humanism and Protestantism, and the beginning of French exploration of the New World. Following the policy of his predecessors, Francis continued the Italian Wars. The succession of Charles V's election as Holy Roman Emperor, meant that France was geographically encircled by the Habsburg monarchy. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony, he sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. When this was unsuccessful, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with the Muslim sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time.
Gutenberg
German national who introduced printing to Europe in 1439. He created movable type that began the printing revolution. It allowed the mass production of printed books and made books available to the wealthy and common alike. Allowed the dissemination of ideas and played a prominent role in the Renaissance and later Reformation.
Fra Lippi
His paintings were popular in Florence and he was supported by the Medici family, who commissioned of The Annunciation and the Seven Saints. To compel him to work Cosimo de' Medici locked him up, and even then the painter escaped by a rope made of his sheets. His escapades threw him into financial difficulties from which he did not hesitate to extricate himself by forgery. His life is a tale of lawsuits, complaints, broken promises and scandal.
Vatican Library
In 1451, Pope Nicholas V established a public library at the Vatican, in part to re-establish Rome as a destination for scholarship. Nicholas combined codices inherited from his predecessors with his own collection and extensive acquisitions, among them manuscripts from the imperial Library of Constantinople. Pope Nicholas also expanded his collection by employing Italian and Byzantine scholars to translate the Greek classics into Latin for his library. The knowledgeable Pope already encouraged the inclusion of pagan classics.Nicolas was important in saving many of the Greek works and writings during this time period that he had collected while traveling and acquired from others.
Ariosto
1474-1533. Was an Italian poet best known for coining the term "humanism." He describes humanism as choosing to focus on the strengths and potential of humanity rather than only upon its role as subordinate to God.
The Renaissance Papacy
1. Martin V (1417-1431): brought papacy back to Rome and attempted to reassert papal power in Italy. 2. Eugene IV (1431-1447): is kicked out of Rome and goes to Florence where he encounters Giovanni de Medici. He transfers the papal banking to the Medici and reenters Rome in 1443. 3. Nicholas V (1447-1455): Saw the fall of Constantinople and began cleaning up Rome. He rebuilt St. Peters Basilica and was patron to many artists. He founded the Vatican Library. 4. Random Guy 5. Pius II (1458-1464): Continued to clean up Rome and commission artists and humanists in his court. 6. Paul II: anti-humanist, so not important. 7. Sixtus IV (1471-1484): Expanded the power and influence of the papacy. commissioned the restoration and construction of buildings and infrastructure. Patroned the Sistine Chapel and made the Vatican the literal center of Rome. 8. Innocent VIII: not important. 9. Alexander VI (1487-1503): Borgia. One of the most controversial popes because he fathered several illegitimate children. He formed the Holy League in 1495 to protect from the French and Turk invasion. Opened authoritarian age of Roman urbanism. 10. Died 11. Julius II (1503-1513): Papacy was marked by an active foreign policy, ambitious building projects, and patronage for the arts—he commissioned the destruction and rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, plus Michelangelo's decoration of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. He also have Michelangelo create his tomb with Moses. Julius is a prime example of the papacy trying to create a princely court and new image using the patronage of art. 12. Leo X (1513-1521): Medici. He borrowed and spent heavily. Granted indulgences for rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica. Did not take seriously the array of demands for church reform that would quickly grow into the Protestant Reformation. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted the study of literature, poetry and antiquities.
Jan van Eyck
1390-1441.Early Netherlandish painter active in Bruges and one of the most significant Northern Renaissance artists of the 15th century. In 1425 he was employed as court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in Bruges. It is known that he was highly regarded by Philip, and undertook a number of diplomatic visits abroad on his behalf. Van Eyck painted both secular and religious subject matter. He was well paid by Philip, who sought that the painter was secure financially and thus had artistic freedom and could paint "whenever he pleased"
Federigo da Montefeltro
1422-1482. Lauded by Castiglione as one of the greatest Dukes Italy has ever seen. He created the palace at Montefeltro and set the precedent for the princely court. He was patron to countless artists and architects such as Luciano Laurana and used them to redefine his image. His palace was filled with great collections and a brilliant studiolo. He was portrayed as a military leader with great piety and humanist education. He was the father of the duke and duchess highlighted in The Courtier.
Alexander VI
1431-1503. Reigned as Pope from 1492 until his death. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, partly because he acknowledged fathering several children by his mistresses. Therefore name Borgia, became a byword for libertinism and nepotism, which are traditionally considered as characterizing his pontificate. He formed the Holy League in 1495 to protect from the French and Turk invasion. -tried primarily to guarantee his own and his family's security by strengthening the fortifications of several buildings -tore down buildings/houses to redesign a street: Via Alessandria was, not by accident, the first artificially straight street since the days of Ancient Rome -opened the authoritarian age of Roman urbanism
Botticelli
1445-1510. Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. He belonged to the Florentine School under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici, a movement that Giorgio Vasari would characterize less than a hundred years later in his Vita of Botticelli as a "golden age". Responsible for The Birth of Venus and Primavera, both expressing classical themes. Later in life he was influenced by Savonarola and his works took on a devout tone.
Louis XII
1462-1515 was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples from 1501 to 1504. He subsequently took part in the Italian War of 1494-1498 as one of the French commanders. Louis persevered in the Italian Wars, initiating a second Italian campaign for the control of the Kingdom of Naples. Louis conquered the Duchy of Milan in 1500 and pushed forward to the Kingdom of Naples, which fell to him in 1501. Proclaimed King of Naples, Louis faced a new coalition gathered by Ferdinand II of Aragon and was forced to cede Naples to Spain in 1504. Louis, who remained Duke of Milan after the second Italian War, was interested in further expansion in the Italian Peninsula and launched a third Italian War (1508-1516), which was marked by the military prowess of the Chevalier de Bayard.
Charles VIII
1470-1498). Was of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France, from 1483 to his death in 1498. To secure his rights to the Neapolitan throne that René of Naples had left to his father, Charles made a series of concessions to neighbouring monarchs and conquered the Italian peninsula without much opposition. The coalition formed against the French invasion of 1494-98 finally drove out Charles' army, but Italian Wars would dominate Western European politics for over 50 years.
Luciano Laurana
A lauded architect of the fifteenth century. Was the primary engineer responsible for the Palace at Urbino in the 1460s-70s. He was commissioned by Frederigo da Montefeltro and given unprecedented autonomy in the construction of the site. In Montefeltro's letter, it is clear that the artist is esteemed: especially the architect, who required great certainty and intellect to craft.
Main themes in The Prince by Machiavelli 1530s
A prince should be well versed in the art of war and consider it their highest priority lest they lose their states. A prince should be two kinds of man: the virtuous and unvirtuous. He should choose which man to be according to what will help him best maintain his state. It is better to be feared than loved, because fear is permanent while love is fleeting. In this regard, however, the Prince should take care not to be hated. Despite original thought, it is a highly spiritual. It is a call to the prince for him to not subject to his human nature. The purpose of The Prince is to challenge future leaders of Italy to return to the Roman glory. The prince should think long term and possess education, virtu (innovation), and control to return to the glory of ancient Rome, NOT to gain personal power. It was dedicated to the Medici, but never actually given to them because Machiavelli did not believe they possessed the necessary virtu to rule and see past the face value of the text.
Studiolo
A private room in the houses and palaces of early modern Europe, a room serving as a study or retreat, usually for a man. The cabinet would be furnished with books and works of art. Such a room might be used as a study or office, or just a sitting room. With its origins in requirements for increased privacy for reading and meditation engendered by the humanist avocation of many of the Italian noble and mercantile elite in the Quattrocento, the studiolo provided a retreat. This was true for the elaborate Studiolo of Francesco I de' Medici located in Palazzo Vecchio, Florence and that of the Duke da Montefeltro at Urbino (pictured).
Alchemy
Alchemists played a significant role in early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.
Anatomy Theater
An anatomical theatre was an institution used in teaching anatomy at early modern universities. The first one was instituted at Padua in 1594. The theatre was amphitheatrical in shape, in the centre of which would stand the table on which the dissections of human or animal bodies took place. It was common to display skeletons at some place in the theatre; observers were accompanied by a number of animal and human skeletons, some of which held banners with inscriptions such as "Remember, you will die."
Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius (1514 -1564) was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body) in 1543. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.
Scientists
Da Vinci (1452-1519) Incredible polymath who began the artist lifestyle at 14. He lived like a gentlemen, but was still worried about finances. His works were defined by advanced understanding of shadowing and atmospheric depth. He made important medical, military, scientific, and artistic contributions to the Renaissance world. Notably, he secretly dissected human remains to study them and implement realistic figures in his works. Paracelsus (1493-1541) was a Swiss German philosopher, physician, botanist, astrologer, and general occultist. He is credited as the founder of toxicology. Utilized observations of nature, rather than referring to ancient texts, something of radical defiance during his time. Andreas Vesalius (1514 -1564) was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body) in 1543. Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a religious mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe (heliocentrism). The publication of this model in his book On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres just before his death in 1543 is considered a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making an important contribution to the Scientific Revolution.
Erasmus
Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a classical scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. He has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists" and prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament, which raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. Remember, christian humanism also looked at ancient texts, but the texts they looked at were strictly religious in nature.
Bramante
Donato Bramante (1444-1514) was an Italian architect, who introduced Renaissance architecture to Milan and the High Renaissance style to Rome, where his plan for St. Peter's Basilica formed the basis of design executed by Michelangelo. His Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio) marked the beginning of the High Renaissance in Rome (1502) when Pope Julius II appointed him to build a sanctuary that allegedly marked the spot where Peter was crucified.
Pazzi Conspiracy
During the reign of Lorenzo de Medici in Florence, Pope Sixtus became agitated that the Medici controlled papal banking. To this end, he encouraged enemies of the Medici to begin a rebellion to seize the papal treasury. In 1478, the Pazzi family planned to kill all of the Medici on Easter Sunday (everyone had to go to church). They sat behind the Medici, but only managed to kill Juliano and wound Lorenzo. This led to a dramatic shift in the way the Medici conducted Florentine government. Lorenzo enacts more controlling political measures.
The Medici
Giovanni (1360-1429), was the first of the line. He becomes a banker to to Pope Eugenius IV after his return from Rome. Due to the conspicuous consumption, Giovanni was able to build an empire from the ground up. He begins the tradition of "cleaning up" the Medici name. He gives significant amounts of money to local churches and chapels using prominent artists (San Lorenzo rebuild with Brunelleschi and Donatello). We begin to see the saints Damian and Cosimo in works of art done for churches. They are included in the religious scenes, indicating their power and piety. Cosimo (1389-1464) He was the son of Giovanni who took over the family business. He reinvents the Medici name and continues banking until he is thrown out of Florence in 1420 because so many guilds, nobility, and wealthy Florentines were indebted to him. He returns to Florence in 1434, pays off the Florentine debt, and declared that he no longer wanted to be part of the state. He develops a client relationship with industry and people alike and helps the state function. He places his supporters in power and represents himself as a pious scholar. He rebuilds churches in human proportions (San Marco monastery), the first instance since ancient times. It was a monument to who the Medici were. Cosimo's dedication to piety culminated in his personal room in the San Marco monastery, where he went to contemplate spirituality. He also rebuilds the Medici Palace and creates image of Medici as patrons and actors in important events. Lorenzo (1449-1492) The son of Cosimo de Medici who rules from 1469-1492. During this period, Florence developed its own Renaissance, which Lorenzo benefited from more than either his father or grandfather. He is exceptionally well educated. It was during Lorenzo's reign that Pope Sixtus (commissioned the Sistine Chapel) encouraged enemies of the Medici to start a rebellion to free up the papal banking. This led to the Pazzi Conspiracy of 1478. After, Lorenzo loses the facade of running a republic, creates a committee of hand-picked representatives. Each meeting was accompanied by the Medici and political meetings were held in the Medici household. Lorenzo then grooms Pope Leo X for the papacy. Leo X (1513-1521): Medici. He borrowed and spent heavily. Granted indulgences for rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica. Did not take seriously the array of demands for church reform that would quickly grow into the Protestant Reformation. Leo also reorganised the Roman University, and promoted the study of literature, poetry and antiquities.
Giovanni de Medici
Giovanni, who lived 1360-1429, was the first of the line. He becomes a banker to to Pope Eugenius IV after his return from Rome. Due to the conspicuous consumption, Giovanni was able to build an empire from the ground up. It is assumed that Giovanni came from the countryside from a previously unknown family. He begins the tradition of "cleaning up" the Medici name. He gives significant amounts of money to local churches and chapels using prominent artists (San Lorenzo rebuild with Brunelleschi and Donatello). We begin to see the saints Damian and Cosimo in works of art done for churches. They are included in the religious scenes, indicating their power and piety.
Savonarola
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498) was an Italian Dominican friar and preacher active in Renaissance Florence. He was known for his prophecies of civic glory, the destruction of secular art and culture, and his calls for Christian renewal. He denounced clerical corruption, despotic rule and the exploitation of the poor. In September 1494, when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, and threatened Florence, his prophecies seemed real. While Savonarola intervened with the French king, the Florentines expelled the ruling Medici and, at the friar's urging, established a "popular" republic. Declaring that Florence would be the New Jerusalem, the world center of Christianity and "richer, more powerful, more glorious than ever",[1] he instituted an extreme puritanical campaign, enlisting the active help of Florentine youth. In 1495 when Florence refused to join Pope Alexander VI's Holy League against the French, the Vatican summoned Savonarola to Rome. He disobeyed and further defied the pope by preaching under a ban, highlighting his campaign for reform with processions, bonfires of the vanities, and pious theatricals. In retaliation, the Pope excommunicated him in May 1497, and threatened to place Florence under an interdict. A trial by fire proposed by a rival Florentine preacher in April 1498 to test Savonarola's divine mandate turned into a fiasco, and popular opinion turned against him. Savonarola and two of his supporting friars were imprisoned. Under torture, Savonarola confessed that he had invented his visions and prophecies. On May 23, 1498, Church and civil authorities condemned, hanged, and burned the three friars in the main square of Florence.
Cosimo de Medici
Lived 1389-1464. He was the son of Giovanni who took over the family business. He reinvents the Medici name and continues banking until he is thrown out of Florence in 1420 because so many guilds, nobility, and wealthy Florentines were indebted to him. He returns to Florence in 1434, pays off the Florentine debt, and declared that he no longer wanted to be part of the state. He develops a client relationship with industry and people alike and helps the state function. He places his supporters in power and represents himself as a pious scholar. He rebuilds churches in human proportions (San Marco monastery), the first instance since ancient times. It was a monument to who the Medici were. Cosimo's dedication to piety culminated in his personal room in the San Marco monastery, where he went to contemplate spirituality. He also rebuilds the Medici Palace and creates image of Medici as patrons and actors in important events.
Lucrezia Borgia
Lucrezia Borgia (1480-1519) was the daughter of Pope Alexander VI. Her family had arranged several marriages for her which advanced their own political position including Giovanni Sforza (Lord of Pesaro), Alfonso of Aragon (Duke of Bisceglie), and Alfonso I d'Este (Duke of Ferrara. Lucrezia's family politics became subject matter for The Prince, where well implemented ruthlessness represents a practical component of Machiavellian politics. Lucrezia was cast as a femme fatale, a role she has been portrayed as in many artworks, novels, and films.
Ludovico il Moro
Ludovico Maria Sforza (1452-1508), was Duke of Milan from 1494 until 1499. A member of the Sforza family, he was the second son of Francesco I Sforza. He was famed as a patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists, and presided over the final and most productive stage of the Milanese Renaissance. He is probably best known as the man who commissioned The Last Supper.
Prominent Explorers
Marco Polo (1254-1324) was an Italian merchant traveler who introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China through a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travelers. There is a substantial literature based on Polo's writings; he also influenced European cartography. Gil Eannes: One of the sailors enrolled in the school founded by Prince Henry the Navigator of Spain. In 1434, he went outside the boundaries set by the ancients. He discovered that outside the world defined by the ancients there was 1.) no sea monsters 2.) no certain death and 3.) no river of gold. Columbus (1450-1506) was an Italian explorer, navigator, colonizer and citizen of the Republic of Genoa. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World. Vasco da Gama (1460s-1524): Portuguese. First European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia for the first time by ocean route, as well as the Atlantic and the Indian oceans entirely and definitively, and in this way, the West and the Orient. Opened door for global imperialism. Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521): Portuguese explorer who organised the Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the Earth while searching for Spice Islands.
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (1254-1324) was an Italian merchant traveler who introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China. He embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa; Marco was imprisoned and dictated his stories to a cellmate. Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China, but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of his experience. This book inspired Christopher Columbus and many other travellers. There is a substantial literature based on Polo's writings; he also influenced European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map.
Machiavelli
Niccolo Machiavelli, a diplomat in the pay of the Republic of Florence, wrote The Prince in 1513 for the Medici after the overthrow of the Republic forced him into exile. Despite initial thought, the Prince is focused on directing a virtuous ruler to restore the Roman grandeur. He never gave the Prince to the Medici because he did not think they possessed the necessary qualities.
Nicholas Rolin
Nicolas Rolin (1376-1462) was a leading figure in the history of Burgundy and France, becoming chancellor to Philip the Good (Philip III, Duke of Burgundy). In 1422, he was made chancellor by Philippe the Good, a post he held for more than forty years as one of the principal architects of the monarch's success. The house in which Rolin was born is now the Autun town museum and is known as the Musée Rolin. He owned the Château d'Oricourt and in 1435 he commissioned Jan van Eyck the famous The Virgin with Child and Chancellor Rolin, now at the Louvre. Having founded the Hospices de Beaune with his wife in 1443, in 1452 Rolin established a new religious order, "Les sœurs hospitalières de Beaune". He ordered the painting of an altarpiece, The Last judgement by the Flemish painter Rogier van der Weyden for the hospices.
Nicholas Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe (heliocentrism). The publication of this model in his book On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres just before his death in 1543 is considered a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making an important contribution to the Scientific Revolution.
Gil Eannes
One of the sailors enrolled in the school founded by Prince Henry the Navigator of Spain. In 1434, he went outside the boundaries set by the ancients. He discovered that outside the world defined by the ancients there was 1.) no sea monsters 2.) no certain death and 3.) no river of gold.
Soderini
Soderini was born in Florence to an old family famous in medicine. His brother was the statesman and supporter of Savonarola. In 1481 he was Prior of the city, and later became a favourite of Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, receiving from him, in 1493, the honour of being the Ambassador to the Kingdom of France. He was elected gonfaloniere for life in 1502 by the Florentines, who wished to give greater stability to their republican institutions, which had been restored after the expulsion of Piero de' Medici and the execution of Savonarola. Soderini's rule proved moderate and wise, although he did not possess the qualities of a great statesman. He introduced a system of national militia in the place of foreign mercenaries. During his government the long war with Pisa was brought to a close with the capture of that city by the Florentines in 1509. Niccolò Machiavelli, author of The Prince and Discourses on Livy, served under him as second chancellor and as ambassador to Cesare Borgia, Rome and France. Grateful to France, which had assisted him, Soderini always took the French side in Italian politics. But in 1512 the Medici returned to Florence with the help of a Spanish army, deposed Soderini, and drove him into exile.
Doge
The Doge of Venice, sometimes translated as Duke, was the chief magistrate and leader of the ]Republic of Venice for over a thousand years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-state's aristocracy. Commonly the man selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city. The title "doge" was the title of the senior-most elected official of Venice and Genoa; both cities were republics and elected doges.
Medici Palace
The Medici do not quality as a princely court, but they create an intellectual center that influences all of Europe.
Holy League
The famous friar Savonarola believed that King Charles VIII was God's tool to purify the corruption of Florence. This situation would eventually spill over into another conflict between Pope Alexander VI, who despised the idea of having the king in northern Italy where the Pope feared the King of France would interfere with the Papal States. This conflict would eventually lead Savonarola to be suspected of heresy and executed by the State. The speed and power of the French advance frightened the other Italian rulers, including the Pope and even Ludovico of Milan. They formed an anti-French coalition, the League of Venice on March 31, 1495. The formation of the League of Venice, which included the northern Italian states of Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Mantua, and the Republic of Florence in addition to the Kingdom of Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Naples, appeared to have trapped Charles VIII in southern Italy and blocked his return to France. At the Fornovo in July 1495, the League defeated Charles VIII.
Doctor Faustus
The idea of an individual selling his or her soul to the devil for knowledge is an old motif in Christian folklore, one that had become attached to the historical persona of Johannes Faustus, a disreputable astrologer who lived in Germany sometime in the early 1500s. Themes: 1. Redemption through grace 2. Free will 3. Power as corrupting
Humoral Theory
Though the Renaissance was a time of scientific discovery, and there was a shift as close examination proved the ancients did not know everything. Hippocrates developed the humoral theory that was: Blood created by the liver Phlegm created by the lungs Yellow bile of the gall bladder Black bile of the spleen All were influenced by the outward elements of fire, water, earth, and fire. Medicinal practices were based on the theory of humoral balance. Amendment of the theory began with the observation of the human body with artists such as Da Vinci.
General Trends of the Renaissance Papacy 1415-1521
Three general trends evolve in the papacy of the fifteenth century: 1. The desire to have clear supremacy over the church. To this end, the papacy undercuts trends towards conciliarism and schism. 2. Secularization of the church and popes. The papacy during this period is educated by humanists and becomes indebted to powerful princely families through loans and through blood. Ex: The Medici were the sole reason the papacy was able to return to Rome and this period sees a number of Borgia and Medici popes. 3. The concept of princely courts becomes appealing to the papacy and they create these courts to accomplish goals #1-2.
Urbino
Urbino is one of the first defined princely courts of the fifteenth century (Castiglione lauded it in The Courtier). Under Frederigo da Montefeltro, Urbino grows to include the following characteristics of princely courts: 1. Sumptuary Laws and Banquets 2. Extravagance-creation of curiosity cabinets and increasing desire to collect artifacts and art. 3. Focus on external image-Urbino was renown for its palace, gardens, and interior design. All were set to create an image of a strong and virtuous military leader with exceptional piety and virtu.
Lorenzo Valla
Valla epitomizes the internal struggle of the good humanist: the struggle between vita activa and vita contemplativa. As a papal secretary, he published the False Donation of Constantine, which proved the document granting a large portion of the Roman Empire to the papacy was a forgery. Since Valla was a papal secretary, using his rhetoric to undercut his state could be viewed as bad, but Valla argued that humanists should follow their moral sense. In other words, he was the opposite of Cicero, who compromised his personal values for the sake of the state.
"Italian Wars"
Were a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals.
