Final Exam Study Guide CCJ 350

UN definition

- According to the U.N. genocide definition, genocide is - Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.

Politicide

- Barbara Harff and Tedd Gurr developed this to refer to the killing of political groups. -It essentially expands the notion of genocide

Definitional Difficulties

- Because of U.N. definition flaws, some use alternative definitions of genocide. - But U.N. definition is the only one that is part of international law

NCVS

- Just over half (55%) of violent hate crimes reported to the NCVS were perpetrated by known offenders and about 61% were male. - Violent hate crime is also more likely to involve multiple offenders than other violent crimes. - For example, about 30% of violent hate crime incidents involved more than one offender compared with only 17% of violent victimizations that were not motivated by hate.

2018 FBI Report

- Overall very slight decline in 2018 - 12% increase in hate crimes involving violence - 14% increase in hate crimes against Latinos - 18% increase in anti-LGBTQ hate crimes

College rape

-Data suggest that nearly 5% of college women are victimized in any given calendar year. -This means that for every 1,000 women attending these types of institutions there may be 35 incidents of rape in a given academic year. -One study sampled 6,000 students from 32 colleges and found that 53% reported some sort of unwanted sexual contact. Of those, 15% had been victimized by rape, and 12% had experienced an attempted rape.

Rape typologists

-There are typologies of rapists that have been developed by various scholars. -One such classification scheme divides rapists into four broad types: -power reassurance -anger retaliation -power assertive -sadistic

Power

A big part of the reason appears to revolve around the issue of power. • Perceptions of power, or a lack thereof, are related to other forms of interpersonal crime including rape and intimate partner violence. • The resurgence in white supremacy in today's society represents a reaction to the perceived loss of power felt by some white men. • In a country in which whites, and especially white men, once held all the reins of power and enjoyed economic, social, and political superiority and control over other groups, that equation has been changing. • Increasingly, the demographic composition of our society has altered and power has become more diffused among various racial, ethnic, religious, and gender groups

Lynching Motivations

In many ways, then, we can see lynching as operating on a number of different levels. • One of the primary purposes was to strike fear into the hearts of Blacks in the post Reconstruction period as they were attempting to integrate into White society and assert their economic and political independence. • Lynchings helped intimidate the Black population and made them easier to control within the labor force. • This reign of terror also made many Blacks hesitant about speaking up or advocating for higher wages and/or better working conditions. • It also served as a means to maintain White supremacy over the Black population, because it helped to discourage African Americans from challenging the status quo of White privilege more generally. • In addition, some have suggested that as the prices of cotton fell and Southern Whites were under more economic stress, Blacks were more likely to be scapegoated for the problems and economic misfortunes of Whites, who lynched Blacks out of frustration and misplaced anger.

End of World War 2

World was stunned by what Nazis had done. - Nuremberg trials - Liberators

Non-Reporting

• Most victims, less than 3 out of 10, report being victimized. They are reluctant because: -Of the intimate nature of the assault -Fear of retaliation from the offender -Fear of not being believed -Shame, embarrassment, and social stigma -Fear of being victimized by Justice system (2nd rape)

U.S. Antisemitic Incidents Remained at Historic High in 2020

• The ADL reported a total of 2,024 incidents of assault, harassment, and vandalism in 2020. • New York, New Jersey, California, Florida, and Pennsylvania together accounted for nearly 57% of the total number of incidents. • Other states had large increases, including Ohio, which went from 25 incidents in 2019 to 42 in 2020.

Defining Hate Crime

- A hate crime is not a specific kind of offense, but an already existing offense that is perpetrated because of some underlying prejudice or hatred perceived by the offender(s). - Essentially, an ordinary crime becomes a hate crime when offenders select a victim because of some characteristic, such as the victim's race or religion. - Of course, like intent, it is difficult to prove underling prejudice or hatred. - Instead, prosecutors must typically demonstrate that a victim is targeted because of their group affiliation. - In other words, hate crimes involve victims who are targeted because of their religion, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, or any other group identity that is targeted because of bias, prejudice, and intolerance. - The specific victim is not necessarily chosen because of who they are or what they did, but simply because they belong to a particular group.

Charlottesville

- After the Charleston church shooting, some communities began removing the confederate flag, statues, monuments, and other memorials from public property that were seen as glorifying the confederacy, slavery and white supremacy. - This was met by protests and resistance from those who saw in these removals a rejection of their history and heritage. - One protest labeled the Unite the Right Rally was held August 11-12, 2017 in Charlottesville, Virginia. - The participants included white supremacists, neo-Nazis, and militias. - Ostensibly there to protest the removal of a statue of Robert E. Lee, the marcher's broader agenda was clear. - They chanted racist and anti-Semitic slogans and wore a variety of Nazi and neo-Nazi symbols. - The rally quickly broke out into violence, with marchers fighting opponents of the rally. Before it was over, one white supremacist drove his car into a crowd killing a young woman, Heather Heyer, and injuring many more. - The driver, James Alex Fields Jr. was later arrested and convicted of a number of crimes, including first degree murder. Fields also faces Federal Hate Crime charges.

Lyching

- After the revolution, lynching began appearing on the frontier as the newly formed nation began its inexorable expansion westward, but in character and tone lynching remained largely unchanged and was a relatively infrequent occurrence. - Lynching at this time, it should be noted, was rarely perpetrated against Blacks but was instead perpetrated against various other groups that were perceived as threatening some established order. - There was no need to lynch slaves since the laws and customs of slaveholding states and territories provided many legal mechanisms intended to keep Blacks in their place and under control. - This all changed, however, after the end of the Civil War and the beginning of Reconstruction

Spectators

- Another peculiar element of lynchings was the often carnival-like atmosphere that frequently accompanied these murders. • Hundreds, if not thousands, of spectators, often including children, came out to watch and even participate in lynchings. • Spectators sometimes came from miles around to join in the festivities, and the crowd would often pose for photographs with the bodies of the victims, and these pictures would sometimes even be turned into postcards. • After the lynching, spectators would often fight for scraps of clothing, rope, and bone to take home as souvenirs. • As repellent as this is to us, it should be noted that this kind of behavior was also often seen at legal executions performed in public and was part of a long tradition of public conduct

Social Control

- As a tool for maintaining social control, lynchings in US history were not isolated incidents. • In fact, lynchings by small groups of Whites were so prevalent between 1880 and 1930 that Stewart Tolnay and E. M. Beck have referred to these years in US history as the "Lynching Era." • Tolnay and Beck found that there were 2,805 people lynched between 1882 and 1930 in ten Southern states. • While the vast majority of these victims were African Americans, other victims were those from the North who came down south to assist the Black population during Reconstruction, and White Southerners who sympathized with Reconstruction and efforts to integrate Blacks into Southern society. • Lynching often served some very real social, political, and economic goals.

Hate Crime Statutes

- At the time of both Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr.'s deaths, most states did not have hate crime statutes. - Today, 46 states and the District of Columbia have some sort of bias crime legislation, the exceptions being Arkansas, Georgia, South Carolina, and Wyoming. - Generally, these statutes add additional time onto sentence lengths for those convicted of hate-motivated offenses. Like all crime statutes, however, there is a great deal of variability in how and when offenses fall under the rubric of a hate crime. - For example, in April 2019, a white supremacist named Russell Courtier ran over and killed a 19-year-old black man, with his jeep after an argument in Oregon. Although the crime was clearly hate-related, prosecutors could not charge Courtier with a felony hate crime because the state statute only allowed this when offenders acted with an accomplice. As a result, Courtier was only convicted of a misdemeanor hate crime along with this murder charge and was sentenced to 28 years in prison. - Similarly, in May 2017 a man stabbed two people to death and wounded another on a Portland commuter train. Jeremy Christian had been yelling anti-Muslim epithets at two women on the train, one of whom was wearing a hijab. The three victims attempted to intervene and calm Christian down, but he attacked them with a knife; killing two of them. Christian was subsequently charged with murder, assault, and weapons charges, but because he acted alone, the hate crimes charges were misdemeanors, not felonies.

Familiar Stereotypes

- Because anti-Semitism has been around such a long time, many people are familiar with the negative images associated with the Jews, even if they are not anti-Semites themselves. • This means that when times get tough or tragedies happen, these old ideas are easily resurrected to explain what happened and why. • Globalization, for example, and all of the resulting economic and social changes and dislocation are not always easily understood or explained. They are scary phenomena for many people who see their jobs or way of life being threatened. This was worsened by the 2008 financial collapse and the widespread anger directed against Wall Street and the banking industry. • An easy way to make sense of what happened and have a target to focus anger against is to scapegoat a group for the economic downturn. • Scapegoating can be used by political, social, and religious leaders in order to capitalize on old prejudices and further their own goals. • One anti-Semitic theme, for example, that has been relied on in recent years portrays the Jews as rich and exploitative industrialists and bankers responsible for our economic problems.

Anti-Defamation League (ADL)

- Beginning in the late 1970's and early 1980's, the Anti-Defamation League, an organization founded to fight anti-Semitism and other forms of prejudice, began a lobbying campaign to pass hate crime legislation based on a model statute that they developed. - Assisted by other organizations such as the Southern Poverty Law Center, the National Institute for Prejudice and Violence, and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, these organizations campaigned to get laws against what they first termed ethnic intimidation, and later renamed as bias- motivated crime, enacted into law. - Beginning at the state level and enjoying success, they soon began advocating at the Federal level. • Their work was instrumental in the adoption of hate crime laws for many states and the federal government. - Despite these legislative efforts, these hate crimes were still not widely known, understood, or enforced. - Two cases helped change popular and legal consciousness around this issue. These two cases have come to be synonymous with modern American hate crimes; the James Byrd case in 1998 and the killing of Matthew Shepard that same year

NCVS

- Between 2011 and 2015, the most likely type of bias, according to victim's perceptions in the NCVS data, was directed against a person's race (48.1%), followed by ethnicity (35.4%) which includes a person's ancestral, cultural, social, or national affiliation. - These first two categories of bias were followed in descending order by - gender, - association (used to refer to victimization because of a relationship with someone from the targeted group), - sexual orientation, - religion, - disability, and - perceived characteristics (victimization because of looking or acting according to some biased perception such as when a person is attacked because the perpetrator thinks they look Jewish or is acting effeminate). These results are fairly consistent with the FBI data reported

lynching Patterns

- Examining the patterns of lynchings in the South, we find that, up until World War I, most lynchings of African Americans were concentrated in the areas in which cotton was the dominant crop. • In fact, the number of lynchings at any given time has been found to be influenced by fluctuations in the price of cotton. • Specifically, lynchings against Southern Blacks increased during tougher economic times in those regions of the South where the dominant cash crop was cotton. • Cotton cultivation depended heavily on cheap African American labor. • While never overtly about labor conditions, the violence against African Americans certainly helped reinforce White domination over the African Americans and helped maintain the plantation owners' supply of cheap labor. • Lynchings also varied by time of year, and this seasonality also reflected the needs of the planters

New Legislation

- For all the recent examples of hate crime prosecutions, these laws, both state and federal, are fairly new. - Up until recent times such crimes were typically prosecuted as ordinary offenses based on the underlying behavior, rather than the motivating element of bias or hatred of a group. - Sometimes, individuals would be prosecuted for civil rights violations, a federal crime since 1871 when congress passed the Civil Rights Act. - A good example of this is the 1994 prosecution of four Los Angeles Police Department officers who beat Black motorist Rodney King.

Race Motivated Hate Crime

- Hate crimes perpetrated because of race are overwhelmingly targeted against African Americans. - While there are many ways in which anti-Black violence has been historically carried out, perhaps the most well-known and infamous example of such an offense is known as lynching. - While lynching's sometimes targeted other groups including Mexicans, Chinese, and American Indians/Alaskan Natives, it most commonly was perpetrated against Blacks. - Furthermore, on December 18, 2018, after almost a 100 years of failing to pass similar measures, the U.S. Senate unanimously approved legislation defining lynching as a federally prohibited hate crime. - The law, which is called the "Justice for Victims of Lynching Act of 2018," provides a federal sentence of life in prison for two or more people convicted of killing someone because of their actual or perceived race, color, religion, or national origin. - It should be noted that at present, this bill has not passed in the U.S. House of Representatives or been signed by President Trump.

KKK (Ku Klux Klan)

- In short, in the aftermath of the Civil War, Southern Whites began relying on violent and repressive tactics, of which lynching was the most lethal manifestation, in order to protect their privileged way of life relative to that of Blacks. - Although there were many organized groups that fought to retain White supremacy during this time, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is probably the most well-known. • The KKK was founded in 1866, its main purpose being to fight Reconstruction efforts. • Today, the number of members in various organizations related to the KKK has dwindled; however, the Klan is still alive and well, holding annual rallies and marches across the country. • The organization's scope of intolerance has widened since the time of Reconstruction following the Civil War, and the Klan now professes to be anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-gay, anti-immigration, and anti-Muslim.

UN definition

- Killing members of the group - Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group - Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part - Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group - Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group - Tom Torlino, a Navajo before and after arriving at the Carlisle Indian School - Importantly, the document also affirmed that - Genocide, whether committed in time of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law which they [the signatories] undertake to prevent and to punish.

Genocide

- Lemkin wanted to focus attention on Nazi crimes. - Older words didn't capture what the Nazis were doing.

Lynching

- Lynching is an imprecise term and has been used and misused in many ways. However, it can roughly be defined as an extralegal execution by a mob. - Lynching is a type of collective violence in which a group of individuals circumvent the law and punish individuals for real or imagined crimes. - Initially nonlethal in nature, it usually involved punishments such as whippings and tarring-and-feathering, but over time it evolved to become a much more lethal form of social control— one that typically included torture, mutilation, hanging, and burning.

Control

- Lynching, then, was a way for White Southerners to reassert control over the African American population—or, in other words, it was a tool for protecting certain traditional values that placed Blacks in a subordinate role to Whites. - This extralegal means of social control was also buttressed by a host of legislative initiatives in the Southern states known as the "Black Codes" that were intended to limit the rights of African Americans. - Congress attempted to hamper these codes by passing the Civil Rights Act of 1866 that gave Blacks citizenship and full rights, even overcoming a presidential veto to do so.

NCVS

- Of these three forms of evidence, the vast majority of cases were believed to be hate crimes because of the use of derogatory language (98.7%). - Not surprisingly, the NCVS estimates many more hate crime victims compared to police report data. - The most recent data available indicate that there were 207,880 hate crimes in 2015, of which 192,020 were violent crimes, and 14,160 property offenses. - The most common form of violent hate crimes were simple assaults (61.6%), followed by aggravated assault (17.7%). - For property offenses, the most common type of hate crime consisted of thefts.

End of Civil War

- On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox courthouse and ended the American Civil War. - In December of that same year, Congress ratified the Thirteenth Amendment and officially abolished slavery, completing the process begun with President Abraham Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation. - African Americans were finally free to participate in the economic, social, and political life of the nation. - Many White Southerners resented and hated the newly won rights of their former slaves. - Under slavery, Whites had enjoyed a privileged position that was protected by the laws and institutions of the slaveholding states. The Civil War and Reconstruction put an end to that

Non-reporting of Hate Crime

- One analysis by the Bureau of Justice Statistics found that less than half of hate crimes (44%) are reported to law enforcement. - The reasons given for not reporting were: - many victims handled it privately, - Some referred the matter to a non-law enforcement official such as a teacher or staff member at a school or an apartment manager. - Almost a quarter of victims, however, simply did not report because they felt that the police wouldn't be interested or willing to respond or because they felt that it would cause more trouble for them from the perpetrator or friends of the perpetrator.

James Byrd

- One night in June 1998, James Byrd Jr., a 49-year-old African American, decided to walk home alone in Jasper, Texas after a party. - A pickup truck driven by 23-year-old Shawn Berry, and two other men pulled up, and Berry asked Byrd whether he wanted a ride. When Byrd climbed into the back of the truck, Berry gave him a beer and they drove to a remote area where they beat him, spray-painted his face black, and then dragged him with a logging chain tied to his ankles about three miles before they dumped his body at the side of the road. Byrd's head and arm had been cut off when his body was pulled over a sharp metal culvert. - Brewer was executed by lethal injection in 2011 and on Wednesday, April 24th, 2019 John William King was similarly put to death by the state of Texas. - The brutal murder of James Byrd Jr. was the first time that the term hate crime came to the forefront of public consciousness in the United States.

Hate crime

- Recent events have called attention to hate crimes in the U.S. - October 27, 2018: Tree of Life Synagogue shooting. 11 dead, 7 wounded. - 48-year-old Richard Bowers was the shooter. • He subscribed to anti-Semitism, white nationalism, and white genocide theory. - In addition to state murder charges, Robert Bowers was also charged with multiple violations of federal civil rights law prohibiting hate crimes. - April 27th, 2019: Chabad of Poway Synagogue. 1 dead, 3 wounded. - 19-year-old John Earnest was the shooter. Drew inspiration from similar attacks including the Tree of Life Shooting, as well as from the Mosque shootings in Christchurch, New Zealand just a month earlier that killed 50 people and wounded another 50. - Previous hate-filled violence can inspire further violence, and this is clearly the case in these mass shootings.

Popular Justice

- Some have argued that lynchings were simply a form of popular justice--- that lynch mobs were simply making sure that justice was served in cases where a crime had been committed. • However, this premise is almost impossible to justify, since the majority of lynching victims were taken from jails or some other form of law enforcement authority. • As such, most victims were already facing legal sanctions in some form or another, even though many victims had not been tried or convicted of an offense. • Moreover, a significant number of lynchings involved more than a mere hanging; many involved symbolic mutilations, burning, and torture of the body, which was always displayed in a place that was easily visible to the Black community. • In sum, the purpose of lynching was to create a reign of terror over the African American community and to make a political statement that Blacks who did not submit to White rule would be severely dealt with.

NCVS

- The NCVS defines hate crimes as those incidents in which victims believe the offender selected them for victimization because of one or more of their personal characteristics, including race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and disability. - This definition also includes incidents in which the offender perceives the victim as belonging to or associated with a group largely identified by one of these characteristics OR perceives the victim as associating with people having certain characteristics. - Before a crime is classified as hate-related, corroborating evidence of hate motivation must also be found to have been present at the time of the incident, including at least one of the following: - The offender used derogatory language. - The offender left hate symbols. - The police confirmed that a hate crime had taken place.

Hate Crime Acts

- The first major hate crime legislation passed at the federal level was called the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990. The law directed the attorney general to collect data "about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity." - In September 1994, Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, which amended the Hate Crime Statistics Act to include both physical and mental disabilities. - The most recent law enacted at the federal level against hate crimes is called the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act; it was signed into law by President Obama in March of 2010. - The law expanded federal hate crime legislation to include violence based on gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and disability in addition to the already-existing criteria based on race and religion.

Religion-Based Hate Crime

- The most common form of religious based bias crimes are anti-Semitic in orientation. • Anti-Semitism refers to derogatory speech and action targeted against Jews and relies on very old images and prejudices. • In fact, anti-Semitism has sometimes been referred to as the longest hatred. • While other groups are also sometimes targeted, and while Islamophobia has been on the rise in recent years, it is antiSemitism that represents the most pervasive form of religious-based hate crime.

Justifications

- This is not to suggest that these instrumental reasons were articulated overtly. • Instead we find a whole host of rationales and justifications used to paint the lynchings in a positive light. • The victims of lynchings were almost always portrayed as dangerous and brutish offenders who had called down the righteous wrath of the community by their actions. • Perpetrators of violence, we must remember, almost always portray their behavior as justified and righteous, and in this the lynch mob was no different.

Dylann Roof

- We can also see such connections when we examine the actions of Dylann Roof on June 17, 2015. - Roof, a 21-year-old white supremacist went to a historic Black Church in Charleston, South Carolina and killed nine members of the congregation during a prayer service. - During the shooting, he proclaimed that he was there to, "shoot black people," and when one individual pleaded with him to stop, he answered that, "You rape our women and you're taking over our country. And you have to go." - Roof was caught and pled guilty to nine counts of murder at the state level, and was subsequently the first person ever sentenced to death at the federal level for a hate crime

Contemporary Prevalence

- While lynchings are not as prevalent as they once were, they nevertheless remain potent manifestations of collective violence perpetrated outside of the boundaries of official governmental authority. • Moreover, while ritualistic lynchings by hanging and burning have faded, we know that hate-motivated killings remain an ever- present part of all societies. • We also know that the primary purpose of lynchings is not to seek some form of popular justice but to instill a climate of terror in marginalized populations. • This reality continues into the present day. • In 2018, for example, nooses were left hanging outside of the Mississippi capitol building ahead of a racially charged special election. • Similar kinds of incidents with nooses left hanging as a potent symbol of hate have appeared at schools and businesses in the last few years and remind us that the specter of lynching is still very much with us in 21st century America.

Judge Charles Lynch

- While there are a couple of possible contenders, the origin of the term lynching most likely comes from Judge Charles Lynch, who fought against the Tories during the Revolutionary War. - Tories were colonists who supported the British against the revolution. - A Virginia magistrate, legislator, and colonel in the militia, Lynch and his sympathizers rounded up and punished Tory sympathizers, even though they had no jurisdictional authority to do so. - As Lynch himself reported after one extralegal expedition, "Shot one, hanged one, and whipt [sic] several." - Because of the relatively high social status of those perpetrating the acts and a superficial adherence to formality and impartiality, many people felt that the actions of Judge Lynch were legitimate and carried the force of law, even if the technical legality was missing. - This type of violence soon became known as Lynch's law, later shortened to Lynch law, and still later to the verb lynching.

U.S. Federal Code

-(A) contact between the penis and the vulva or the penis and anus, and for purposes of this subparagraph contact involving the penis occurs upon penetration, however slight; (B) contact between the mouth and the penis, the mouth and the vulva, or the mouth and the anus; or ( C) the penetration, however slight, of the anal or genital opening of another by a hand or finger or by any object, with an intent to abuse, humiliate, harass, degrade, or arouse or gratify the sexual desire of any person.

NVVS & NISVS

-According to the NCVS, the rate of rape has not changed much over time, with approximately 150,420 people age 12 and older becoming the victims of rape and sexual assault annually. -Importantly, this number also includes rapes and other sexual assaults like offensive touching. -In contrast, the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) which interviews men and women age 18 and older only, estimates that approximately 1,270,000 people are raped annually. -This is far more than the number estimated by the NCVS. -Clearly, the way in which you ask people about their victimization experiences affects the magnitude of estimates obtained through survey research.

What does the evidence suggest?

-According to the NISVS, about 1% of adult women in the U.S. are raped every year (About 1.2 million women annually). -Over 18% of women have been raped in their lifetimes compared to just over 1% of men. -American Indians/Alaskan Natives are much more likely to be raped in their lifetimes compared to any other racial/ethnic group. -Over one in four AIAN women have been raped in their lives compared to 22% of African Americans, 19% of whites, and 15% of Hispanic women. -The majority of rapes occurred when the victims were under 25 years of age, and nearly half occurred before age 18. • -Victims are much more likely to be raped by people they know compared to strangers. Only about 14% of victims reported that they had been raped by strangers

Drugs

-Although particular drugs have become known as "date-rape drugs," most experts prefer the term "drug-facilitated sexual assault." -There are at least 3 drugs used for this purpose: 1) GHB (gamma hydroxybutyric acid), 2) Rohypnol (flunitrazepam), and 3) Ketamine (ketamine hydrochloride). -These drugs often have no color, smell, or taste and are easily added to flavored drinks without the victim's knowledge. -They can affect a victim very quickly and serve to render many victims helpless and unable to refuse sex. -Importantly, they also hinder victims' memories so they are unable to recall the victimization or adequately testify on their own behalf.

Sexual desire and rape

-Another popular misperception about rape suggests that it is a product of sexual desires and needs. -The truth, however, is that rape is first and foremost a crime of violence. -This is not to suggest that rapist is not motivated in part by desire and sexual gratification, but rather that the sexual elements are woven together with issues of power and dominance in the mind of the rapist. -To the rapist, violence and sex are linked in a perverse way that allows them to project their insecurities, fantasies, and frustrations onto the bodies of their victims.

College rape

-Contrary to popular mythology, most victims know their assailants. -In fact, 9 out of 10 offenders were known to the victim in the NCWSV study, while Koss found that 83% of the victims knew their assailant. -The majority of the offenders were other classmates, friends, boyfriends and ex-boyfriends. -Similarly, the majority of rapes, regardless of whether they occurred on or off-campus, took place in residences. -Often these rapes are facilitated by a variety of drugs.

How many victims are there?

-Estimates of rape and sexual assault victimization can be obtained from several existing sources -UCR -NIBRS -Social Science Surveys • -Because rape and sexual assault are the least likely form of violence to be reported, official sources tend to be very incomplete. -Social Science Surveys are probably the most accurate

Surveys

-Even surveys, however, vary widely. • -Wording of questions, • -Composition of the sample • -Context of the survey. -The more behaviorally specific the questions are worded, the higher the positive response rate. -Broad questions lead to different interpretations. -If the perpetrator was an acquaintance or a husband, the victim may not define it as rape even though it can be considered as such. -Perhaps there was no overt use of force and so the victim may not define it as an "attack." -The word rape itself has a variety of meanings that are used differently depending upon the context and the individuals involved.

A crime of violence

-Few crimes evoke such a visceral reaction as rape -It is because it is a violation of the most intimate kind -Rape is also a crime that is subject to more misunderstandings than many other types of violence -We tend to perceive it, for example, as a crime only against women -We tend to think of it, for example, only in terms of forced intercourse

Power and dominance

-Fundamental to many theories, especially feminist thought, is the idea that violence against women, both sexual and nonsexual, is an expression of a patriarchal (male dominant) social structure. -Accordingly, the subjugation of women by men is built into the organization of society. -Thus, some scholars contend that rape is an act of social control which is an extension of normative male behavior that defines the traditional male sex role and is integral to the historical powerlessness of women in male-dominated societies

Types of rapist

-Glaser: -Naïve Graspers: inexperienced, awkward, they think the victim will appreciate the advances • -Meaning Stretchers: most common "no means yes" -Sex Looters: women as sex objects, may be strangers to victim -Group Conformers: gang rapist (sports team, military unit).

Injuries

-In about 1 in 5 rapes of college students, victims report sustaining other injuries in addition to the rape injuries. -These injuries are most often bruises, black-eyes, cuts, scratches, swelling, or chipped teeth. -Despite these injuries, however, very few rapes were reported to law enforcement officials. -In fact, less than 5% of all rapes were reported.

Appearances

-Interestingly enough, research has shown that many rapists are often: -married or dating, -hold down jobs, -To all outward appearances look like decent law abiding citizens. -But this image is a façade that disguises an individual who predates on innocent victims.

Abnormality and rapists

-One popular perception holds that rapists are somehow abnormal or sick. -Yet, the image of most rapists having some psychopathology has not been supported by contemporary research. -After reviewing the psychological research, researchers concluded that the link between sexually aggressive men and psychopathology was inconclusive and weak at best .

Power and dominance

-One study found that individuals with a belief in conventional sex-role stereotypes were: • -more likely to endorse rape myths such as women are partially responsible for their own rapes, many women enjoy rape, and women who are drunk cannot be raped; -were more likely to have attitudes supporting violence against women; -and were more likely to believe that sexual relationships are necessarily deceptive, manipulative, and exploitative. -Each of these attitudes has been linked to sexual aggression. Research on college males found that men who believe in traditional sex roles are more likely to be involved in sexually aggressive activity than those males who do not adhere to these values.

Power and dominance

-Other scholars focus on the socialization process of males and females. -They contend that traditional socialization practices encourage males to associate aggression, dominance, strength, and virility with masculinity. -In contrast, traditional female stereotypes encourage females to be submissive and passive -Research does support the contention that a belief in traditional sex roles is related to attitudes endorsing violence toward women.

Power assertive

-Power and dominance are the primary motivating forces. -In the act of rape, these individuals achieve a powerful feeling of being in control and of having the power of life or death over their victims. -Violence, for this predator, is often an intrinsic part of the rape, since it visibly confirms their absolute control over the victim.

Rapists

-Rape is a very varied phenomenon and, consequently, rapists are a heterogeneous group. -This means that no single theory is going to explain all rape. -Furthermore, studies based on interviews with convicted rapists in prison can not be generalized to all rapists because so few rapes are ever reported to police, much less end in conviction and incarceration of the offender.

Motives

-Rapists commit their crimes for a variety of reasons, but three themes seem to run through all of them: -Power; -Anger; -Sexuality.

Types of rape

-Stranger -Acquaintance -Date (subtype of acquaintance) -Marital -Statutory

Alcohol

-The most widespread and common drug that facilitates rape and sexual assault is alcohol. -When under the influence of alcohol, it is harder to think clearly and evaluate a potentially dangerous situation. -Drinking too much can also cause black-outs and memory loss, similar to the affects of the above drugs. -It's safe to say that high risk situations are parties and similar kinds of events, when students are socializing with friends and acquaintances and using alcohol and/or other substances. -Parties held in dorm rooms, frat houses, or off campus houses and apartments also offer the convenience of potential seclusion where this type of assault can more easily occur

Power and dominance

-There is some support for this at the societal level. -For example, research has found that there are higher rates of rape in societies in which women are excluded from positions of power compared to societies based on the relatively equal distribution of power and mutual respect. -Research in the United States has also found that states with higher rates of gender equality have lower rape rates compared to states with higher rates of inequality.

Power reassurance

-They generally suffers from low self-esteem, feelings of being inadequate and, in the act of rape, tries to achieve a sense of personal empowerment. -They tend to be the least violent and sometimes fantasize that their victim may actually come to enjoy the rape and may even want to initiate a relationship with their attacker.

Anger retaliation

-This is someone who feels a tremendous amount of hostility toward women and consequently uses rape as a vehicle of revenge. -Often these men were abused as children and/or come from single parent homes. -It has also been suggested that their generalized hatred of women may also stem from a negative relationship with a mother or other significant female.

Sadistic rapist

-This rapist displays extreme violence and cruelty in his attacks. -They enjoy and revel in the pain and humiliation that they inflict on their victims. -This rapist is potentially the most likely of the different types of rapist to kill his victims.

College women and rape

-We often think of college campuses as being safe and secure locations, immune from the dangers and violent influences of the outside world. -But the truth is that college campuses are as dangerous and crime prone as the larger communities within which they exist. -In fact, research suggests that women attending college are at greater risk for rape and sexual assault compared to other women of the same age in the general population.

The word genocide

-While the word is new, the crime is old -The word genocide was first coined Raphael Lemkin in 1944.

Demographics factors

-Younger people had the highest rates of rape, with those 16 to 19 years of age being at the greatest risk of rape. -By the age of 35, the risk of rape decreases significantly and remains at low levels throughout the remainder of the life course. -Income also appears to be related to rape victimization. Individuals living in families with lower incomes have an increased risk of victimization compared to individuals residing in families with higher incomes.

Contemporary Antisemitism Around the World

2018 also deadliest year in many decades for Jews globally • Anti-Semitism on the rise in many places: • Italy = 60% increase • United Kingdom = 16% increase, • France = 74% increase • Australia = 59% increase, • South Africa 25% increase

Increase in Hate Crimes Against Latinx and African American Populations

2020 = hate crimes against Black or African American People in U.S. jumped by 40% from 2019. • 2019 = deadliest year for murders motivated by hatred/bias against Latinx populations largely because of the mass shooting at an El Paso, TX, Walmart that killed 23 people. - Nicole Poole Franklin, 42, admitted to driving into a teen because victim appeared to be "Mexican" in Des Moines, Iowa, in December of 2019.

What is a Hate Crime?

A crime + Motivation for committing the crime based on bias = Hate Crime • A hate crime is not a specific kind of offense, but an already existing offense that is perpetrated because of some underlying prejudice or hatred perceived by the offender(s). - An ordinary crime becomes a hate crime when offenders select a victim or property that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender's bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity/national origin, gender, gender identity

White minority

According to census projections, by 2045, whites will, for the first time, become a minority population in the U.S. • As the composition of the United States population continues to evolve, fears of the "other" have become a potent source of anger, resentment, and hostility on the part of some whites who see their society changing around them in ways that are alien and uncomfortable. • Our society, culture, traditions, and values are constantly evolving and changing, and this is always difficult. • For some, it represents a transition from all that is familiar and comfortable to a world that seems foreign and confusing. • Research has found that as immigration and ethnic diversity increases in a society, trust, altruism, and community cooperation are correspondingly diminished.

Hate Groups

According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, which tracks such groups, white nationalist organizations grew from 100 in 2017 to 148 in 2018. • The Anti-Defamation League documented a 182% increase in the distribution of white supremacist propaganda and of the number of rallies held. • These facts still beg the question of what is behind such a dramatic growth.

UN Genocide Convention

April 9, 1948: the general assembly of the United Nations approved the Genocide Convention which defined genocide as a crime under international law.

Eugenics

Based on the pseudo-science of Social Darwinism, the Eugenics Movement became active in the United Kingdom in the late 19th Century and emerged in the U.S. in the early 20th Century. • The word eugenics comes from the Greek roots for 'good' and 'origin' and essentially misapplies principles of genetics for improving the human race. • The eugenics movement in the U.S. for example, drove legislation across many states for forced sterilization of many, including those who were mentally or physically challenged, and others from the ranks of marginalized subgroups. • Hitler and the Nazis believed in eugenics and used these ideas to justify a euthanasia program targeting the mentally and physically handicapped as well as the Holocaust. Only after the horrors of Nazi Germany came to light did the eugenics movement lose power in the U.S.

White supremacy

Despite empirical evidence proving that race is a social construct and that all humans are virtually identical, albeit with different skin color, white supremacist groups continue to exist. • In the United States, these groups have included such organizations as the Ku Klux Klan, Posse Comitatus, White Aryan Resistance, and various other neo-Nazi, skinhead, Christian Identity, Christian Patriot, and militia groups. • Some are highly organized and structured, while others are much looser in organization and structure. • All, however, share the belief that the white race - meaning primarily those from northern Europe - are superior to other races, are responsible for the greatest achievements in culture and civilization, and are threatened by the increasing presence of non-white peoples in this country.

FBI Definition of Hate Crime

FBI Defines it as: - A hate crime, also known as a bias crime, is a criminal offense committed against a person, property, or society that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender's bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin. - Many states include other characteristics within their hate crime statutes, including age, gender, political affiliation, and transgender status or gender identity. - As the language of the FBI definition suggests, bias crime is sometimes used as another term for hate crime.

Legitimate hatred

Fox News host Tucker Carlson has started openly pushing Great Replacement Theory. • This White Supremacist argument asserts that non-whites are working to replace whites through immigration and having children. • Robert Bowers (Tree of Life Synagogue shooter. Killed 11) subscribed to this theory • Brenton Tarrant (Christchurch shooter. Killed 51) subscribed to this theory. • Patrick Crusius (El Paso Walmart shooter. Killed 21) subscribed to this theory.

What is Genocide?

Genocide is hard to define: -word is sometimes misused -It overlaps with other crimes -can happen in many different ways for many different reasons

Deadliest Year

In 2018, the ADL found that anti-Semitic acts in the United States remained at near record highs. • Even though the total number of incidents were not as high as in 2017, it was the deadliest year for Jews in the history of the United States. • 2018 saw a 105% increase of physical attacks on Jews in the U.S. over the 2017 figure. • Such lethal anti-Semitic violence was not limited to the United States. • 2018 was also the deadliest year for Jews around the world in many decades. - Anti-Semitism was on the rise in many places such as Italy, which saw a 60% increase, the United Kingdom that had a 16% rise, France with a 74% rise, Australia with an increase of 59%, and South Africa with an increase of 25% Anti-Defamation League,

Why the increase in Hate Crimes?

Many possible explanations. • One argument suggests much of the hate crimes against African Americans has to do with backlash against: • Removal of Confederate Statues and reevaluation of Civil War & the "Lost Cause." • Black Lives Matter Movement • Other arguments focus more on the legitimation of prejudice and intolerance by social and political leaders. • Covid-19 Pandemic and references to "Chinese Virus" and "Wuhan Flu," by people such as then President Donald Trump and then Secretary of State Mike Pompeo.

Bias Type Distribution

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 7,106 SINGLE-BIAS INCIDENTS REPORTED TO LAW ENFORCEMENT IN 2017 BY BIAS TYPE -Race/Ethnicity/Ancestry 58% - Religious 22% - Sexual Orientation 16% - Gender Identity 2% - Disability 2% - Gender Bias 0.6%

Legitimating Hatred

Senator Marjorie Taylor Greene has suggested that the Rothschild family was involved in starting California wildfires using lasers from space. • This kind of thinking linking prominent Jews, such as George Soros or the Rothschilds, with various conspiracy theories relies on centuries-old anti-Semitic stereotypes. • In his run for governor of Virginia, Glenn Youngkin suggested that • "The present chaos in our schools lays squarely at the feet of 40-year politician Terry McAuliffe. It just does. But also at George Soros-backed allies, these allies that are in the left, liberal-progressive movement. They've inserted political operatives into our school system disguised as school boards."

UN intervention

The U.N. attempted to halt the violence with a complete lack of success. • Only after America intervened in 1995 was the violence finally halted.

White genocide

The notion of white genocide perfectly captures this sense of loss and threat perceived rightly or wrongly by some whites. • This is one reason why immigration has become such a hot button topic in the last couple of years, not only in the U.S. but in many European countries. • Beginning in 2015, for example Europe experienced a dramatic increase in the number of refugees seeking admittance to European Union nations. • Fleeing conflict and war zones and hoping for economic opportunity, millions of refugees risked the hazardous journey across the Mediterranean to reach Europe. • While a number of western European nations embraced these new arrivals, it wasn't long before attitudes and opinions began hardening. • These same nations have since seen a significant reaction against this influx with negative rhetoric and stereotyping and anti-immigrant violence increasing in frequency and severity

Geno-cide

The word is derived from - Greek "GENOS" - (race, tribe) - Latin "CIDE" - (killing)

white superiority

White nationalist groups are organizations whose beliefs center on the ostensible superiority of the white or Aryan people over other races. • Such thinking is not new. Ideas about intellectual and physical differences between various racial and other populations have been in wide circulation for a long time and have, over the years, justified racism, genocide, sexism, slavery, colonialism, and other policies and practices based on exploitation and oppression. • These beliefs have often been buttressed by a host of pseudo-scientific beliefs such as Social Darwinism, which suggests that the various racial groups are in a life and death struggle for survival and those races that are most fit, genetically speaking, must protect themselves from the dangers posed by different racial groups. • Not only is this a misreading of Darwin's ideas of natural selection, but it also ignores the reality that all human beings are 99.9% identical and of that .1% difference, 94% of that variation is between individuals from the same population

Matthew Shepard

Within four months, the nation would again be shocked by yet another brutal murder motivated by hate—this time against someone because of his sexual orientation. - The victim was a 21-year-old college student named Matthew Shepard, who attended the University of Wyoming. - On the evening of October 7, 1998, Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney went to a known gay bar with the intent of targeting a gay man for robbery. - They met Shepard there and offered him a ride home. Instead of taking him home, however, they took him to a remote area, tied him to a fence post, pistol-whipped him in the head to unconsciousness, and then left him there to die. - Shepard was found more than 18 hours later by a cyclist. He never regained consciousness and died four days later on October 12.

2018 Highest Rates of Personal Anti-Semitic Violence

• 2018 = deadliest year for Jews in U.S. history. • 2018 = 105% increase of physical attacks against Jews in the U.S. over 2017. • Tree of Life Synagogue, Pittsburgh, Pa. • 11 killed, 7 wounded • Chabad of Poway, Poway, Ca. • 1 killed, 3 wounded

Hate groups

• Another possible explanation has to do with the rise of hate groups in the United States and around the world, and the ways in which they have coalesced and marketed themselves online around a number of issues.

Nativism

• Here in the U.S., anti-immigrant ideas have often been a main concern of white supremacist groups which is why they are also sometimes referred to as nativists. • Nativism refers to the practice of protecting the interests and prerogatives of native citizens over immigrants. • Ironically, such sentiments ignore the reality that, unless you are an American Indian, we all came from immigrant stock at one time or another. • Ignoring such inconvenient truths, white supremacy has embraced and been buoyed by those who have defined immigration as a "national emergency" and a "crisis." • One KKK website asserts that, "America is being overrun by illegal immigrants mostly from nonwhite countries who do not share the Christian European Values of our nation's founders." • One study looking at the websites of hate groups found that these sites often portrayed immigrants in various dehumanizing and threatening ways because they "steal jobs," and are violent criminals and rapists.

Anti-Semitism increase

• It's no accident that the ADL tracked an increase in anti-Semitic hate crime in the wake of the 2008 downturn. • The fear and economic anxiety produced by the recession helped spark a rise in anti-Semitism as many people relied on old prejudices and stereotypes to help explain the situation and as a focal point for their anger, fear, and resentment. • In 2017 a surge in anti-Semitic acts in the U.S. once again reappeared as the ADL documented 1,986 incidents of anti-Semitism, a number which represents a 57% increase in anti-Semitic incidents. • This was the largest single year increase on record. • Over 60% of these events occurred in just a handful of specific states, notably New York, California, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Florida, and Pennsylvania.

White Nationalsim

• Much of this increase is driven by white nationalist groups. • Aka white supremacy • The Southern Poverty Law Center, for example, tracked a 50% increase in white nationalist groups in 2018 alone According to a variety of sources, the number of active hate groups in the United States has been increasing in recent years. • 2018 saw the highest number of organized hate groups in 20 years. • Much of this dramatic increase is driven by what may be described as white nationalist groups, which were formally more commonly known as white supremacist groups. • The Southern Poverty Law Center tracked a 50% increase in white nationalist groups in 2018. • While there are a number of hate groups in the U.S. from different racial, ethnic, and religious groups, the bulk of the growth has revolved around groups and organizations intent on maintaining or regaining a position of power and privilege for whites

Defiling white women

• Ostensibly, African Americans were lynched for a variety of real or alleged crimes, such as murder, theft, or rape, or for appearing to challenge their position within society by being uppity, insolent, or rude. • The image of Black men defiling White women was a particularly potent symbol and was often used to justify violence against African American males. • One Texas editorial even went so far as to write, "Almost every day some negro brute assaults a white woman in this state, and often one to a half-dozen murders are committed in an effort to hide the crime. . . . If rape and murder by brutish negroes are to become common, the negro must expect extermination."

Racial differences

• Racial differences, in other words, are largely about imagined difference rather than real difference. • Race is a social construct. • Yet for racists, these differences are real and powerful and of central importance to their worldview and, consequently, shape much of the violence that they carry out. • Many nations have dark histories of how this unscientific doctrine has been used to create unethical and sometimes genocidal policies.

More Prejudice?

• There is no question that the number of bias-related groups and crimes have increased, but has the U.S. population really become more prejudiced? • Recent research suggests that hatred and intolerance haven't really increased, but what has changed is that more people feel empowered to express those sentiments in an increasingly polarized nation. • The silver lining in this dark cloud is empirical evidence indicating that prejudicial attitudes in the U.S. population have actually decreased since 2016. • Based on a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults taken both before and after the 2016 presidential election, researchers have found that prejudiced attitudes against minority groups have actually declined. • These scholars suggest that the increased willingness of some to express hate, has resulted in more people being motivated to reject intolerance and prejudice. Maybe there is hope for us after all!

Immigration and Crime

• These arguments have become common despite the empirical evidence that shows immigration has had no effect on crime in rural communities between 1990 and 2010 and that during the same time period immigration was actually linked with lower crime rates. • One study in Texas even found that immigrants had lower crime rates than native born citizens. • And finally, a new study by the Pew Research Center found that between 2007 and 2016, violent crime slightly decreased across areas regardless of whether the number of undocumented immigrants rose of fell in these same areas. • Despite such research, the image of the violent criminal immigrant remains widespread.

White supremacy

• White supremacists believe the power that is rightfully theirs, by virtue of their superior race, is being stolen by others. • They believe Jewish bankers and media moguls conspire with a corrupt government to take that power. • They believe blacks take it by force through their criminal behavior. • They believe nonwhites in general take it by immigrating to the United States in great masses and by reproducing when they get here, thereby eventually taking power through sheer force of numbers. • They believe race traitors take it by interbreeding with nonwhites, thus contaminating the superior Aryan gene pool. • Over and over in white supremacist writings appear these words: "We must take our country back.