final exam study guide

Red Shift

the change in the wavelength of light due to an object moving away from the observer. Wavelengths get further. downshift, departing, decreasing Shows that the universe is expanding

infant mortaility

the death of infants less than a year old

radioactive decay

the nucleus of an atom breaks apart, emitting high energy radiation

(T/F) As a nebula becomes smaller, the force of gravity also becomes smaller for the matter within the nebula

the opposite is true; as a nebula collapses the matter is closer together, and therefore the force of gravity increases increases in magnitude. This reinforcing feedback makes the collapsing object prone to even more collapsing

parent material

the original, undecayed substance

Radiometric Dating

the process of measuring the absolute age of geologic material by measuring the concentrations of radioactive isotopes and their decay products. Has nothing to do with DNA

electromagnetic spectrum

the range of wavelengths or frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extends.

habitable zone

the region around a star in which planets could potentially have surface temperatures at which liquid water could exist. Determined by temperature and pressure.

daughter product

the substance produced when radioactive isotopes decay

What is the nebular hypothesis?

the theory that the solar and stellar systems were developed from a primeval nebula.

Nebular Hypothesis

the theory that the solar and stellar systems were developed from a primeval nebula. Gas orbiting around the sun to create planets. Nebular hypothesis: ring of matter, accretion (growth), collisions

Milankovich cycles

the tilt of the earth goes back and forth ...like a top...but if our tilt shifts

larger society's..larger amount of species

they tend to have larger brains

megafauna extinctions occurred everywhere

this guy Diamond says it nothing to do with climate change ....more likely killed for food, or habitat we took when we arrived, or fires we created

A few years ago scientists discovered in northern Canada the fossil species Tiktaalik, which possesses front and rear fins like a fish, but a head that moves up and down like an amphibian. Based on our class discussions Tiktaalik would be considered a

transitional fossil

According to Dr. Dave, human history is dominated by two major patterns, both of which have a common root. Which one of the following does NOT demonstrate both patterns?

Development of carpet industries that reuse old carpets (carpets improve human living standards, but by reusing materials these industries actually reduce our environmental impact rather than increasing it)

Name one event that happened during the Devonian Period?

Devonian Period had the beginnings of the Appalachian Mountains, the origin of trees and insects, colonization of land by vertebrates, i.e., origin of amphibians/tetrapods, the decline of trilobites and the beginnings of dominance by jawed fish

Which animal group dominated the Earth at the time Pangaea broke apart?

Dinosaurs

How old is the universe?

13.8 billion years

how old is the universe?

13.8 billion years

Origin of universe

13.8 bya

When did Homo sapiens emerges as a species in Africa?

150,000 ya = 0.15mya

What percentage of participants reject all forms of evolution?

<10%. The vast majority believe in some form of evolution.

order of paleogeographic events in Phanerozoic Eon

A - Australia isolated from rest of the continents B - Cambrian explosion C - Formation of Appalachians D - Formation of Pangaea E - India collides with Asia F - Laurasia and Gondwana form when Pangaea breaks up G - Snowball Earth

Exoskeleton

A body covering, typically made of chitin, that provides support and protection

Explain key information about Coal vs. oil.gas

Coal - Produced mostly from land plants (basis of terrestrial food chain), produced mainly during the first spike of oxygen found near equator meant lots of water and lots of plant biomass Oil/gas - produced mostly from aquatic organisms at the basis of the marine food chain, such as algae and plankton, produced during both oxygen spikes found in shallow water near equator meant lots of algae/plankton

Coal vs. oil & natural gas

Coal is a solid, oil is a liquid and natural gas is a vapor

Evidence for ______ comes primarily from archeological artifacts rather than from fossils?

Cognitive revolution (yes, archeological artifacts from 70,000 years ago, such as needles made out of bone, artwork, ornaments, and technologies such as a floating boat), all show that our brains took on a dramatic reorganization)

collective intelligence

Collaborating and tapping into the core knowledge of all employees, partners, and customers

Cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms; course-pack p. 35 and 36

Endosymbiosis

A theorized process in which early eukaryotic cells were formed from simpler prokaryotes.

Murcheson meteorite

Contained water and >70 types of amino acids

Names of eons/eras/periods

Course-pack key p.26

Habitat transitions: which taxa dominated and when (label eon/era/period for prehistoric ecosystems), anatomical adaptations to overcome new challenges through evolutionary "tinkering"

Course-pack p. 35 and 36

Role of oxygen in Earth's history

Course-pack p.29, 34, and 39

Paleogeography

Course-pack p.30

Can you describe similarities and differences between taxonomic groups

Course-pack p.31

What represents evidence that the Earth formed through massive collisions?

Craters found on all solid objects within solar system

What represents ~evidence~ that the Earth formed through massive collisions?

Craters found on all solid objects within solar system (yes, craters makes sense only if there were lots of collisions in the distant past)

In which period did flowering plants originate?

Cretaceous

Put the following paleogeographic events in order with the letter of the earliest event on the left and the letter of the most recent event on the right: A: Alps mountain range begins to form in Europe B: Formation of Appalachian mountain range C: Gondwana begins to break up D: Rodinia begins to break up E: Supercontinent Pangaea begins to break up

DBECA

Put the following paleogeographic events in order with the letter of the earliest event on the left and the letter of the most recent event on the right: a. Alps mountain range begins to form in Europe (Hint: Alps are an east-west mountain range in southern Europe, and they continue to rise today) (~40mya, east-west orientation indicates they must have begun forming as the African plate moved north and collided with the Eurasian plate, which would have occurred only after Gondwana broke up) b. Formation of Appalachian mountain range (~400mya, this occurred as part of the formation of Pangaea) c. Gondwana begins to break up (~140mya) d. Rhodinia begins to break up (~600mya; Pangaea was the most recent consolidation of all continents, and Rhodinia was the supercontinent before that) e. Supercontinent Pangaea begins to break up (~200mya)

DBECA

What is the Doppler effect and how does it relate to the Big Bang?

Discovered by Hubble, changes in wavelength due to the movement of a source and/or observer. as approaching---> waves are closer, frequency high moving away---> waves far apart, lower frequency

Cuticle

A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that acts as an adaptation to prevent desiccation in terrestrial plants; course-pack p. 35 and 36

List one advantage and one disadvantage of a human producing low amounts of melanin.

Advantage = body acquires more Vitamin D, disadvantage = higher risk of skin cancer

Difference of aerobic and anaerobic

Aerobic means "with oxygen," and anaerobic means "without oxygen"

Anaerobic vs aerobic respiration

Aerobic: occurs when enough oxygen reaches cells to support their energy needs Anaerobic: occurs when the demand for oxygen is greater than the body's ability to deliver it

Although Homo sapiens was historically an African species, it now lives in Africa, Australia, Eurasia, North America, and South America. Which of the following represents the order in which these continents were colonized by H sapiens

Africa, Eurasia, Australia, North America, South America (The 1st wave of colonists from Africa was a small group of humans that left Africa ~70,000ya and remained along the southern coast of Eurasia before ending up in Australia. Polymorphisms linked ancestrally to this 1st wave are found in modern Australian Aborigines and humans living in South and Southeast Asia. The 2nd wave of colonists consisted of a large group of humans that left Africa ~45,000ya and spread throughout Eurasia, with some of them eventually crossing the land bridge that connects Siberia and Alaska ~12,000ya, and then spread throughout North and South America.)

The Industrial Revolution

All the fossil fuels had been sitting there underneath locking up huge amounts of carbon, we sucked it out. We mined it out and started to burn it, it play paid off. In dramatic ways in terms of technology economic growth industrialization. the fossil fuels and been sitting there underneath, we mined it out and Fueling colonial period, things like that. But it had some trade offs and that put a whole bunch of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, it continues to do so. And that means that although the milenkovic cycle say we should be coolingThe greenhouse gas overcomes that and pushes us in the opposite direction pretty dramatic and interesting in the context of the cloud scenario.

photosynthesis

CO2 + H2O + light--> food + O2 Led to Great Oxygenation Event and eventually aerobic respiration in proteobacteria Evidence for photosynthesis: iron deposits Cyanobacteria evolved the ability to make food and O2 (waste product) using sunlight energy and inorganic molecules (CO2, H2O)

Great Oxygenation event spikes

At end of snowball earth Carboniferous and Permian periods (Giant amphibians) Jurassic & Cretaceous Periods (giant reptiles)

Comparisons between genetic drift and natural selection

BOTH - Mechanisms for evolution (they both change allele frequencies over time)

Soon after it was invented, penicillin was called the "miracle drug," because it would cure just about any infectious disease. Now, however, the drug is rarely used. Why?

Bacteria have evolved resistance to penicillin through natural selection (yes, this story comes directly out of one of the readings, and it also relates closely to the video we watched about multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in Russia)

Balance

Balancing equilibrium

Multicellularity

Cells divide but remain stuck together (occurred in several lineages)

Reinforcing effect

Change leads to even more drastic change if it's getting cold, it will get colder

What evidence from the video suggests the ability to manage social relationships helps to determine the fitness of individuals in primate societies?

Chimpanzees form alliances mediated by fighting and mutual grooming. The strength of these alliances plays a big role in determining their reproductive success

What scientific evidence supports the social competency hypothesis?

Brain scans made during social interactions show that lots of brain space is used during interactions

Which of the following represents scientific evidence that supports the social competency hypothesis more so than a competing hypothesis?

Brain scans made during social interactions show that lots of brain space is used during interactions

Cranial capacity is larger for Homo fossils from 100,000ya than for Homo fossils from 2.5mya. What inference should you draw from these data?

Brain size increased in size within the genus Homo over the course of the Quaternary Period

Nucleotides

Building blocks of nucleic acids

What provided strong evidence for the Cambrian explosion?

Burgess Shale

Evolution of color vision

By around 30 million years ago, our ancestors had evolved four classes of opsin genes, giving them the ability to see the full-color spectrum of visible light, except for UV (Primates too)

Wobble method

Detecting an extrasolar planet by noticing its gravitational tug of the planet on the star, around the center of mass

What is a protist?

taxonomic group of eukaryotes, mostly single-celled, with extensive variation in the mode of locomotion and the type of energy source

social competency hypothesis

thats why our brains developed bigger

Who invented the theory that the universe has not existed forever but had a distinct and explosive beginning (Big Bang)?

Lemaitre, early 1900s

Approximately what percentage of participants rejects all forms of evolution—even gradual genetic change in a single species?

Less than 10%

As you probably know, our bodies are composed mostly of water. How does this fact reflect our evolutionary heritage?

Life began in the oceans and never left the oceans until 500mya

Which of the physical features listed below likely describes the humans that first crossed Beringia?

Lighter skin than the average human (because Beringia is at high northern latitudes, so less sunlight= natural selection favors lighter skin color to maximize Vitamin D production)

Paleogene Period:

Mammals diversify to fill vacant ecological niches

Photoreceptor

Mammals--evolution of color vision; course-pack p. 35 and 36

Name one event that happened during the Mezozoic Era?

Mesozoic Era had the Age of Reptiles, origin of mammals, birds, and flowering plants, and breakup of Pangaea

Methane (CH4)

Methane contributes to the greenhouse effect. Since 1750, methane has increased about 150% due to use of fossil fuels, coal mining, landfills, grazers, etc. -stays in atmosphere 12 years

Drake equation

Method to estimate the number (N) of communicating/technological civilizations in our Galaxy

​Flight evolved during which eras?

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic

What are the three eras?

Paleozoic, Mezozoic, Cenozoic

Each gene codes for one _______

Protein

Mantle

The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core.

Organic vs. inorganic

The main difference is in the presence of a carbon atom; organic compounds will contain a carbon atom

What specifically is altered by a genetic mutation?

The sequence of DNA

Multicellularity

The state of being composed of many cells that adhere to each other and do not all express the same genes with the result that some cells have specialized functions.

Great Oxygenation Event

The time in Earth's history, about 2.4 Ga, when the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere increased dramatically.

1000 of years ago our ansestors....

We don't see a whole lot of new cultural innovations. We don't see a whole lot of sophisticated artwork, anything like that. So having a big brain doesn't necessarily lead to intelligence.

Mechanisms to explain the freeze

White increases > albedo increases > gets colder

why was complex language (humans have, grammar, syntex) adaptive?

Why would that have been favored by natural selection. One possibility information transfer a chimpanzee if there's a predator coming towards the group a chimpanzee could go

When, where, and for how long, did trilobites dominate the Earth?

Trilobites dominated the earth during the Cambrian and Ordovician periods; this took places in the seas; they had a prolonged decline until the Permian period, when the became fully extinct.

Tetrapods

Vertebrate animals having four feet, legs or leg-like appendages

Snow Ball Earth II

We do not know what caused the temperature to drop again. However, we do know there was an albedo effect.

Husbands are more likely to cheat on their wives

Yes, because humans evolved from a polygynous system of mating in which males never would have been faithful to one wife.

So 70,000 years ago there were about as many humans on the planet, as there are today in just Greensboro a whole lot more humans means a whole lot more destruction.

You got we killed a lot of our the human species Neanderthals likely we we probably were not this noble savage and then as A third implication which is really important next class, is that a lot of megaphone are extinct in places that means we can't domesticate them.

Of the following four organisms, (plesiosaur, pterosaur, saber-toothed tiger, sea turtle), how many of them are dinosaurs?

Zero

mammal brains are 10x bigger than reptiles

a cow for example...brain is a whole lot bigger

Why would you weigh less standing on Pluto than you would standing on the Earth? a. Atmosphere of Pluto is less dense than Earth's atmosphere b. Pluto is farther from the Sun than the Earth c. Pluto has less mass than the Earth d. You have less mass than Pluto

c. Pluto has less mass than the Earth (weight is measured as the force of gravity; because Pluto has less mass than the Earth, the gravity between you and Pluto would be less than the gravity between you and the Earth)

Fossil records that the Cambrian period included a wide variety of animals with hard parts such as shells, but Proterozoic eons shows a much lower diversity of soft-bodied animal like creatures. what is the problem with concluding that biodiversity was much lower during the late Proterozoic eon

biased organism with shell and other hard parts, more likely to fossilize.

Two adaptations that distinguished humans from apes were These two adaptations occurred in different Geological Periods

bipedalism and a dramatic increase in brain size true, Bipedalism originated in the Ardipithecus genus during the late Neogene Period, and brain size expansion occurred in the Homo genus during the Quaternary Period

Some scientists hypothesize that eventually the universe will stop expanding and begin to collapse inwardly prior to a "Big Crunch". In one sentence describe how Edwin Hubble's data would have differed if he had collected his data during this second "collapse" stage.

blue-shift. During a collapse period, all objects in the universe would move towards each other. We would still detect the atomic emission spectra coming from distant objects, but because of the Doppler Effect the movement of objects towards us would shift their frequency emissions downward. In other words the electromagnetic radiation emitted from objects moving towards the earth would then appear blue-shifted rather than red-shifted.

What are the commonalities and differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

both euks and proks use DNA within lipid membranes. Proks originated 3.5bya, and euks originated 2.1bya, so both would have been present during most of the Proterozoic Eon. However, only euks have membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts

homo

brain size varied, bipedial, only one speices survived (homo sapiens)

Which of following molecules was not present in the early Earth, AND what evidence shows it was not present? a. Carbon dioxide b. Methane c. Oxygen d. Water

c. Oxygen (evidence = rocks dated at those early dates did not have banded iron deposits. The explanation for these data is that photosynthesis must not have been present because photosynthesis would have released oxygen into the atmosphere, which would have caused iron on the surface of the Earth to rust, which would have produced banded iron deposits. The reason oxygen did not form back then is that photosynthesis had not yet evolved, but that explanation is an inference, not something we can actually observe, i.e., not data)

doppler effect

change in the wave frequency due to the movement of source and/or observer

70,000 what do we see from the fossils of that time

changes in artifacts that were found

Atomic emission spectra

characteristic patterns of bright lines produced when atoms are vaporized in high-temperature flames or electrical discharges

What are two realistic scenarios that would increase the rate at which a species evolves?

climate change, habitat destruction

How was matter distributed after Big Bang?

clumpy w/ Nebulae

What is abundant within the bodies of all animal species, but is not found in the bodies of other taxonomic groups?

collagen

Large multicellular animals require large amts of energy, therefore they evolved what traits?

collagen and lots of energy muscles and nervous tissue that require lots of ATP

Large multicellular animals require large amts of energy, therefore they evolved what traits?

collagen and lots of energymuscles and nervous tissue that require lots of ATP

What is a a tetrapod?

everything that descended from the "fish" that first walked up on land during the Devonian Period, i.e., all amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds

data

evidence

For number three. It's asking about scientific evidence that supports the social competency hypothesis. So We don't just need evidence means it's something that's measured and we're not just looking for evidence that brains got bigger. We're looking specifically that brains gotten bigger to make space for social interactions. The only one that describes all that is D. It's talking about social interactions need lots of brain space for that interaction. So that directly supports social competency hypothesis.

evidence means it's something that's measured

universe still expanding

evidence: Doppler Effect, electromagnetic spectrum, atomic emission spectra

Adaptations

evolution never starts from scratch; instead it "tinkers" with existing body parts

humans evolve from modern chimps

false

architectural revolution

farming domesticated animals

Wood

fibrous material made of dead cells that are part of the vascular system in some plants; course-pack p. 35 and 36

How Oxygenation Event caused the earth to be more habitable for humans

humans got: breathable air, UV protection, blue sky and energy reserves

chimp bones vs human bones

humans have prominent heels, our knees go inward and chimps are straight up and down...Walk back and forth. And you'll see it's a lot more comfortable because your knee always remains under your center of gravity. That is the adaptive advantage of angling your femurs inward.

humans body is composed of...

hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon

Background on typical family structure

i. All apes are polygynous, i.e., one male with multiple females ii. Monogamy is rare among animalsgenerally occurs only when the costs of parental care are very high, e.g., birds

8M - 24M

medium lifespan (100 my), corpse = neutron star (pulsar)

austriala didnt have any people and there was amazing megafauna

megafauna-In terrestrial zoology, the megafauna comprises the large or giant animals of an area, habitat, or geological period.

Skin color is determined by

melanin

europeans resilant to diseases

more likely to survie and pass it on to their children

red-shifted light

moving away (decreased freq.)

blue-shifted light

moving toward (increased freq.)

For people who reject evolution, what is their primary reason for doing so?

religious/spiritual beliefs

Where do heavy elements come from?

nuclear fusion. When two smaller atoms combine, they create a bigger one with more protons.

Radioactive atoms have an unstable _________

nucleus

during the Ice Age, as we have big polar ice. Right. So a lot of my North and the South Pole. Where did that water come from.

oceans were actually lower during the ice age...like shalloow seas today were actactually part of the continent

gravity explains motion...

of all objects in outer space

homology

similar structure with same or different function

How do we know the size of the meteor 65mya, and how do we know it had a global impact? (Hint: this question is about data, not mechanisms)

size of Yucatan crater global iridium layer

Which traits usually does not vary between human populations at high latitudes vs. human populations living at the equator?

skin color

Is the rate of evolution slow or fast?

slow

Cognitive Revolution

started 70,000 years ago....a small population began to grow and expand..so population started to grow...

DNA function

stores genetic information through amino acids

nebular hypothesis

story of each object in space is part of a single story

The earliest prokaryote fossils were ______

stromatolites

How does the strength of selection affect the rate of evolution?

stronger selection leads to faster evolution

causes of prehistoric climate change

sun has grown dimmer, volcanos, greehouse gases, Milankovich cycles techtonic plates

which has the highest albedo

surface of a glacier

Invented the concept of a 'primeval fireball', which exploded long ago

Lemaitre

At the end of Snowball Earth when the planet began to warm up, the melting of glaciers reduced albedo. What does it mean to reduce albedo, AND explain why in this case reduced albedo represented an example of positive feedback.

'Reduced albedo' means that the surface of Earth reflected less heat (because the liquid ocean surface is a darker color than frozen ice). Reduced albedo represented positive feedback in this context, because the slight warming would have been amplified the amount of warming already taking place, i.e., the Earth would lose less heat to space and would thus get warmer and warmer)

Cretaceous-Paleogene extinctions

(65.5mya, meteor) 10X normal iridium concentration in a global rock layer dated at 65mya Yucatan crater dated at 65.5mya Global dust cloudBlocks sunlightFood chain disrupted Debris returns to Earth

A scientist living in an alternate universe examines lithium on her planet and collects the data on the top panel. Then she points her telescope to several distant galaxies, and representative data are shown in the bottom panel. What can she conclude about her Universe?

(Given that the two panels show similar atomic spectral patterns, the distant galaxy must contain a lot of lithium. More importantly, the data from the distant galaxy are all blue-shifted, meaning that her universe is collapsing.)

Milankovitch Cycles are connected to which TWO of the following?

(Milankovitch Cycles explain slight variations in the orbit path, tilt, and wobble of the Earth, and the timing of the Milankovitch Cycles corresponds to the timing of the ice ages during the Quaternary Period) SO CLIMATE CHANGE AND POSITION/MOTION OF EARTH

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

Consequence #1 = NS adaptations to climate

(resulted in the biological difs we usually associate with race, e.g., skin color, body shape, hair type)

1st and 2nd Snowball Earth: mechanisms for freezing/thawing

(see notes)

Triassic/Jurassic extinction

(~200mya, supervolcano) LOTS of ancient lava at seven sites in eastern N America and one site in Morocco, all date 201.5mya Lots of fossil pollen immediately below ancient lava

Evidence used to build trees of life

** DNA sequences shared anatomical sequences behavioral traits

Panspermia hypothesis

- Extraterrestrial origin of life (Mars?) - Amino acids and nucleotides hijack aboard meteorite to earth

How oceans formed

- Meteor shower earth (inside tiny crystals of salt and droplets of water) bombarded earth for 20 million years, pools of water begin to grow - Mega storm hits earth for many years and rains - Meteor shower, Rock under the crust is hot, movement is generated between the rocks, plates pushed and pulled for 400 million years and Rhodina is formed. Heat breaks apart crust & Rodina super crust splits, the intense geological activity forms massive volcanoes and pumps c02 into the atmosphere, which creates acid rain (CO2 mixes with oxygen), and then the acid is absorbed into rocks. - C02 absorbed out of the atmosphere means not enough c02 to trap the sun's heat, so in a few thousand years, temp drops to -60 and freezes. SNOWBALL EARTH - Entire earth covered in ice sheet - Volcanoes erupt and pump out billions of tons of co2 back into the atmosphere, warms the earth. This traps the sun's warmth around the planet causing temperature to rise.

misconceptions about natural selection

- Natural selection involves organisms trying to adapt. - Natural selection gives organisms what they need. - Humans can't negatively impact ecosystems, because species will just evolve what they need to survive. - Natural selection acts for the good of the species. - The fittest organisms in a population are those that are strongest, healthiest, fastest, and/or largest. - Natural selection is about the survival of the very fittest individuals in a population. - Natural selection produces organisms perfectly suited to their environments. - All traits of organisms are adaptations.

List two pieces of evidence found near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that led to the conclusion of seafloor spreading

-Eruptions of molten material -Magnetic stripes in the rock of ocean floor -Age of rocks

Tropical areas are normally both sunny and hot, but high-altitude tropical areas, such as the Andes Mountains of South America or the Himalayas of Nepal, are sunny and cold. For each line below, circle which trait is best adapted for humans living in those sunny but cold environments.

-LOTS OF MELANIN -SHORT AND STOCKY -STRAIGHT

57.4 billion= ? million

57,400

Explain the formation of our solar system and Earth

-tons of debris that merged into clumps of matter which formed the sun -Collisions that generated a lot of heat - collisions changed the rotational speed, speed of orbit around the sun and the tilt of Earth.

Climate change affected human...

...migrations 1. b/c some climates are unsuitable for humans to live, e.g., Sahara likely dried out just prior to earliest (coastal) human migrations out of Africa 2. b/c of changes in sea level, e.g., Borneo wasn't an island when Homo sapiens first encountered it, Bering Straits were the isthmus of 'Beringia' 3. b/c the ice itself blocked human movement, e.g., at Beringia ...origin of civilization 1. b/c climate change affects where humans can live, e.g., desert vs. grassland, Neanderthals living in cold Northern Europe probably wore clothes 2. b/c climate change affects success of farming due to changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, and presence of domestic livestock

A nebula begins with 6% of the mass of our Sun. Which of the following represents the mass of this nebula? will it ever become a star?

.06M, and no; nebulae become stars if and only if they have an initial mass greater than the critical threshold of 0.1M, i.e., at least 1/10th the size of our Sun. Because this nebula is 0.06M it will never become a star. This question will be graded based on your answer tot eh previous question

What percentage of participants reject evolution exclusively because of the scientific evidence?

0%. Nearly all atheists accept human evolution.

When did dinosaurs go extinct?

65 mya

strong nuclear force

100x as strong as electromagnetic. Applies only when things are SUPER CLOSE.

1000 million =

1 billion

3 things that distinguish humans from apes

1) Big Brain-look at fossil record 2) cognitive revolution- well wired brain 3) key cultural innovations - how to domesticate a house, build a boat, communicate language,

Dr Dave 2 patterns

1) Humans have dramatically improved their living standards relative to the living standards of other species 2) Humans have dramatically increased their environmental footprint relative to the footprints of other species

Why did large brains lead to monogamy?

1) female pelvis limited in its size, premature babies, most brain development happens after birth

Ultimate Factors for Eurasian Dominance

1) geography 2) Available species for domestication

evidence for social competency hypothesis

1) social competency

consequences of increased brain size

1) technology, arts, science, language, etc... 2) painful childbirth --> extended childcare --> monogamy 3) elimination of megafauna

evidence of why brain size increased due to social competency theory

1)correlation among primate species in group size vs brain size 2) primate individuals spend lots of time managing social relationships 3) in human brains lots of space is devoted to cognitive skills used in social relationships

Proton (size (AMU), charge, location (in, out))

1, +1, inside

Neutron (size (AMU), charge, location (in, out))

1, 0, inside

Homo

1. 12 known species 2. ~2.5mya to present 3. All extinct except for one species 4. Brain size varies between ape-like and human-like 5. Early Homo species: H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, H. erectus 6. Recent Homo species: H. sapiens, H. neandertalensis, H. floresiensis b. Four Homo species that lived side by side until recently (i.e., until 10-30,000ya, All of these species were intelligent tool-makers)

What were events following a rise in the level of atmospheric oxygen?

1. Animals and plants with very large body size 2. Origin of the Earth's ozone layer 3. Sky turns blue (instead of red)

Shape of hair

1. Curly hair adds SA->maximize heat transfer; good if you need to lose lots of heat (adaptive in hot climates) 2. Straight hair minimizes SA; good if you want to conserve heat (adaptive in cold climates)

Similarities of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

1. DNA as double helix 2. Proterozoic fossils 3. Lipid Membranes *note: membrane bound organelles are DIFFERENT*

Denisovans

1. Discovered in 2010 in a Central Asian cave 2. Not much is known about them because the only fossils are molars and finger bone fragments 3. Two things we do know from these fragments a. Date: 30-50,000ya b. Genome: we interbred with them, and Neanderthals interbred with them; because of all the interbreeding and the lack of fossil evidence scientists are unsure yet whether to call them a unique species (Homo denisova)

iEvolution through NS is not about progress, simply about what survives/reproduces better

1. E.g., simple grass evolved from complex lily (in an env't with lots of wind and few pollinators a grass flower would facilitate higher fitness than a lily flower) 2. E.g., a human might be physically fit, intelligent, and charismatic, but if she refuses to become a parent she will have an evolutionary fitness of zero

i. Natural history

1. Experts on the local plants and animals, e.g., which parts are good for food/medicine/tools, animal behavior. 2. "The average forager had wider, deeper, and more varied knowledge of her immediate surroundings than most of her modern descendants...(in contrast) you need to know a lot about your own tiny field of expertise, but for the vast majority of life's necessities you rely blindly on the help of other experts, whose own knowledge is also limited to a tiny field of expertise. The human collective knows far more today than did the ancient bands. But at the individual level, ancient foragers were the most knowledgeable and skillful people in history" (p.49)

i. Foraging

1. Gathering >> hunting (i.e., not much meat, most meat eaten was from small game like rodents and rabbits, not large animals like giraffes and water buffalo) 1. Foods varied greatly btwn populations based on what food was available 2. Sweet food, greasy food and other high-calorie foods were extremely limited... 3. "if a Stone Age woman came across a tree groaning with figs, the most sensible thing to do was to eat as many of them as she could on the spot, before the local baboon band picked the tree bare. Today we may be living in high-rise apartments with over-stuffed refrigerators, but our DNA still thinks we are in the savannah. That's what makes some of us spoon down an entire tub of Ben & Jerry's when we can find one in the freezer and wash it down with a jumbo Coke" (p.41, "gorging gene" theory)

i. Which of the following traits does NOT make much of a difference in dissipating excess heat?

1. Higher melanin in skin

How global temperature is determined

1. Incoming solar radiation 2. Albedo (light radiation reflected by a surface) 3. Greenhouse effect (CO2 and other gasses in the atmosphere trap heat, keeping the earth warm)

i. Day-to-day movements

1. Nomadic in search of food - ecological patterns such as seasons, migrations, and growth cycles played a big role in determining their movements. a. "Foragers moved house every month, every week, and sometimes even every day, toting whatever they had on their backs" (p.42-43) b. "foragers had very few artefacts to begin with, and these played a comparatively modest role in their lives...We hardly notice how ubiquitous our stuff is until we have to move it to a new house." (p.42-43) 2. Older members of a band would be familiar with most areas visited 3. As a result of all the movement, hunter-gatherers would have received regular exercise: "Varied and constant use of their bodies made them as fit as marathon runners. They had physical dexterity that people today are unable to achieve even after years of practicing yoga or t'ai chi" (p. 49)

i. Population structure

1. Small bands of a few dozen to ~150 individuals, all human (no livestock/pets, 1st domesticated animal = dog ~15,000ya - originally used for hunting, fighting, and alarm system against invasion by predators/outside humans) 2. Band members would know each other very well, and many members of the band would be genetically-relatedloneliness and privacy were both rare 3. Limited social interactions outside the band: "The average person might live many months without seeing or hearing a human from outside of her own band, and she encountered throughout her life no more than a few thousand humans" (p.47)

What are the three lines of evidence in regards to the big bang?

1. Universe is still expanding - red shifts 2. cosmic background radiation left in the earth's atmosphere - major explosion 3. abundance of light elements (H = 75% of atmosphere, HE= 25% of atmosphere)

Wegener's ideas about continental drift were rejected by his scientific contemporaries for all of the following reasons

1. Wegener's mechanism of continental movement was flawed 2.Wegener was born and raised in Germany 3.Wegener was trained as a meteorologist

three pieces of evidence for single tree of life

1. all organisms use DNA with same subset of possible nucleotides 2. all organisms use the same genetic code 3. all organisms use the same subset of possible amino acids

Consequences of bipedalism

1. bony heel 2. colonize new habitats 3. back pain

Homo floresiensis

1. in a small island in east Indonesia: discovered in 2003, brain size = 380cc (brain/body size ratio similar to the other human spp), extinct <18,000ya (major volcanic eruption 12,000ya wiped out several other spp on Flores Island)

three lines of evidence for Big Bang

1. universe still expanding 2. background cosmic rays 3. abundance of light elements

Ardipithecus and Australopithecus

1. ~6mya to ~2mya a. Ardi: ~6 to ~4mya b. Aust: ~5 to ~2mya 2. All extinct 3. bipedal (evolutionary innovation) 4. brain size similar to other apes

Origin of multicellular organisms

1.2 bya (much uncertainty based on limited fossils and conflicting genetic evidence)

Electron (size (AMU), charge, location (in, out))

1/2000, -1, outside

In a few thousand years earth temperature raised

100 -50 to 50

Darwin

1859 Evolution by natural selection, single evolutionary tree of life Darwin was not the first to propose an evolutionary tree of life, but he was the first to provide lots of data supporting such a tree Darwin proposed a mechanism for why a species would change so that it is better adapted to its environment: natural selection Received fairly well by scientists, but mixed from general public

Charles Darwin

1859. He discovered evolution by natural selection and single evolutionary tree of life. He was received fairly well by scientists, but mixed from general public

Wegner

1912 Wegener was not the first to propose that continents move, but he was the first to provide lots of data supporting such an idea. Invented the concept of Pangaea, i.e., one giant supercontinent that broke up into our seven current continents He wasn't widely accepted because he also couldn't explain a viable mechanism for why the continents could move, also due to social/cultural issues at the time. Nobody trusted the german weatherman.

Wegener

1912. He discovered pangea and continental drift. He was received terribly, nobody trusted the German weatherman.

Hubble

1929 Data: Many galaxies exist, and universe is expanding Made the observations that Red Shifts of galaxies were directly proportional to the distance of the galaxy from earth. That meant that things farther away from Earth were moving away faster. In other words, the universe must be expanding. Also said universe contains multiple galaxies. Hubble's data were so carefully collected that they quickly convinced scientists of an expanding universe however, it took another scientist, Georges Lemaitre, to invent a theory (Big Bang) that could account for the expansion Big Bang theory was resisted for many decades, but it finally gained acceptance when another line of convincing data was collected (background cosmic radiation)

Hubble

1929. He discovered that many galaxies exist and the universe is expanding through data. He received a mixed response but strong acceptance after the 1960's.

Approximately what percentage of our genome is composed of genes?

2%

Breakup of the most recent supercontinent, Pangaea

200 mya

Origin of Homo sapiens in Africa

200,000ya

Origin of cells

3.5bya

When did the Earth cool and oceans become present?

4 bya

Quadrupedal vs. bipedal

4 legs vs 2 legs

How old is earth?

4.5 billion years

Origin of Earth and solar system

4.5bya

Approximately what percentage of species in fossil record are now extinct?

99%

humans are very similar to each other

99.9% similar regardless of race...999 out of 1000 letters will line up

Genetic Drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection. (for example a wildfire, earthquake, etc) Still a result in evolution

So here's the thing. We humans. The big brains that we have as humans that changes childbirth so much.

A cow mother doesn't experience pain...doesn't have massive head like we do

Homo floresiensis

A distinct species closely related to Homo erectus and only found on the Indonesian island of Flores. They are tiny, with cranial capacities of about 380cc. about 3 feet tall..maybe wiped out by a volcano, hobbit

Ozone

A form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of the usual two.

Collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.

Accretion

A growth in size; an increase in amount

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Vertebral column

A series of irregularly shaped bones called vertebrae that houses the spinal cord; spine

Some rocks such as limestone contain carbonate, and limestone dating to 600 mya had exceptionally high levels of carbonate. Why were carbonate levels so high in these rocks?

After photosynthesis originated in the late Proterozoic excess oxygen formed carbonate

From the perspective of someone living 10,000ya, which of the following was the biggest advantage of the earliest forms of agriculture compared to hunting and gathering?

Agricultural land contained a higher proportion of edible plants

What factor played a major role in thawing out most of the ice of Snowball Earth?

An immense amount of carbon dioxide built up and accelerated thawing.

the Doppler effect

An observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving

analogous

Analogous is a term used in biology to refer to body parts that have a similar function but differ in structure, such as the wings of a bird and the wings of an airplane

And that's that genetic studies show convincingly that human populations do not differ With respect to intelligence strength athletic ability all the sorts of human performance factors that we care a lot about

And the answer is very convincingly show no there's no difference in performance that correlates with race, especially once you

a lot of consequencees

And there was a lot of consequences. Once you are bipedal you're adapted, you're better adapted for the savanna as opposed to the trees. This is when we became a grassland species. That's why we eat a lot of rice and Wheat, barley, things like that. So we now are equipped to colonize new habitats live in new places. It also although it didn't matter so much at the time...

Based on Jared Diamond's argument, label each of the following as a proximate factor or an ultimate factor.

Andes mountain orientation: ultimate Books: proximate Diseases: proximate Megafaunal extinction: ultimate

When Pizarro met Atahuallpa in battle, the horses of the Spaniards provided an enormous advantage. Which of the following BEST explains why Incas lacked large domesticated mammals for combat?

Any candidate mammals that might have been domesticated had already gone extinct (because of the megafaunal extinctions that followed soon after the colonization of South America by Homo sapiens ~10,000ya)

Goldilocks Zone

Any object in space for which liquid water could potentially be found at the surface of the object, defined by amount of heat star produces, distance between star and planet, and size of planet (which determines pressure

In what eon did the origin of life happen, where did life begin (land or water) and how do we know this?

Archean Eon and life began in water because every cell is mostly made of water Early fossils were very tiny cells, and we have no evidence that supports anything smaller than a cell

Evidence for the cognitive revolution that occurred ~70,000 years ago comes mostly from which of the following

Archeological artifacts

If a scientist is interested in the origin of bipedal locomotion, which genus is most important to study?

Ardipithecus (the first bipedal primate)

On a dare, Rita drinks a half gallon of water in 10min. Her blood quickly becomes really watery, which triggers specialized cells within her kidneys immediately to start producing enormous amounts of urine. An hour later, and after several trips to the toilet, Rita's blood becomes less watery. This story illustrates which of the two types of feedback we discussed in class?

Balancing feedback; negative feedback or stabilizing feedback

To your unaided eye, what would the land look like for the first 85% of the Earth's existence?

Barren rock, mountains and rivers, but no forests, shrubbery or any vegetation

Based exclusively on our class discussions and the fact that Neanderthals had the largest brain size of any human, predict whether or not Neanderthals were monogamous, AND explain why.

Based on our class discussions Neanderthals should have been monogamous, because they had big brains like us. Therefore they should have had an extended period of child development, so natural selection would have favored monogamous males over polygynous males

answer to question before class is D

Be because as the stem of this question says they were migrating along the coast, the southern coast. That means that they would have been at the coast. Back then, which would have been 100 meters lower So the answer here would actually be d that you need to go about 120 meters below the ocean surface that's where the artifacts would be

Which of the following BEST explains why the megafauna of Southern Europe did not go extinct immediately after the arrival of Homo sapiens?

Because Homo neandertalensis had lived in Southern Europe for ~500,000 years (because the megafauna of Southern Europe coevolved with a human predator species for 500,000years, the megafauna had evolved several sophisticated antipredatory mechanisms that served them well with the arrival of a new human predator species, Homo sapiens)

Why did the megafauna of Southern Europe not go extinct immediately after the arrival of Homo sapiens?

Because Homo neandertalensis had lived in Southern Europe for ~500,000 years (because the megafauna of Southern Europe coevolved with a human predator species for 500,000years, the megafauna had evolved several sophisticated antipredatory mechanisms that served them well with the arrival of a new human predator species, Homo sapiens)

Why is oil sometimes found on land as well?

Because plate tectonics moves crust up—this also explains why marine fossils are found on land

goats and sheep were domesticated first

Before the Industrial Revolution beasts of burden are the most powerful machines on the planet. A horse or an ox harness to a plow could transform the productivity of the land.

Taxonomic Groups

Birds Reptiles Mammals Amphibians Fish Invertebrates Fungi protists Archaea Bacteria

Mechanisms for thaw

Blue increases, Albedo decreases, gets warmer H2o increases, GH effect increases, gets warmer

Greenhouse Gas

CO2,H2O, CH4 (methane)

Carbonate

CO3 charge -2

In one of your reading assignments, Sagan compares the history of the universe to which ONE of the following?

Calendar year

What are the time periods in order?

Cambrian Ordonian Silician Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Paleogene Neogene Quaternary

The fossils of the Burgess shale belonged to which geological period and era?

Cambrian Period, Paleozoic Era

In which period did oceans contain lots of trilobites?

Cambrian? but really the whole Paleozoic era

Burgess Shale

Canadian fossil formation that contains Cambrian soft-bodied organisms as well as organisms with hard parts

Some rocks such as limestone contain carbonate, and limestone dating to 600 mya had exceptionally high levels of carbonate. Why were carbonate levels so high in these rocks?

Carbon dioxide levels built up gradually throughout the most recent Snowball Earth

Put these in order with earliest event on the left: a. Amphibians colonize the land (amphibians are a type of vertebrate animal; had to come after plants were already on land, also had to precede dinosaur reptiles because reptiles evolved from amphibians ~385mya) b. Breakup of Pangaea (occurred during the reign of the dinosaurs, ~200mya) c. Origin of eukaryotes (complex kind of cells, 2.1bya) d. Origin of prokaryotes (simplest kind of cells - dominated throughout most of the Earth's history, 3.5bya)

DCEAB

Order Sequence: A: Amphibians colonize the land B: breakup of Pangaea C: origin of eukaryotes D: origin of prokaryotes E: Plants colonize the land

DCEBA

which of the following is shared by both eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

DNA

Which of the following is shared by BOTH eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

DNA as a double helix

The DNA inside the chloroplast organelle of a eukaryote cell lines up the best with DNA from which of the following?

DNA inside a prokaryote cell

the DNA inside chloroplast organelle of a eukaryote cell lines up with the best DNA from

DNA inside a prokaryote cell

The DNA inside the chloroplast organelle of a eukaryote cell lines up the best with DNA from what?

DNA inside a prokaryote cell (this similarity is explained by the endosymbiosis theory)

Which of the following assumptions is NOT made when using radiometric dating?

DNA sequence mutations found in a fossil all resulted from exposure to radioactivity (radiometric dating makes no assumptions about DNA. That's why radiometric dating can be used to date any rock, regardless of whether it contains a fossil. Furthermore, DNA doesn't get preserved in old fossils anyway)

What originated as a result of the Big Bang?

Dark Energy (72%), Dark Matter (23%), Atoms (4.6%)

Who discovered that through natural selection a species can evolve to adapt to its environment?

Darwin, 1859

Early in the Hadean Eon the Earth experienced many massive collisions by objects similar in size to the proto-Earth, and these collisions played a key role in determining the conditions for life today. Suppose we had experienced one fewer massive collision, and then write 'true' or 'false' next to each statement below.

Day length would still be 24 hours if we had experienced one fewer collision: FALSE Earth would still have volcanoes and geysers if we had experienced one fewer collision: TRUE We would still have liquid oceans if we had experienced one fewer collision: TRUE Your weight would still be the same as it is now if we had experienced one fewer collision: FALSE

electromagnetic force

Deals with charged particles, very strong. Does not effect neutral objects in space

Which mechanisms played a major role in ending Snowball Earth?

Decreased albedo effect

K-P Boundary Extinction

Define: global extinction event Evidence (how do we know?): eliminated a majority of the current species Mechanisms (explanation for change?): Volcanic eruptions Historical Context (when?): 66 mya

Snowball Earth

Define: proposes that during one or more of Earth's icehouse climates, Earth's surface became entirely or nearly entirely frozen Evidence (how do we know?): Late-Neoproterozoic glacial deposits in South Australia, Low altitude glacial deposits, Paleomagnetism Mechanisms (explanation for change?): Plate tectonics Historical Context (when?): 750-570 mya *low biological productivity and late greenhouse effect

Origin of Photosynthesis

Define: the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water Mechanisms (explanation for change?): atmospheric oxygen begins to accumulate First seen: in bacterial domains Historical Context (when?): 2.7 bya

Polymorphism

Defined as a position in the genome that varies between individuals; humans 99.9% similar

Great Oxygenation event

Defines onset of Proterozoic eon Cause: Photosynthesis by Cyanobacteria and oxygen was the waste product

Most of the energy used to generate electricity on Elon campus comes from burning coal. Tell the story of coal formation. Your answer should say something about the period in which coal formed, the type of habitat where coal formed, what material actually became the coal, and the role of oxygen.

During the Carboniferous Period the atmospheric concentration of oxygen was much higher than it is right now (35% vs. 21%). The increased amount of oxygen facilitated the production of much more biomass on land—especially plants. Over hundreds of millions of years these plants were buried and placed under enormous pressure until they eventually became coal.

Use letters to put the following events in order from left-to-right. The letter representing the earliest event should be on the left, and the letter representing the most recent event should be on the right. a. Appalachian mountain range begins to form b. Gondwana begins to break into smaller pieces c. Ice age mammals, such as woolly mammoths and saber-toothed tigers, go extinct d. India collides with Asia to form the Himalayan mountain range e. The melting of Snowball Earth exposes the continents again

EABDC e. The melting of Snowball Earth exposes the continents again (~570mya) a. Appalachian mountain range begins to form (pre-Pangaea, but after Snowball Earth, ~400mya) b. Gondwana begins to break into smaller pieces (must be post-Pangaea, because Pangaea broke into Gondwana and Laurasia; Gondwana included Antarctica, S America, Africa, Australia, and India, ~150mya) d. India collides with Asia to form the Himalayan mountain range (this happened long after Gondwana broke up, ~40mya) c. Ice age mammals, such as woolly mammoths and saber-toothed tigers, go extinct (All ice ages have happened in the Quaternary Period, which has lasted for just a few million years, and therefore the extinctions of these large mammals are very recent, relative to the other events of this question, ~12,000 ya)

We are MOST certain about which one of the following? a. Earliest forms of life were in the water b. Earliest genetic material was small segments of DNA c. Life originated as prokaryote cells d. Life was brought here on meteors

Earliest forms of life were in the water (given that all cells of all organisms are mostly water, and given that most modern organisms are aquatic, it makes sense that life originated in the water, and no other explanation makes sense with the available data)

Stromatolites

Earliest fossilized bacteria, dates to 3.5bya

Lemaitre

Early 1900's Designed the Big Bang theory, which accounted for an expanding universe and convinced einstien Not widely accepted at the time, however, it is today.

Einstein

Early 1900s Wrote the equations that predict an expanding universe (theory of relativity). "biggest blunder of his life" = insert cosmological constant

Lemaitre

Early 1900s. He invented the Big Bang theory and convinced Einstein. He was not received well at first, then better with Hubble.

Einstein

Early 1900s. He wrote equations that predicted an expanding universe through math. "Biggest blunder of his life."

Formation of Earth

Earth formed when gravity pulled swirling gas and dust in to become the third planet from the Sun. Like its fellow terrestrial planets, Earth has a central core, a rocky mantle and a solid crust.

Evolutionary timeline based on radiometric evidence

Earth is formed: 4.5 bya Earth cools, oceans present: 4.0 bya Origin of life: 3.9 bya Origin of simple cells (prokaryotes): 3.5 bya Origin of photosynthesis (atmospheric oxygen begins to accumulate): 2.7 bya Origin of complex cells (eukaryotes): 2.1 bya Origin of multicellular organisms: 1.2 bya Most recent Snowball Earth episode(s?): 750-570 mya Atmospheric oxygen accumulates to concentrations comparable to present: 600 mya Cambrian explosion (origin of most animal groups): 540 mya Plants colonize land: 500 mya Invertebrates colonize land (spiders, millipedes): 410 mya Vertebrates colonize land (amphibians): 370 mya (8.26") Age of dinosaurs begins: 265 mya Mammals evolve from reptiles: 220 mya Pangaea (most recent fusion of all continents) broke apart: 200 mya Birds evolve from dinosaurs: 150mya Origin of flowering (and fruiting) plants: 130mya Age of dinosaurs ends: 65 mya Most recent common ancestor of humans and chimps: 7 mya Modern humans (Homo sapiens) emerges as a species in Africa: 150,000 years ago Modern humans leave Africa and colonize other continents: 50,000 - 13,000 years ago

Formation of earth by collisions

Earth's mass increased. Earths heat storage increased (plate tectonics)

Crust

Earth's outermost layer.

Equations of his theory of relativity predicted an expanding universe

Einstein

Complex cells (eukaryotes)

Endosymbiosis: large prokaryote cells swallowed small prok cells (proteobacteria that could do aerobic respiration, cyanobacteria that could do photosynthesis)

Drake equation

Equation that predicts how common intelligent life is within the universe based on simplistic assumptions about the number of stars, exoplanets in the Goldilocks Zone, how evolution works, etc.

What is the name of the scientist who discovered that atoms are mostly empty with a dense atomic nucleus at their center, and what evidence led him to make this conclusion?

Ernest Rutherford discovered this; he found that particles bounced back from gold foil in his experiment.

Which of the following would constitute the strongest evidence that a Snowball Earth occurred?

Erratic with magnetite oriented in a way that indicates 10 degrees latitude; this shows glaciers were at 10 degrees latitude; given that the poles are always colder than the Equator, this evidence shows conclusively that all or nearly all of the Earth's surface would have been frozen

what constitutes the strongest evidence that a Snowball Earth occurred?

Erratic with magnetite oriented in a way that indicates 10o latitude (this shows glaciers were at 10o latitude; given that the poles are always colder than the Equator, this evidence shows conclusively that all or nearly all of the Earth's surface would have been frozen)

what constitutes the strongest evidence that a snowball earth occurred?

Erratic with magnetite oriented in a way that snowball earth occurred.

Explain how infectious diseases gave Spaniards an advantage over the Inca

Europeans had several infectious diseases because of their long history with domesticated livestock, and they had evolved resistance to these diseases over several centuries. Because the Inca had never encountered these deadly diseases, a large percentage of them were wiped out even before the Spaniards arrived.

Cyanobacteria

First organisms to do photosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a byproduct

According to recent evidence, the universe is composed mostly of dark energy, yet we have known about dark energy only since the late 1990s. Scientists proposed dark energy to explain which ONE of the following? (3pts) a. Expansion of the universe is accelerating rather than slowing down b. Mechanism by which energy is converted into mass c. Relatively fast orbit of stars around the center of the galaxy d. Small nebulae become planets whereas larger nebulae become galaxies

Expansion of the universe is accelerating rather than slowing down

Miller-Urey experiment

Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.

T or F: Most animal species are tetrapods

FALSE

True or False: As a protostar collapses, the force of gravity remains the same for the matter within the protostar

FALSE because there is less distance separating the matter of the protostar, the force of gravity increases in magnitude. In fact it is a system with positive feedback, because its collapse makes it prone to even more collapsing

Most of the book On the Origin of Species is devoted to presenting Darwin's extensive evidence for humans evolving from earlier species

False

(T/F) Most of the book On the Origin of Species is devoted to presenting Darwin's extensive evidence for humans evolving from earlier species.

False: Darwin did not explicitly discuss human evolution until he published a later book, The Descent of Man, and at the time of Darwin there really was not that much direct evidence for human evolution.

What hypothetical discoveries would be most surprising, based on the phylogeny we created during the group dinosaur activity?

Feathers covering the fossil of an adult pterosaur

In which taxonomic group did feathers originate and how do we know?

Feathers originated in the theropod taxonomic group, this was found through a feathered dinosaur who could not fly

Pizzaro

For Spain. led a small army in an invasion of the Inca Empire. He conquered the Inca and gained huge amounts of gold and silver for himself and Spain.

history of Appalachian Mtns

Formation of Appalachians (3rd, pre-Pangaea) The Appalachian mountains and the mountains in Scandinavia used to be part of a single volcanic mountain range (very well supported; data = identical rock structures, "fossil lava")

Each of the following occurred during the first 4.1 billion years of the history of the Earth. Next to each write either "occurred again" or "did not occur again" to describe whether or not it occurred during the last 400 million years of the Earth's geological record

Formation of a new mountain range OCCURRED AGAIN Formation of erratic rocks in polar regions OCCURRED AGAIN Fossils of new varieties of multicellular organisms OCCURRED AGAIN Magnetite within an erratic oriented at 8 degrees latitude DID NOT OCCUR AGAIN

For each event list the eon in which it occurred:

Formation of the moon _Hadean__ Origin of dinosaurs _Phanerozoic_ Origin of multicellularity _Proterozoic_ Origin of proteins _Archean_ Origin of photosynthesis _Archean_ Plants colonize land _Phanerozoic_

In which of the following did oxygen play a key role?

Formation of the ozone layer

The fossil record suggests that the Cambrian Period included a wide variety of animals with hard parts such as shells, but the late Proterozoic Eon shows a much lower diversity of soft-bodied, animal-like creatures. From a purely scientific perspective, what is the problem with concluding that biodiversity was much lower during the late Proterozoic Eon?

Fossil record is taxonomically biased because organisms with shells and other hard parts are more likely to fossilize. Therefore the increased biodiversity of the Cambrian Period might be due, in part, to the fact that animal shells and other hard parts had just evolved, which allowed these organisms to fossilize more easily. The late Proterozoic might have had higher biodiversity, but it's impossible to say for certain, given that soft-bodied organisms are less likely to fossilize

If you were to hear a train blow its whistle as it travels past, you would hear several changes to the sound of the whistle, but only one of these changes is a result of the Doppler Effect. Which of the following always changes as a result of the Doppler Effect? a. Amplitude (loudness) of the sound b. Duration (length) of the sound c. Frequency (pitch) of the sound

Frequency

If you were to hear a train blow its whistle as it travels past, you would hear several changes to the sound of the whistle, but only one of these changes is a result of the Doppler Effect. Which of the following always changes as a result of the Doppler Effect?

Frequency (pitch) of the sound

Contrasts between genetic drift and natural selection

Genetic Drift: It is a sudden and quick process, Natural Selection: It is a gradual and slow process.

A scientist living in an alternate universe examines helium on her planet and collects the data on the top panel. Then she points her telescope to several distant galaxies, and representative data are shown in the bottom panel. What can she conclude about her Universe? (see question 18 on Test #2 for picture)

Given that the two panels show similar atomic spectral patterns, the distant galaxy must contain a lot of helium. More importantly, the data from the distant galaxy are all blue-shifted, meaning that her universe is collapsing

2nd possibility: social competentcy hypotheisis....gossip idea

Gossip about complex matters

Which ONE of the following processes best explains why major collisions occurred early in the history of the Earth? a. Doppler Effect b. Gravity c. Nuclear fusion d. Plate tectonics

Gravity because of gravity, all matter is attracted to all other matter. Early in the history of the Earth there were many more planetary objects in the Solar System, and because these objects were attracted to each other, they eventually collided with each other to form the modern day planets

abundance of elements

H and He, Big Bang generated mostly H

What Eon? Earth's rotational speed set at one rotation every 24 hrs

Hadean rotational speed resulted from the collisions

What are the four eons in order?

Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic

In one of your reading assignments, scientist Carl Sagan compares the history of the universe to what?

Height of Empire State Building

Which anatomical features would you expect for a large amphibian that could fly?

Hollow bones, Keeled sternum, Many bones fused

i. Why did the mass extinction of megafauna take place in Australia prior to the Americas?

Homo sapiens arrived in Australia before it arrived in the Americas

If you have ever seen a snake skeleton, you know that they have ribs similar in both structure and function to the ribs of humans. Therefore ribs in snakes and humans are...?

Homologous (because the underlying rib structure is similar in both species; homologous implies that the common ancestor of snakes and humans also had ribs, which is supported by the fact that all reptiles and mammals have ribs. Furthermore ribs are never found in an invertebrate animal.)

How did human language become complex, and when did it happen?

How? Most likely a genetic mutation that changed either the voicebox (e.g., facilitated much greater acoustic complexity) or the brain (e.g., facilitated grammar, recombinative language) When? No idea b/c language cannot fossilize, but likely around the time of the Cognitive Revolution

His measurements of red shifts showed an expanding universe

Hubble

Who discovered that the universe is expanding and that it contains multiple galaxies that are continually moving away from us?

Hubble, 1929

Which is the broadest pattern of human history according to Jared Diamond?

Humans from Eurasia tend to dominate humans from all other continents

the baby for most animals, it comes out, ready to go, they can walk, they can eat, they can make noises contest that with any human infant

Humans this is not the case...we come out premature etc human development has to take place over a long time afterwards

Evidence collected by anthropologists and animal behavior scientists demonstrates which one of the following?

Hunter-gatherers have a higher material standard of living than wild animals

Theory of relativity

Idea that as moving objects approach the speed of light, space and time become relative There is a critical caveat attached to the theory of Special Relativity: all speeds are relative, except for the speed of light, which is absolute. ... The speed of light is absolute; that means it is the same seen by any observer, no matter how fast the observer is moving relative to the light source

how does language enhances the fitness of individuals

If large brains and intelligence evolved in response to natural selection for social competency, then it was vitally important for mechanisms to evolve that allowed our ancestors to manage their social relationships. Language provides just such a mechanism. Individuals with better language abilities could have managed their social relationships better than individuals with lesser language ability, so over time language would evolve greater complexity.

Explain how reinforcing feedback may have played a role in the evolution of brain size for humans

If the social competency hypothesis is correct, then the individuals who could better manage their social relationships would outbreed other individuals. Thus, future generations would generate greater social complexity. The increased social complexity would generate a reinforcing feedback loop in which natural selection for social competency would be intensified. Because reinforcing feedback promotes greater change and resists stability, brain size would get bigger and bigger and bigger still until it bumped up the evolutionary constraint of the size of a woman's pelvis. In other words larger brains would no longer be favored by natural selection, because they would result in the death of a mother during childbirth.

3rd: storytelling

If you have complex language you can have religious stories, tell a complex story...subjective depends on your point of view

Role of reinforcing feedback

In a reinforcing feedback loop (aka "positive" feedback loop), the influence coming back from the loop tends to push the system even farther in the direction of the initial impetus

When were most exoplanets discovered?

In our lifetime First in 1995 and discoveries started to take off in 2008

Based on our class discussions, which of the following events was NOT affected by a rise in the level of atmospheric oxygen?

Increase in amount of atmospheric water vapor (not a result. As discussed in class, the Great Oxygenation Event would have triggered massive global cooling, which scientists think would have led to the first Snowball Earth. As global glaciation occurred, whatever water vapor was in the atmosphere would have reduced greatly to become part of the ice; in other words the amount of atmospheric water vapor would have decreased, not increased)

based on our classic discussions, which of the following events was not affected by a rise in the level of atmospheric oxygen?

Increase in amount of atmospheric water vapor.

social competence matters a lot when it comes to finding a mate and having kids etc

Individuals in the day used to vary a lot in their social competence abilities. Some individuals had larger brains and the larger brain gave them more brain space for doing things like recognizing people

Explain how each factor listed below gave Spaniards an advantage over the Inca

Infectious diseases:Europeans had several infectious diseases because of their long history with domesticated livestock, and they had evolved resistance to these diseases over several centuries. Because the Inca had never encountered these deadly diseases, a large percentage of them were wiped out even before the Spaniards arrived. Megafaunal extinctions: Most of the megafauna in the Americas went extinct with the arrival of the first Homo sapiens ~10,000ya, because these large mammals had no long history with a human species and therefore lacked effective antipredatory mechanisms to counter the intelligent hunting strategies and tools of Homo sapiens. The megafaunal extinctions meant that other than the llama, the Inca had no large domesticated mammals that would allow them to counter the Spaniard horses.

Iridium

Ir 77

The red lines represent mountain ranges on slide..

It's east west in Eurasia. But they are north south in the Americas and in Africa and over in New Zealand there. As a result, it was harder for farming to spread in north south communities

Erratics

Large boulders moved great distances by glaciers and then left behind when the glacier melts

Laurasia

Late Paleozoic, Northern Hemisphere continent composed of the present-day continents of North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia

Which physical features likely describe the humans that first crossed Beringia?

Lighter skin, straight hair, shorter than the average human (because Beringia is at high northern latitudes with less sunlight--natural selection favors lighter skin color to maximize Vitamin D production)

Simple cells (prokaryotes)

Lipid membrane surrounds DNA and other organic molecules

And that's why these Inuits (eskimos) tend to be shorter and much more. more

Lives in a very cold environment. He's not worried about dissipating that he he wants to have that boiling pot of water as compact as possible.

Keel

Main centerline (backbone) of a vessel or the extension of hull that increases stability in the water

Lungs

Main organs of the respiratory system; course-pack p. 35 and 36

Aside from humans, what else is capable of evolving resistance through natural selection?

Malarial mosquitos and bacteria

Climate change in Quaternary Period: causes and consequences

Many ice ages This period included dramatic changes in climate, which affected food resources and brought about the extinction of many species. But this period brought about a new species of predator: Man. Milankovitch cycles - where regular changes in the Earth's tilt and orbit combine to affect which areas on Earth get more or less solar radiation CAUSE IT!!!!

Force of gravity depends on

Mass and distance Mass (amount of matter, the heavier the stronger the attraction) Distance (the closer, the stronger the gravity)

As described in Ch. 21 of Bryson, the fossil record shows that just above 250mya there are hardly any fossils of marine species. Therefore we can infer from the fossil record that at 250mya there was what kind of an event?

Mass extinction event In the fossil record, 'above' corresponds to 'more recent'. The fact that few species were around just after 250mya implies that there must have been a massive die-off of species, i.e., the great Permian mass extinction

Super-volcano

Massive volcano that can produce unbelievably enormous, but rare, eruptions.

Nebular hypothesis

Matter exists from Big Bang -> Begins to form a sphere -> Nuclear fusion begins, pushing sphere larger -> Heavy elements begin to form -> Super nova

Formation of Earth/ Origin of life

Mechanisms/Evidence (explanation for change?): Collisions and RNA World Hypothesis and Soup Hypothesis Historical Context (when?): 4.6 bya; Hadean

In regards to the Big Bang, what are the mechanisms and what did the bang create?

Mechanisms: primeval fireball explosion -everything in the universe was originally compressed into a tiny point that underwent a massive explosion and has been continuing to expand created time, space and matter

Consequence #2

Megafaunal extinctions (played a key role in setting the stage for which populations dominate other populations) II. Human genetic variation teaches us about our past

What are the Milankovitch Cycles?

Milankovitch Cycles explain slight variations in the orbit path, tilt, and wobble of the Earth, and the timing of the MilankovitchCycles corresponds to the timing of the ice ages during the Quaternary Period

Who invented the Oparin hypothesis? This hypothesis stated that all major organic molecules could have formed randomly under certain conditions.

Miller, 1953

Molecular Clock

Model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently How many years (that it takes for average mutation) * differences

RNA

Molecule replicates like DNA & acts as cellular machine (enzyme) like a protein; pre-cellular life

In the United States, how common are creationists

More than a 3rd of the population Average has hovered between 30-40%, 38% more recently in 2017

In our next unit we will discuss the evolutionary history of humans over the last few million years, yet many in the US continue to reject an evolutionary origin for humans. Instead these "creationists" think that humans originated in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years. According to the recent professional surveys discussed in class, how common are creationists among the US general public?

More than a third (The Gallup polls from the last 20 years show that the percentage of creationists has fallen slightly from 47% in 1990 to 40% in 2010.)

Which of the following played a role in explaining the evolution of social monogamy?

Most of the development in brain biomass takes place after birth in humans

Explain how megafaunal extinctions gave Spaniards an advantage over the Inca

Most of the megafauna in the Americas went extinct with the arrival of the first Homo sapiens ~10,000ya, because these large mammals had no long history with a human species and therefore lacked effective antipredatory mechanisms to counter the intelligent hunting strategies and tools of Homo sapiens. The megafaunal extinctions meant that other than the llama, the Inca had no large domesticated mammals that would allow them to counter the Spaniard horses.

Evolution of color vision

Most vertebrates and inverts (4 photoreceptors, includes UV) apes and humans (3rd photoreceptor) Most mammals 2 receptors Jungle fruit example.

One possibility: information transfer

Moving information from one source to another e.g. reading an explanation then completing a diagram with key words from the explanation. generally about objective true information that can be verified by anybody... story about the past but cant be verified

a. Which of the following distinguishes Homo sapiens from all other species?

NONE OF THESE i. Dramatic differences in its DNA sequences ii. Different kinds of cells and tissues iii. Unique anatomical organs not found in other species iv. Bipedalism - walking on two legs instead of four

Natural Selection vs. Genetic Drift

NS = Y, Y, Y, any GD = Y, N, N?, small

What applies to all primates and distinguishes them from other mammal groups?

Nails instead of claws

Greenhouse effect

Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases

The Greenhouse Effect

Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases

Which of the following should be true for Neanderthal DNA compared to chimps and bonobos?

Neanderthal DNA should align equally well with both bonobo and chimp DNA (the same is true for Homo sapiens, i.e., our DNA aligns equally well with both bonobo and chimp DNA)

Recently some Bushmen provided DNA samples, but unlike my DNA, they did not have any Neanderthal genes. What is the best explanation for the lack of Neanderthal DNA in the Bushmen genome?

Neanderthals lived only in Europe and never encountered Bushmen ancestors

Were Neanderthals monogamous and why?

Neanderthals should have been monogamous, because they had big brains like us. Therefore they should have had an extended period of child development, so natural selection would have favored monogamous males over polygynous males

Where did all this matter come from?

Nebular hypotheisis

It is the year 2060AD. You and other astronauts are on your first visit to another solar system. You notice the rocky exoplanets in this solar system have almost no craters on their surfaces. What must have been different about the formation of these planets compared to the four rocky planets in our solar system?

No craters= no massive collisions

What is a nucleotide and how do they differ from amino acids?

Nucleotide = building blocks of DNA and RNA Amino Acid = building blocks of all proteins

In humans, DNA's information consists of 20,000 to 30,000 genes. Each one of these genes consists of a sequence of hundreds of _________

Nucleotides

Oceanic vs continental plates

Ocean-under the ocean, more dense, seafloor spreading Continental-under land masses, less dense, rise above oceanic plates

Suppose a band of hunter-gatherers migrated ~70,000ya along the southern coast of Asia from the Middle East to Australia. If you were a modern archeologist looking for metal artifacts left behind by this band, where would you need to look?

On the seafloor just off the southern coast ~120m below the ocean surface

As often happens in evolution once one trait evolves evolution tinkers with that and then that leads to additional traits.

One of the ways in which evolutionary tinkering played on big brain is the consequence of monogamy and family structure.

Information transfer:

Open-ended language facilitated an unprecedented variety and precision of information transfer between individuals ("the need to warn other humans about the presence of danger would be the most important to humans of this time (rather than gossiping or speaking about nonexistent things). Before forming large communities and cultures, early Homo sapiens would have been most concerned with staying alive in the wild and defeating predators"

Spiracles

Openings in the abdomen of an insect that are used for breathing

Based on the fossil record, which of the following represents a similarity between the marine organisms of the Cambrian Period and the marine organisms of the late Proterozoic Eon?

Organisms were multicellular

Major human adaptations

Origin of Bipedalism, increased brain size, cognitive revolution (rewiring of the brain)

Evolution tinkers

Original -> Adaptation Gill Arches --> Jaws swim bladder --> Lungs pec / pelvis fins --> fore/hindlimbs reptile scales --> feathers reptile forelimbs --> bird wings sweat glands --> mammary glands "hands" of forelimbs --> bat wings mammal forelimbs --> whale front fins

Which of the following molecules was not present in the Hadean Eon, AND what evidence shows it was not present? a. Carbon dioxide b. Methane c. Oxygen d. Water

Oxygen evidence = rocks dated at those early dates did not have banded iron deposits. The explanation for these data is that photosynthesis must not have been present because photosynthesis would have released oxygen into the atmosphere, which would have caused iron on the surface of the Earth to rust, which would have produced banded iron deposits. Hopefully in your answer you thought of photosynthesis, but the actual evidence is what we can actually observe, i.e., the rocks themselves

What explains why oxygen played a key role in the formation these coal deposits?

Oxygen facilitates aerobic respiration, which produces more ATP energy (more energy would result in more biomass, which ultimately resulted in more coal)

Great Oxygenation Event Effects

Oyxgen in atmosphere -> converts to ozone -> UV protection methane in atmosphere from volcanoes -> oxygen interacts and forms C02 -> Clear blue sky without methane

Similarities and differences between taxonomic groups

PROKARYOTES - Archea - Bacteria EUKARYOTES - Plants - Fungi - Invertebrates (fish, amphibians, mammals, reptiles, birds)

Primate phylogeny

Page 45

Brain size expansion: social competency hypothesis

Page 46, 47

Guns, Germs, and Steel pros/cons of civilization, ultimate/proximate factors to explain Eurasian dominance

Page 48 Page 47 and 48

Migrations out of Africa: trace geographic movements and then connect to climate change, genetic polymorphisms racial climate adaptations, and megafaunal extinctions

Page 49 a. 1st wave of migrations out of Africa: ~70,000ya i. Relatively smaller migration ii. Coastal migration to Australia 1. The coastline leading from Africa to Australia was much farther south, because sea level was ~100m lower a. Glaciation had locked up much of the ocean's water b. Therefore any archeological and fossil evidence is underwater (no hard evidence...yet) 2. Evidence that early humans ate lots of seafood b. 2nd wave: ~45,000ya i. Much larger migration ii. Led first into Eurasia, where Homo sapiens encountered H. neandertalensis, Denisovans, and probably H. floresiensis iii. Last two continents colonized via Bering Strait ~12,000ya: NAm and then SAm a. These early migrations determined where each human race lived historically

Suppose a new infectious disease is discovered 10 years from now, and molecular clock studies showed the disease had existed for 200 years. What is the most likely origin for a disease like this?

Pathogen causing disease used to infect domesticated livestock then mutated to invade humans

Suppose a new infectious disease is discovered 10 years from now, and molecular clock studies showed the disease had existed for 200 years. What is the most likely origin for a disease like this?

Pathogen causing disease used to infect domesticated livestock then mutated to invade humans (most human infectious diseases originated from livestock, e.g., the virus that causes smallpox mutated from a virus that infected cows, the virus that causes the flu mutated from a virus that infected pigs)

Discovered background cosmic radiation throughout the universe

Penzias and Wilson

What is the Milankovitch Cycle?

Periodic variations in tilt, eccentricity, and wobble in the earth's orbit

Of the five mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic Eon, which one caused the most extinctions?

Permian mass extinction

Of the five mass extinctions of the Phanerozoic Eon, which was the most dramatic, wiping out >95% of all species on Earth?

Permian-triassic

What Eon? Extinction of pterosaurs

Phanerozoic All of the dominant reptiles of the Mesozoic, including pterosaurs, dinosaurs, plesiosaurs, and ichthyosaurs, went extinct 65mya with the meteor that hit near the Yucatan Peninsula

What Eon? Formation of Coal deposits

Phanerozoic more specifically the Carboniferous Period, which is part of the Paleozoic Era

Chemosynthesis vs. photosynthesis

Photosynthesis and chemosynthesis are both processes by which organisms produce food; photosynthesis is powered by sunlight while chemosynthesis runs on chemical energy

Exoplanet

Planet that revolves around another star outside our solar system, detected through "star wobble" or when exoplanet transits in front of star, we have discovered hundreds of these since the turn of the century

What are fossil fuels primarily made from and the amount formed in a given location is dependent on what?

Plants because they have more biomass since they are at the base of the food chain Dependent on the amount of oxygen More oxygen = more biomass = more fossil fuels

Other than animals, list one example of a multicellular organism.

Plants, fungi, some protists such as seaweed, slime molds, and a few other strange protists

Which multicellular organisms were the first to colonize land, and why were they first?

Plants; they are the only organisms that make their own food, i.e., photosynthesis

Role of plate tectonics

Plate motions cause mountains to rise where plates push together, or converge, and continents to fracture and oceans to form where plates pull apart, or diverge. The continents are embedded in the plates and drift passively with them, which over millions of years results in significant changes in Earth's geography.

Key factors that facilitated life

Position, size, and motion of planet earth.

What caused Snowball Earth and how did it end?

Possibly by a lowering of atmospheric greenhouse gases to near-present levels through tectonically-mediated rock weathering, when the Sun was considerably dimmer than present. End: Greenhouse effect (without this...the earth would be freezing all the time) and Volcanos had a major role in replenishing the CO2

Origin of monogamy and typical family structure in humans

Premature birth infants helpless takes longer to mature increased NS for men to invest in their offspring increased NS for social monogamy a. Major constraint on the evolution of brain size = size of the opening in the female pelvis i. Opening of birth canal limits brain size of infants to ~400cc, which means humans must be born premature ii. Childbirth is painful, and even dangerous, for women because of the big head; prior to modern medicine (e.g., C-sections), complications in childbirth was one of the biggest causes of mortality (much different than for most species)

Astronomers often detect stars outside our solar system that move or "wobble" slightly from side to side. What do these slight movements indicate?

Presence of an exoplanet

Astronomers often detect stars outside our solar system that move or "wobble" slightly from side to side. What do these slight movements indicate?

Presence of an exoplanet, which generates a small amount of gravity pulling the star towards the planet. Most exoplanets discovered using this method are "Hot Jupiters" because large exoplanets close to the star generate the most "wobble" out of the star.

primates

Primate, in zoology, any mammal of the group that includes the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote

Pro: simple type of cell, e.g., bacteria Euka: complex type of cell, e.g., human cells

Which consequences were associated with the evolution of bipedal locomotion in human ancestors

Problems with back pain,. Colonize new habitats, Bony heel in hind limbs

Banded iron deposits

Proof of the origin of photosynthesis 2.7bya

Why are proteins important in your cells, what do they have to do with DNA, and what do they have to do with phenotypes in genetics?

Proteins are the machines of the cells. They are constructed using the information in DNA, i.e., the sequence of nucleotides codes for a sequence of amino acids. The phenotypes of genetics are based on protein function. For example, a plant gene that code for tall phenotype actually codes for a protein that stimulates lots of mitosis in the plant stem, which results in a tall plant

How the great Oxygenation Event caused aerobic respiration and ATP

Protobactera can get 18x as much ATP and grow faster and larger. Eukaryotes evolved by swallowing protobacteria and making mitochondria.

Proximate vs Ultimate

Proximate-how, biological Ultimate-why, evolutionary

During which period of the Cenozoic era did erratics from in polar regions?

Quarternary period

During which period of the Cenozoic Era did erratics form in polar regions?

Quaternary Period

When the AIDS epidemic first began, a single individual was observed with the disease, then a few more cases were observed, then many more cases were observed, and soon thousands of AIDS cases were observed. The following scenario describes which type of feedback?

Reinforcing (positive) feedback because the initial change was magnified

Scientists often conclude that two landmasses were once connected based on findings of the same fossil species on each of the landmasses. What technique is used to determine when these two landmasses were connected?

Radiometric dating of the fossil species

what is an advantage of radiometric dating over the molecular clock method?

Radiometric dating usually leads to more precise estimates for when an evolutionary event occurred (this is true because of the enormous sample sizes; radiometric dating measures billions upon billions of atoms, whereas the molecular clock measures merely a few thousand nucleotides. Thus the dates obtained through the molecular clock generally have more uncertainty associated with them than the dates obtained through radiometric dating.)

Big Bang theory: three lines of evidence

Red shifts Cosmic Rays Abundance of small elements

What does the Nicaraguan story teach us about the organization of our brains?

Regardless of our cultural background, our brains are wired with the syntactical rules for how language is organized. Thus, the disabled Nicaraguan children were able to invent their own language even in the absence of any language input from outsiders.

Assuming human brains evolved to such a large size because of natural selection for social competency, what kind of feedback would have played a significant role in the evolution of brain size?

Reinforcing feedback (reinforcing feedback loops lead to exponential change, which would have continued until the size of the female pelvis (and the resulting birth canal) set a hard limit to how large human brains could become. In other words, selection for social competency would have led to reinforcing feedback that dramatically increased brain size, but the fixed size of the female pelvis would have provided a balancing feedback that counteracted brain size expansion)

Explain how reinforcing feedback plays a role in the social competency hypothesis.

Reinforcing feedback means change promotes more change, which promotes even more change. According to the social competency hypothesis, individuals with slightly larger brains were more socially competent, which was favored by natural selection and therefore led to evolution for brain size

Explain how reinforcing feedback plays a role in the social competency hypothesis

Reinforcing feedback means change promotes more change, which promotes even more change. According to the social competency hypothesis, individuals with slightly larger brains were more socially competent, which was favored by natural selection and therefore led to evolution for brain size. However, as brain size increased and societies became populated by more socially competent individuals, the societies would become even more complicated, which would increase the strength of natural selection, which would result in further evolutionary change with regard to brain size

Balancing vs. reinforcing feedback

Reinforcing loops compound change in one direction with even more change; Balancing loops try to bring a system to a desired state and keep it there.

For people who reject evolution, what is their primary reason for doing so?

Religious/spiritual beliefs

Remembering gossip details about who they get along with who they don't being able to communicate well with others, that was all stored up in their larger brains, more so than their

Remembering gossip details about who they get along with who they don't being able to communicate well with others, that was all stored up in their larger brains, more so than their group mates who didn't have who had smaller brains because of their greater social competency, the individuals with larger brains were outbreeding the individuals with smaller braids

In its early stages, our solar system looked most like which of the following?

Saturn (the spherical inner mass coalesced to become our Sun, and the debris in the rings coalesced to become the planets and satellites)

For those who accept evolution, what is their primary reason for doing so?

Scientific Evidence

Which BEST represents the position of scientists regarding human evolution?

Scientists accept human evolution because this explanation is consistent with diverse types of data from a variety of scientific disciplines (yes, see p.16 of coursepack for a list of over 20 types of evidence that all fit with a single evolutionary tree of life that includes humans. There are also 10 additional "gems" from your 'common descent' reading.)

PHYLOGENIES

See document and coursepack p. 32-33 - Ticks are included on course-pack p. 32-33

Amino acids

Simple organic molecules, building blocks of proteins

Miller-Urey experiment

Simulates the spontaneous generation of organic molecules from inorganic molecules

Prior to colonial history, which began in 1492AD, which of the following was found in BOTH agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies?

Skin color evolves through natural selection

Stomata

Small openings on the underside of a leaf through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move; course-pack p. 35 and 36

Modern scientists currently take seriously two hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth. Suppose that scientists were to discover that early in the history of the Earth volcanoes actually belched propane gas into the Earth's atmosphere rather than methane gas, as was originally supposed. This discovery would most affect which ONE of the two hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth?

Spontaneous generation of simple organic molecules from the early Earth's atmosphere

Suppose that scientists were to discover that early in the history of the Earth volcanoes actually belched propane gas into the Earth's atmosphere rather than methane gas, as was originally supposed. This discovery would most affect which ONE of the two hypotheses for the origin of life on Earth?

Spontaneous generation of simple organic molecules from the early Earth's atmosphere; other names for spontaneous origin are the primordial soup theory, or the Miller-Urey experiment

However, because of genome is so big, that actually .1% is actually billions of letters.

Spots in the genome where there are differences. We call those spots in the genome, a polymorphism... means many moroph means form.

Lungs, which evolved through natural selection from the swim bladder of fish, solved one of the major challenges of living on land. What structure in plants solved that same challenge?

Stomata, the tiny holes on the undersides of all leaves, which function in gas exchange

Homologous

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

How would the global distribution of energy resources be different today if Sub Saharan Africa had been at the equator during the Carboniferous Period rather than eastern North America?

Sub Saharan Africa would have lots of coal, whereas N America would not have much coal. 'Carboniferous' should make you think 'coal', and the equatorial regions would have had the most productive forests. Because what is now Appalachia was at the equator ~350mya, Appalachia now has a lot of coal deposits. If the scenario in this question had been true, however, Sub Sahara might be mining lots of coal and exporting it to the US

How would the global distribution of energy resources be different today if Sub Saharan Africa had been at the equator during the Carboniferous Period rather than eastern North America?

Sub Saharan Africa would have lots of coal, whereas North America would not have much coal

Which of the following always leads to volcanic activity? a. Earthquakes b. Mountain formation c. Subduction d. Tsunamis

Subduction (because the sinking oceanic crust melts into the mantle, thus building up pressure beneath the other plate, and this melted crust eventually returns to the earth's surface as lava)

Gondwana

Supercontinent that existed before Pangea, more than 500 million years ago.

(T/F) Our sun will one day blow up as a supernova

Supernovae occur only for stars that begin with >8M. Because our sun is 1M it does not have enough mass for a supernova to occur. Instead after our sun runs out of nuclear fuel it will become a white dwarf, which is a dense ball of residual matter

Which has the highest albedo?

Surface glacier

Which has the highest albedo?

Surface of a glacier

How did mammals survive extinction?

Surviving tetrapods were all small (<55lbs) and many were burrowers/hibernaters 3" dirt insulates from the heat and acid rain

T or F: Flight evolved independently during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras

TRUE

Homo denisova

Teeth and toe bones were found in Denisova Cave in the remote Altai mountains of Siberia in 2010. They share a common African origin with Neandertals and may descend from Homo erectus in Europe.

why did early human with large brains outbreed early humans with small brains (why do we still have large brains today and not little brains)

That idea has to do with social competence, we often don't think of intelligence as a social thing. But have you ever met somebody that's just socially incompetent.

big pot if water will cool down quicker if you spread water on a cookie sheet (maximize surface area) then sticking the whole pot in the freezer ... The reason it's the same volume but you're increasing surface area. So the principle is maximize surface area

That's why Africans and all other humans that evolved in a hot environment are lanky skinny.

Dr Dave 2 patterns in application

The agricultural revolution contributed to both rising living standards for humans and to our rising environmental footprint

After the KT mass extinction, which taxonomic groups prospered?

The KT mass extinction wiped out dinosaurs and set the stage for mammals to thrive. The climate was warmer, the seasons were very mild, the sea level was higher, and there was no polar ice.

Explain how the andes mountains oriented north-south gave Spaniards an advantage over the Inca

The N-S orientation of the Andes made them a geographic barrier to the dispersal of species across the Americas, because dispersing species are generally adapted to a given latitude and cannot disperse N-S easily. To give a tangible example, the corn and the wheels used by the Aztecs far to the north never made it down to the Incan civilization. Therefore relative to the Europeans, the Inca developed farming much later and lacked many useful cultural innovations.

Explain the concept of Snowball earth

The coldest global climate because a the planet was covered by glacial ice from pole to pole. The global mean temperature would be about -50°C (-74°F) because most of the Sun's (Solar) radiation would be reflected back to space by the icy surface. Despite the cold and dry climate, the atmosphere would still transport some water vapor from areas of sublimation (direct change from solid to vapor) to areas of condensation. Given sufficient time, glacial ice would thicken and flow in the opposite direction. Glacial flowage results in sedimentary deposits (glacial erratics, tills, moraines, eskers, ice-rafted debris, etc.)

Permian mass extinction

The greatest extinction ever in Earth's history caused by widespread volcanic activity that ended the Paleozoic era. 90% of life killed off

What major discovery suggested that most of the major body designs used by modern animals originated at the beginning of the Cambrian Period?

The discovery of fossils that were a part of the Burgess Shale were essential for our understanding of species diversity at the beginning of the Cambrian Period

DNA structure

The double helix. Double = 2 strands Helix = strands are twisted

How is evolution controversial among the general public?

The fact that humans evolved from an earlier animal species is controversial. Many people resist thinking of themselves as an evolved species.

Suppose that 75 degrees south of the equator you found an erratic dated at 2 million years ago. List one reason why this does NOT provide evidence for Snowball Earth.

The most Snowball Earth was ~800-600mya, so the erratic is much too recent. Also, the erratic is already fairly close to one of the poles (~75 degrees south means Antarctica, which is already ice-covered), so it does not provide evidence that the entire planet was a big snowball

Pangaea

The name of the single landmass that broke apart 200 million years ago and gave rise to today's continents

A nebula begins with 4% of the mass of our Sun, and because of gravity it begins to collapse on itself. Using principles discussed in class, explain whether or not the nebula will ever become a star AND why

The nebula will not become a star, because it is below the critical threshold of 0.1M, i.e., it is less than 10% of the mass of our Sun, so gravity will never be strong enough to result in atoms combining through nuclear fusion.

A nebula begins with 6% of the mass of our Sun, and because of gravity it begins to collapse on itself. Using principles discussed in class, explain whether or not the nebula will ever become a star AND why

The nebula will not become a star, because it is below the critical threshold of 0.1M, i.e., it is less than 10% of the mass of our Sun, so gravity will never be strong enough to result in atoms combining through nuclear fusion.

Albedo

The percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface

why do they matter?

The reason they matter is because there's a tight correlation between milenkovic cycles and the timing of the the Ice Age is so

Explain albedo and how that relates to the freezing of the earth.

The reflection of heat is dependent on color which depends on color. Since the earth was frozen and covered in glaciers, it did not absorb enough heat, thus causing it to freeze and stay frozen for long periods of time. high albedo - light colors absorb less heat, reflect more ( white glaciers) low albedo - dark colors absorb more heat, reflect less (blue seawater)

What is the value of having two methods for dating prehistoric events? When conflicting dates arise from the two different methods, which method is more likely to be trusted?

The value of having two methods is that dates from one method can be verified independently using the other method. If the two methods give conflicting dates, radiometric dating is more likely to be trusted, given that the enormous sample sizes of atoms tend to increase precision...although radiometric dating works only if your sample is uncontaminated

how does Theory of mind (empathy) enhances the fitness of individuals

Theory of mind allows an individual to understand the thoughts and feelings of another individual. This would have enhanced the ability of our ancestors to be socially competent, and thus to achieve high reproductive success. Thus, natural selection would have favored individuals with a theory of mind.

Carbon isotope ratios

There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: 12, 13, and 14

Neaderthals

These people lived about 35,000 to 130,000 years ago, during the Old Stone Age. They wore animal skins and used fire for warmth and cooking. Their tools were more advanced and they buried their dead. made tools from bone, cave art...maybe killed by humans, or absorbed into modern humans...nose cavity bigger to help warm the air becuase of the harsh climate they lived in..they were the first to put flowers on graves

(T/F) One 'half life' is equal to half of the time needed for a radioactive sample to fully decay

This is a common misconception and directly out of your coursepack activity. In theory a radioactive sample never fully decays, and it does not make sense to take half of an infinite amount of time. Rather, one 'half life' is the amount of time needed for 50% of a radioactive sample to decay. After a 2nd 'half life' half of the remaining radioactivity will decay, i.e., 50à25%. Etc

(T/F) Daylength would still be 24 hours if we had experienced one fewer collision

This would be false. Because each massive collision would have changed the speed and/or direction of the Earth's rotation, one fewer collision would mean we would probably have had a different daylength

(T/F)Your weight would still be the same as it is now if we had experienced one fewer collision

This would be false. Your weight depends on the mass of the planet on which you are standing, and each massive collision increased the mass of the Earth a little more. With one fewer collision, the Earth would have had a little less mass, and we would all weigh less

(T/F)We would still have liquid oceans if we had experienced one fewer collision

This would be true. All of the water present today was also present then—just in water vapor form. The oceans formed because the surface temperature cooled down, which was inevitable after the collisions ceased

(T/F)Earth would still have volcanoes and geysers if we had experienced one fewer collision

This would be true. Volcanoes and geysers come because of the heat deep within the Earth, and this heat originated from the many collisions >4bya early in the Hadean Eon. With just one fewer collision there would still be lots of heat escaping through volcanoes and geysers—just a little less heat

Suppose that the last major collision with the early Earth had resulted in a "tilt" of zero degrees rather than 23 degrees. What would result from this change?

Tilt is responsible for seasons, so eliminating the tilt would eliminate our seasons. This is because regardless of where the Earth was in its orbit around the Sun, each latitude would be at the same angle toward the Sun and would thus get roughly the same amount of heat from month to month

How to determine if plant is in Goldilocks zone

To determine the location of a star's habitable zone, one must first learn how much total radiation it emits. Stars more massive than our sun are hotter, and blaze with radiation, so their habitable zones are farther out. Similarly, stars that are smaller and cooler sport tighter belts of habitability than our sun. Determined by temperature and pressure (size)

Names of taxonomic groups for specific species

Trilobites: invertebrate Moss: plants Ferns: plants Horsetails: plants Conifers: plants Flowering plants: plants Jawed fish: fish Millipedes: invertebrates Plesiosaurs: reptiles Ichthyosaurs: reptiles Dinosaurs: reptiles T-rex: reptiles Velociraptors: reptiles Pterosaurs: reptiles Whales: mammals Primates: mammals Lemurs: mammals Monkeys: mammals Apes: mammals *See p.31 of course-pack for more information

(T/F) Most of the known exoplanets were discovered during your lifetime

True

(T/F) The age of mammals allowed for diversification to fill vacant ecological niches

True

T / F The molecular structure of DNA is the same in all organisms

True

True or False: Membrane-bound organelles are found in eukaryotes, but not in prokaryotes

True because euks have membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, but proks lack membrane-bound organelles

As a Nebula becomes smaller, the force of gravity increases for the matter within the nebula

True, because the gravity increases in magnitude as the matter comes closer together

According to evolutionary theory, flightless island birds had ancestors that flew from the mainland to the island

True, the only species to colonize had to come by air

(T/F) Most of the known exoplanets were discovered during your lifetime

True: (1st exoplanet discovered ~1995, and discoveries really started to take off around 2008)

Ultimate: Turns out there's a very well understood biological relationship between the amount of area of any land mass and how many species are there bigger areas there are More species.....smaller areas fewer species small island species islands like Hawaii or News New Zealand Madagascar.

Ultimate related to geography

Ultimate and proximate factors

Ultimate:environmental; deep historical factors that influenced the course of evolution Proximate:External; immediate factors that play a role in current events

so every time you have farming is a food surplus. That's because of that fundamental advantage civilization has over hunter gatherers. The land is more productive. It supports more people extra food that's big.

Ultimately, a food surplus leads to a larger society also a dense society why dence because they're all surrounding the farm. So they all Are together large dense and then another important feature is that they are stratified by stratified, I mean that there's a hierarchy.

How were oceans formed?

Volcanic activity produced gases, including water vapor. Then, Earth cooled so that the water vapor condensed and fell as rain

Suppose you were going to explain to your roommate the scientific evidence for why dinosaurs went extinct. Which of the following words would NOT be part of your answer? - 65 mya -Crater -Iridium -Volcano

Volcano

The presence of large amounts of carbonate in rocks dated at ~600mya provides clear evidence for which of the following?

Volcanoes played a key role in ending Snowball Earth

The presence of large amounts of carbonate in rocks dated at ~600mya provides clear evidence for which of the following?

Volcanoes played a key role in ending Snowball Earth (yes: carbonate can only be made using CO2, so lots of carbonate must show that atmospheric levels of CO2 were really high ~600mya. The only way to get CO2 into the atmosphere back then would have been volcanoes, and the consequence of all that CO2 in the atmosphere would have been a massive greenhouse effect warming the planet. In other words, high carbonate indicates buildup of very high CO2 over time, which indicates volcanic activity)

Prehistroric Migrations

We started in africa and started migrating

Which of the scientists invented a scientific theory that was discredited correctly by most of his contemporary scientists? Circle one of the names, AND write why his theory was discredited. (4pts) a. Darwin b. Hubble c. Lemaitre d. Wegener

Wegener (his theory of continental drift was rejected because he proposed a mechanism for continental movement that was flawed; therefore his contemporary scientists correctly pointed out that Wegener lacked a valid mechanism for why continents should move. To make matters even worse for Wegener, he was German and was trained as a meteorologist rather than a geologist)

Wegener's ideas about continental drift were rejected by his scientific contemporaries for all of the following reasons EXCEPT?

Wegener's data all came from Northern Hemisphere (he collected data from everywhere)

Who discovered that the continents used to fit together as Pangaea, but have drifted apart for millions of years?

Wegener, 1912

evidence used to reconstruct paleogeography

What was connected: rock formation composition When: measure radioactivity Where: look at fossils and magnetic angle to see its location in reference to latitude.

Origin of life

What we know - Happened just once ~4-3.5 bya (Archean Eon) - Aquatic - Simple (fossil prokaryotes ~3.5 bya) Still a mystery - Origin of anything subcellular - Mechanisms

A second factor that determines this availability of species. the history with humans, and in humans. I'm thinking broad sense, humans, not just Homo sapiens, but also Neanderthals hobbits Homo erectus any kind of human species whenever there's a long history of

When the megafauna have a long history with humans they are less likely to go extinct

why is sea level relevant to finding artifacts ..why did sea level change relative now..melting glaciers...50,000 years ago it was an ice age...as a result sea level was lower...when it ended sea level would have risen....

When you think of plate tectonics and mountains rising that generally those changes generally take place over millions of years. Think of Pangea broke up 200 million years ago.And we got all the changes since then the the Andes. The, the Himalayas, those would have built up over about 40 million years. So over50,000 years, or in other words the 20th of 1 million years. That's not enough time for elevation to change dramatically. So why are we talking about elevation at all. What does that have to do with 50,000 years ago.

Insects Land -> air

When? Carboniferous Reduce Weight? n/a small Wings? angel wings Increased Support? n/a small Increased Power? n/a small

Vertebrates water > land

When? Devonian Body Support? Bones / vertebral col Gas Exchange? lungs Retain Moisture? waterproof skin (except for amphinians)

Bird Land -> air

When? Jurassic Reduce Weight? Hollow bones, fewer bones, Wings? forelimb wings Increased Support? fuse bones Increased Power? large breast muscles, keel

Plants water > land

When? Ordovician Body Support? Cellulose Wood Gas Exchange? Stomata Retain Moisture? Waxy Cuticle

Bats Land -> air

When? Paleogene Reduce Weight? Hollow bones, fewer bones. Wings? "hand" wings Increased Support? Fuse bones Increased Power? Large breast muscles, keel

Invertebrates. water > land

When? Silurian Body Support? n/a Gas Exchange? spiracles Retain Moisture? exoskeleton

Pterosaurs Land -> air

When? Triassic Reduce Weight? Hollow bones, fewer bones, Wings? 4th digit wings Increased Support? fuse bones Increased Power? large breast muscles, keel

They were on their home turf so Ottawa was surrounded by 10s of thousands of his most faithful subjects Pizarro comes in with 200 greedy mercenaries.

With the closest reinforcements up in Panama about 1000 miles away and Pizarro kicks trash. There was no contest at all. It was absolutely one sided. How did that happen?

Methods for detecting of exoplanets

Wobble method and transit method can infer distance to from exoplanet to it's star and mass of exoplanet.

Exoplanet

a planetlike body that orbits a star other than the sun

Primordial soup (Spontaneous generation of simple organic molecules)

a solution rich in organic compounds in the primitive oceans of the earth, from which life is hypothesized to have originated. CO2, H2O, NH3 (ammonia), CH4 (methane)

panspermia

a theory that life did not originate on Earth but arrived in the form of bacterial spores or viruses from an extraterrestrial source (metoriod)

Based on Diamond's book, label each of the following as a proximate factor or an ultimate factor.

a. Andes Mountains oriented north-south ______________ ultimate b. Books ______________ proximate c. Infectious diseases ______________ proximate d. Megafaunal extinctions ______________ ultimate

Scientists are now examining light that passes through planetary atmospheres to look for chemical traces of life. Using this technique, what can these scientists measure that would help them determine the elements present on the seven planets?

a. Atomic emission spectra

Ultimate factors behind Eurasia's dominance

a. Biogeography i. Larger areas get more species ii. Species spread well east-west, but not north-south (because climate changes with latitude) iii. Geographic barriers such as mountains, coastlines, and large lakes, also impede the spread of species b. Availability of species for domestication; what determines availability? i. Geography (see above) ii. For megafauna, it matters greatly how long the species have lived alongside humans (megafaunal mass extinctions everywhere except Eurasia and Africa) iii. Chance 1. E.g., Eurasian wheat and barley vs. American corn (number of genetic changes between wild and domestic species) 2. E.g., African zebra vs. Eurasian horse (behavioral disposition)

how humans distinguished themselves from other species

a. Bipedalism (dif than apes, ~5mya) b. Large brain size (dif than most "human" species, ~2.5mya - 100,000ya) c. Intelligence - cognitive revolutions (dif than other large-brained "Homo" species, ~70,000ya) d. Key cultural innovations, e.g., agriculture, industrialization, information technology (dif than early Homo sapiens, ~10,000ya - present) i. The first three of these represent biological adaptations, which by definition must evolve through natural selection, which means three things: 1. Variation 2. Heritability 3. differential fitness

How did the different beak types first arise in the Galapagos finches?

a. Changes in the finches' beaks occurred by chance, and when there was a good match between beak structure and available food, those birds had more offspring.

Suppose we had experienced one fewer collision, and then write 'true' or 'false' next to each statement below. a. Daylength would still be 24 hours if we had experienced one fewer collision b. We would still have volcanoes and geysers today if we had experienced one fewer collision c. We would still have liquid oceans if we had experienced one fewer collision d. Your weight would still be the same as it is now if we had experienced one fewer collision

a. Daylength would still be 24 hours if we had experienced one fewer collision (This would be false. Because each massive collision would have changed the speed and/or direction of the Earth's rotation, one fewer collision would mean we would probably have had a different daylength) b. We would still have volcanoes and geysers today if we had experienced one fewer collision (This would be true. Volcanoes and geysers come because of the heat deep within the Earth, and this heat originated from the many collisions >4bya early in the Hadean Eon. With just one fewer collision there would still be lots of heat escaping through volcanoes and geysers—just a little less heat) c. We would still have liquid oceans if we had experienced one fewer collision (This would be true. All of the water present today was also present then—just in water vapor form. The oceans formed because the surface temperature cooled down, which was inevitable after the collisions ceased.) d. Your weight would still be the same as it is now if we had experienced one fewer collision (This would be false. Your weight depends on the mass of the planet on which you are standing, and each massive collision increased the mass of the Earth a little more. With one fewer collision, the Earth would have had a little less mass, and we would all weigh less)

Origin of bipedalism

a. Earliest bipedal human fossil = Ardi (~4.4mya) b. Among primates, consistent bipedalism is unique to humans; apes can walk on two legs for short periods, but they are unstable b/c of no heel/arch, and b/c femur doesn't angle inwardly to put each leg directly under the center of gravity for the body c. Major evolutionary changes needed for stability in bipedals (illustrate these by re-enacting what it would be like for an ape to walk bipedally) i. Heel ii. Angle between Pelvis and femur (femur must come down at an angle to put each knee directly under the center of gravity)

Scientists proposed dark matter to explain which ONE of the following?

a. Faster-than-expected orbit of outer stars around the center of the galaxy

Hair Amt of hair Lack of facial/body hair

a. Good if you need to lose lots of heat (adaptive in hot climates) b. This reasoning likely explains why humans have so little hair relative to ape species i. Apes live in the shaded and cooler forest and have pinker skin ii. Early humans had dark skin and lived in the sunny and hot African savannah and sweat a lot (tradeoff btwn amt of body hair and # sweat glands; humans sweat far more than all ape species) 2. Lots of facial/body hair = good if you need to preserve heat (adaptive in cold climates)

Which of the following is an isotope of K-39 O-16?

a. K-38 (19P and 19N)

What is the process by which heavy elements are generated and then spread throughout a galaxy?

a. Nuclear fusion, then supernova (yes, heavy elements are generated through nuclear fusion within a massive star, and a supernova spreads those heavy elements throughout a galaxy. A supernova is when a massive star explodes at the end of its lifespan; something like this must have occurred before our Earth could have formed)

Cognitive revolution

a. Rewiring of the brain without changing its overall size or the anatomical structures within the brain (therefore no change in the fossil record) b. Evidence = archeological artifacts c. Why it happened? (no one knows for sure, but likely brought on by one or more genetic mutations that resulted in improvements to human language ability) Consequences i. Detailed intelligence...precise and detailed information, capacity to do art, science, technology, analysis, etc ii. Gossip - ~2/3 of all conversations among humans center on gossip. Much of the news centers on gossip, esp in popular tabloids and social media iii. Storytelling...shared myths for unifying humans not already in the same social group...religion, free markets, nation-states, cultural bonds The first human migrations out of Africa occurred about the same time period,

Timeline for Homo sapiens as a species

a. ~200,000ya = origin of Homo sapiens i. Anatomically-identical to us, e.g., bipedal, large-brained ii. Similar behavior in many ways, e.g., socially-monogamous (b/c of big brain) iii. Good chance the origin of Homo sapiens will be pushed earlier as new discoveries are made (some disputed fossils date back to ~300,000ya) b. Origin through ~70,000ya i. Used simplistic culture, such as fire and simple stone hand tools ii. Still similar to other animal species in many ways 1. foraged for food every day in the wild (hunter-gatherers) 2. global population limited to a relatively small portion of the entire globe (Africa) 3. population fluctuates dramatically, based on weather, sickness, predation, homicides, etc. 4. No evidence of complex language iii. Very little cultural change (evolution is nearly always a very slow process for nearly all species) c. ~70,000 - 10,000 ya

anti-gravity

accelerates universe expansion

evolution

accumulation of DNA mutations over time (evidence for single tree of life)

Explain the Great Oxidation Event

accumulation of oxygen in the early atmosphere as a result of photosynthesis. It occurred ~2.5bya and reacted chemically with atmospheric methane (CH4) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). Because CH4 is a much more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, the Great Oxygenation Event would have resulted in significant cooling, which might have triggered the first Snowball Earth

large amts of energy are only possible through what kind of respiration?

aerobic

Cause and effect

aerobic respiration - large bodies loss of methane - first snowball earth Ozone - protection against UV Photosynthesis - Great oxygenation event Tropical Appalachia - Coal Forming

another way to disapate heat is through the hair

africans have less hair...texture of hair....if you put curly hair together you will air pockets straight hair next to straight hair you can compact those very tightly that gives it more surface and will cool quicker...in summer hair gets curlier...thats an adapation to cool you off

humans can look at things from other peoples point of view

age three- cannot look at things from others point of view, actions, beliefs and motives at ...5 year old has mastered it marble in basket example. no chimp has shown this quality

hunter gathers dont have a heirachy

agricultural do have heirachy so you get a division of labor...leads to a lot more than farmers

What was part of Gondwana?

all continents currently in the Southern hemisphere + India

How many of the following four organisms are dinosaurs: plesiosaur, pterosaur, velociraptor, woolly mammoth?

all dinosaurs lived on land during the Mesozoic Era; plesiosaur = Mesozoic marine reptile, pterosaur = Mesozoic air reptile, velociraptor = Mesozoic land reptile = dinosaur, woolly mammoth = Cenozoic mammal

DNA in all organisms

all organisms use same subset of amino acids for building proteins

When did Snowball earth happen?

between 750-570 millon years ago

gravity

anything that has mass is attracted to anything else that has mass

variation for bipedialism

apes are quadripedialism...at some point our ansestors favored bipedalism

What are the names of the three domains discovered by Carl Woese?

archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote

Bonobo and chimps

are both chimpanzees.

hubble's data on Big Bang

atomic spectral emission from all galaxies are red shifted

the phenotypes of genetics are...

based on protein function

Scientists think that Australian Aborigines descended from an early wave of coastal migrations from Africa by Homo sapiens about 70,000 years ago. Nevertheless, there is no archeological evidence (e.g., cultural artifacts, human dwellings) in South Asia for such a coastal migration. Why not?

because the sea level was much lower 70,000ya during the most recent ice age. Therefore any archeological evidence is ~100m underwater at what used to be the coastline - not an easy location for doing field research

The Megafauna in africa and eurasia did not go extinct

becuase they would have been present as humans and they would have evolved anti predatory behavior.

According to Harari, the "Cognitive Revolution" occurred 70,000 years ago causing the homo sapiens mind to shift, turning the species from "an insignificant African ape" into modern humans as "ruler of the world."

consequences of farming lead that the agricultural society to be dominant

What was the background noise that Penzias and Wilson were ultimately unable to remove from the signals they studied?

cosmic background radiation

what represents evidence that the earth formed through massive collisions?

craters found on all solid objects within the solar system

Which of the following is most relevant to the future of our solar system? (2pts) a. Black hole b. Neutron star c. Nuclear fusion begins d. White dwarf

d.White dwarf (occurs for stars with 0.1-8M. Because our star is 1M, it is destined to become a white dwarf at the end of its life cycle)

Transit method

detecting exoplanets by observing the change in brightness as the planet eclipses the star.

analogous

different structure, same function

which component of natural selection is missing: In a population of guppies some males have more colorful spots than other males. The males with lots of colorful spots have approximately the same number of offspring as males with few spots, and male offspring usually have the same number of spots as their fathers. Why WON'T guppies evolve to gain more colorful spots? To answer this question, write the three components of natural selection below, AND then circle which of the three components is missing.

differential fitness

Homo neandertalensis

discovered in 1856 (just before Darwin's Origin of Species, although Darwin did not know they were a dif spp), brain size = 1400cc (slightly larger than 1350cc in H sapiens), extinct ~30,000ya

reinforcing feedback

disruptive form..dominate any system and you get drastic changes

cognitive revolution

does not fossilize

Rank the following species based on how closely related they are to the gorilla

dog (4th), human (1st), monkey (3rd), orangutan (2nd)

How is DNA "double" and "helix"?

double = two strands, helix = strands are twisted

DNA structure

double helix with A, C, G, T.

According to scientists, what major event happened 3.5 bya

earliest fossils (simple bacterial cells)

Ardipithecus

earliest recognized hominin genus, brain size much smaller

Changes in biodiversity during Phanerozoic Eon

flourishes

compare their lifestyle to ours....

foraging: Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce.

cosmic inflation

galaxy +universe became huge (10 -37 seconds after Big Bang). Energy was transferred into matter

hunter gathers name should have been

gatherer gatherer gatherer and once in a while hunting

dark energy (inference)

generates "antigravity"

how did human language become so complex

genetic mutations followed by natural selection

What is the nebular hypothesis?

gravity pulls the clumps of matter together, lighter elements become fused together by gravity to make heavier elements (nuclear fusion)

dark matter (inference)

has mass, passes through atoms

fertile cresent

he Fertile Crescent is in the middle of a huge landmass Eurasia. People plenty of places for for me to spread and, crucially, many of those places were to the east and west to the Fertile Crescent at roughly the same line of latitude.

differential fitness- why would walking on two legs help you survive?

height, look up and see predators, grabbing food from trees,

why didn't they the megafauna go extinct in eurasia if homo sapiens hadnt been around them

hey weren't around Homo sapiens, but they were around other human species, who would have had technology, who would have represented a threat to them.So because Neanderthals had been in Eurasia for a half million years because Homo erectus and other human species like the Hobbits

suppose that a new fossil discovery from the Permian period showed a large amphibian that could fly. Which of the following anatomical features would you expect for a large amphibian that could fly?

hollow bones keeled sternum many bones fused.

why was 70,000 a pivitol time

homo sapiens first left africa and cognitive revolution

what was hunter-gathers life like

how would we know the data...a lot of what we know is from observations from anthropology, 9000 years ago mostly hunter gathers, then 5000 years ago mostly farmers with a few hunter gathers

Basic argument: those with larger brains were more socially competent, which allowed them to have more offspring

i. Answers still controversial: ii. leading hypothesis = social competency hypothesis NS and reinforcing feedback loop ( p.46) a. Variation: individuals within a population varied in social competency b. Diff fitness: those individuals with the greatest social competency (b/c of larger brain size) achieved higher reproductive success c. Heritability: their children inherit larger brains and the greater social competency that goes with it d. As brain size and social competency increased, the complexity of societies also increased, and this feedback only intensified NS, thus resulting in runaway selection for brain size (i.e., reinforcing feedback) 1. Predictions a. Mating success should be determined by social competency in humans and our closest relatives (not by academic/tech ability, athletic ability, etc.) b. Large amounts of our brain space should be used for social competency

a. Three things had to happen for humans to distinguish themselves from the other species

i. Brain size increases ii. Cognitive revolution iii. Key cultural innovations

a. Latitude patterns of climate

i. Equator: more heat, more direct/intense sun ii. Poles: much less sunlight/heat

What can we generalize about hunter-gatherers?

i. Every plant and every animal must be classified, e.g., edible?, nutritious?, threat? ii. Similarly, every human you meet must be quickly classified - friend vs foe? iii. Not much food available, so lots of movement every day

Storytelling and shared knowledge:

i. For most species the only relevant information is what they can physically sense at the moment. Language allowed humans to imagine abstract concepts, ideas, and characters that may or may not actually exist. ("Religion, companies, music, etc. (anything considered cultural) is a direct result of this ability to converse about things that do not exist. Without this, humans would be just as well off in the world as chimpanzees and monkeys" B-QT)

Although intelligence is not unique to humans, the degree of intelligence in humans is impressive, especially when applied to the entire population

i. Highlight examples, e.g., facial/voice recognition, empathy, precision and broad applicability of language, internet/google ii. Although intelligence ≠ big brain, a big brain was a prerequisite for intelligence to evolve

Gossip

i. Language facilitated a much more thorough management of social relationships ("Because social cooperation is so essential to humans, it became more important to know about other members of their species than other creatures. One can look at how mankind communicates now and notice how we are very focused on our own species." A-AB; "in every day life, people are always gossiping, whether that's in the form of "emails, phone calls or newspaper columns" (Harari, 24). I know that in my life, my friends and I are always gossiping about things going on." B-GB)

Brain size increased

i. Mammals have ~10X brain size of reptiles ii. Among mammals, primates and cetaceans have largest brains iii. Among primates, apes have largest brains iv. Among apes, humans have largest brains by far 1. ~3X as large as chimps and gorillas 2. evidence from fossil skulls suggests that cranial capacity increased remarkably for several human-like species (genus Homo) in the past three million years v. Large brains require a huge amount of ATP (at rest the brain requires 25% of all ATP for humans, but just 8% for apes)

evidence for social competency hypothesis

i. Mating success (fitness) in primate societies is correlated with social competency; primates spend a lot of time managing their social relationships (e.g., grooming) ii. Size of neocortex in various primate species is correlated w/ group size iii. Organization of the brain (portions of the brain that are exceptionally large in humans are often used for social tasks, e.g., facial/voice recognition, language, theory of mind) iv. Usage of spoken language in humans (mostly gossip, ~2/3 of conversations)

Why did Ice Ages begin ~2.7mya?

i. No one knows! ii. Most favored hypotheses involve plate tectonics (lots of speculation) 1. Air currents altered by new mountain ranges; what major mountain range has been forming a lot in the last few million years (Himalayas) 2. Ocean currents altered a lot by new coastline; what major coastline has changed remarkably in the last few million years (Panama)

Do human races differ genetically? If so, do they constitute subspecies in the process of diverging into separate species?

i. Speciation would eventually occur if each race interbred only with itself, which would result in more and more genetic divergence between races

a. Surface-area-to-volume ratio (analogy - how best to cool soup)

i. Taller and skinny maximizes SA->maximize heat transfer; good if you need to lose lots of heat (adaptive in hot climates) ii. Shorter and plump minimizes SA->minimize heat transfer; good if you want to conserve heat (adaptive in cold climates)

Milankovitch Cycles

i. Three types - all change in some way the amount of heat that reaches the Earth's surface, which affects whether snowpack melts vs. persists during the summer months 1. Orbit path (eccentricity) varies between more circular and more elliptical - cycles every ~100,000years 2. Tilt (obliquity) varies btwn 22o and 24.5o every ~41,000years (affects contrast btwn seasons) 3. Wobble (precession) varies every ~20,000years (affects whether summer comes in July vs. January)

Two causes of climate change

i. Variation in solar output, e.g., only ~70% during Hadean Eon (offset by methane atmosphere and asteroid collisions); recent changes in solar output have been very minor in comparison ii. Volcanism , e.g., Triassic-Jurassic mass extinction iii. Changes in GHGs, e.g., modern climate change, end of Snowball Earth with 13% CO2, iv. Motion of tectonic plates, which affects air currents (via mountain ranges) and ocean currents (via coastlines) Milankovitch Cycles

a. Color of skin, hair, and eyes is determined by amount of melanin

i. Very high melanin ->dark skin/hair/eyes ii. Very low melanin ->white skin, blonde hair, blue eyes

All humans are 99.9% similar genetically

i. i.e., your DNA sequence is 99.9% similar to the sequence of any other human ii. Another way of stating this fact is that on average one polymorphism is found for every ~1000 nucleotides; polymorphism = position in the genome that varies between individuals of a species iii. Because our genomes are so large, the tiny 0.1% variation actually adds up to ~5 million polymorphisms

Mechanisms of brain expansion

increase in brain size due to natural selection--> higher complexity of society--> Natural selection intensifies constraint: size of female pelvis

Cognitive Revolution

i. ~70,000ya 1. Anatomy did not change, but cognitive abilities increased (as evidenced by lots of new archeological artifacts:) 2. Cultural changes began to outpace biological changes (dif than most spp) ii. Complex language led to a proliferation of culture, religion, trade goods and services, etc. iii. Global population began to grow, and human populations began migrating away from Africa, where they encountered and interbred with other human species iv. Still hunting and gathering b. ~10,000ya = Series of dramatic cultural innovations began, starting with the biggest(?) cultural innovation ever for humans, the Agricultural Revolution

why did brain size increase in humans

if you have a brain...you need to feed the brain with energy

geographic barriers

if you have an ocean you have a barrier or a mountain

Spaniards had horses, ships, gunpowder, strategies, history of european warefare, steel, technology, germs

inca- smart enough to build ships but there werent aware of any land beyond the sea

are races incipient species?

incipent means deriving from one..so did japaneze, american etc derive from one species? the answer is no.

Bipedalism

is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs.

A nebula begins with 4% of the mass of our sun, and because of gravity it begins to collapse on itself. Using principles discussed in class, explain whether or not the nebula will ever become a star AND why

it will not become a star because it is below the threshold of 0.1M

primate society

it's a complicated society and the those who study them see that the though that there is a relationship between the ability to manage social relationships and mating success.

Geographic distribution of key natural resources

land - coal oil, natural gas - ocean amount of fossil fuels depends on rainfall (latitude) high oxygen levels = more coal

Other things the great oxygenation event caused

large-bodied organisms such as dinosaurs (more potential to grow) and the formation of fossil fuels (Carboniferous period) break down of gigantic animals and plants.

Invented the concept of a 'primeval fireball', which exploded long ago

lemaitre

Great Oxygenation Event (Snowball earth effect)

less methane and an abundnace of C02 leads to first snowball earth.

Sun-sized (0.1M - 8M0)

long lifespan (10 by), corpse = white dwarf

Melanin

lots of it is beneficial when you are in the sun, it is protection, protect from cancer, we also get vitamin D from the sun, black skin repels the vitamin D

proteins are the...

machines of the cells

Magnitude of gravity depends on two factors

mass and distance

What influences the magnitude of gravity?

mass of objects and their distance from one another

M

mass of the sun (1M)

How did matter get so close together to the point of combination?

massive amounts of gravity

life cycle of objects in space

matter collapses in on itself (gravity). Continues to collapse into sphere

What is the difference between negative and positive feedback?

negative - resists change so that the system returns to equilibrium (ex: low blood sugar triggers hunger) Positive - amplifies change so that the system gets even further out of equilibrium (ex: population explosion of rabbits)

The effects of DNA mutations can be

negative, neutral, or even positive (when the effects of a mutation are positive, natural selection usually increases the frequency of the mutation in the population)

did humans evolve from chipanzees

no it is false. we didn't evolve from chimpanzees

Why was there low biological productivity during snowball earth?

no species were able to survive the extremely cold temperatures so there was a mass extinction, thus promoting a massive evolutionary change

Can individuals of a species change through natural selection?

no, each individual has a fixed identity

misconceptions about dinosaurs

not all large animals are dinosaurs

Embryonic

not yet developed; at an early stage

What is the process by which heavy elements are generated and then spread throughout a galaxy?

nuclear fusion

Polygyny

one male, one ape, would have many women, the women would only have the one man

vestigial

organs that are useless

Name one event that occurred in the Archean Eon?

origin of life, the origin of prokaryotes, and the origin of photosynthesis

How did the early atmosphere change over time?

originally made of lots of dark matter and dark energy, plus a lot of debris

Language, culture and music

other species have these things just like humans, we are just more sophisicated

we are all children of africa

our speices evolved around 200,000 years ago

Given the incredible diversity of animals today, it seems a little strange that animals did not originate earlier in the fossil record. Give one reason for why animal diversity did not 'explode' until the early Cambrian Period.

oxygen levels were low, so animals would not have been able to access the large amounts of energy through aerobic respiration they would need to maintain large body size; also just prior to the Cambrian Period was Snowball Earth - the extremely cold climate kept biodiversity very low

Fossil record questions

p.39-41

What does "wobble" of starts indicate

presence of exoplanet wobble generated by small amount of gravity pulling star towards the planet

phylogenies on hw 3

practice them

What Eon? Beginning of the most recent Snowball Earth

proterozoic All Snowball Earth episodes occurred during the Proterozoic

nuclear fusion begins (>0.1M)

protostar -> star

why did we have ice ages

quarternary period,huge fluctuations in the climate colder and more variable

Which types of organisms evolve the fastest and why?

quick generation times, high mutation rates

background cosmic rays

radiation produced by explosions

Cosmic Radiation

radiation that comes to Earth from distant stars. Comes from explosion sometime in the past which effected all parts of space.

DNA mutations

raw material for evolutionary change

Red shifts

red has a longer wavelength expanding outward moving, shows universe is expanding

What is a red shift, what major conclusion resulted from these observations, and who achieved broad recognition from other scholars for observing them?

red shift means the atomic emission spectra is more red meaning that the universe is expanding. Edwin Hubble first observed this.

Growing human populations tend to produce more medical specialists, which leads to better health care, which leads to further growth in human populations. What kind of feedback does this pattern represent?

reinforcing feedback

Growing human populations tend to produce more medical specialists, which leads to better health care, which leads to further growth in human populations. What kind of feedback does this pattern represent?

reinforcing feedback; remember that whenever reinforcing feedback is present in a system, it tends to dominate the system and lead to some amazing results, which explains why we went from <100,000 people to ~7 billion people in just a few thousand years)

Vestigal

relating to visible traces left by something that no longer exists

Define isotope

same number of protons, different number of neutrons

For people who accept evolution, what is their primary reason for doing so?

scientific evidence

atomic emission spectra

set of colors associated with an element

In addition to comparing DNA sequences, what are two other ways to build trees of life?

shared physical features and behavioral traits

lucy 3.2 million years ago

she was bipedial

>24M

short lifespan (a few my), corpse = black hole

austrailopithecus

short,lucy, brain much smaller, similar to chimp brain, lived 5-2 million years, a dozen speicies, late neogene

Which of the following was NOT part of Gondwana? Australia India South America United Kingdom

the UK, along with all of Eurasia (minus India) and North America were parts of Laurasia, not Gondwana

Evidence for glaciation at equator

the angle of magnetite within rocks orients differently based on latitude. Because a glacial erratic rock was found with magnetite that oriented at an angle consistent with 11 degrees latitude, there must have been a glacier in the tropics)

Blue shift

the displacement of the spectrum to shorter wavelengths in the light coming from distant celestial objects moving toward the observer. approaching, increasing,

Define half life

the length of time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay

Scientists think that of the three lice species on humans, the two that are most closely related are head lice and clothes lice. In one sentence or less explain what evidence scientists use to back up this assertion

their DNA sequences align the best, meaning there hasn't been that many mutations between the two species of lice

Scientists think that of the three lice species on humans, the two that are most closely related are head lice and clothes lice. In one sentence or less explain what evidence scientists use to back up this assertion.

their DNA sequences line up the best, which means there has not been very much time for mutations to accumulate between their lineages)

neanderthal- cave man

they are our cousins- we have the same ancestor

incas never had this protection they had llams but not farm animals

they didn't have the same contact with farm animals

How did lungs evolve and what problem did this solve?

they evolved through natural selection from the swim bladder of fish, solved one of the major challenges of living on land. (stomata solved same issue in plants)

sub africa- we got rid of all our hair- because it is hot

they got rid of all the heat

All humans, regardless of race, are ~99.9% similar genetically to each other

true

Division of labor played an essential role in the improvement of human living standards over the last several centuries.

true

all living organisms are composed of cells

true

the molecular structure of DNA is the same in all organisms

true

According to evolutionary theory, flightless island birds had ancestors that flew from the mainland to the island

true islands distant from the mainland like Hawaii and New Zealand always have lots of native birds, but they consistently lack native mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. That is because when these islands originated they were barren rock, and the only species that could colonize had to come by air. After birds arrive there are usually a variety of ecological niches available that are normally filled by non-flying creatures in mainland habitats. Therefore some of the flying birds often evolve through natural selection into flightless birds like the kiwi, dodo, and elephant bird

(T/F) Division of labor played an essential role in the improvement of human living standards over the last several centuries

true: This builds off the Jared Diamond reading. According to Adam Smith, the founder of modern economics, division of labor, along with markets that allow humans to exchange the fruits of their labor, are the key ingredients that improve standards of living for humans. In the context of Journey Through Time, the story goes that farming dramatically improved the productivity of land, which led to food surpluses, which allowed individuals to specialize in something other than producing food. This division of labor led to specialists who found innovative ways to improve various aspects of society. Medical specialists found ways to improve public health. Construction specialists found ways to improve homes and buildings. Manufacturing specialists found ways to increase the variety and quantity of goods designed for human consumption...

(T/F) According to evolutionary theory, flightless island birds had ancestors that flew from the mainland to the island

true: islands distant from the mainland like Hawaii and New Zealand always have lots of native birds, but they consistently lack native mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. That is because when these islands originated they were barren rock, and the only species that could colonize had to come by air. After birds arrive there are usually a variety of ecological niches available that are normally filled by non-flying creatures in mainland habitats. Therefore some of the flying birds often evolve through natural selection into flightless birds like the kiwi, dodo, and elephant bird

What is a trilobite?

type of animal that dominated the world's oceans for much of the Paleozoic Era, but then went extinct in the great Permian mass extinction

abundance of light elements

universe is made of 75% H, 25% He, all else trace

3 components of natural selection

variability, heritability, differential reproductive success (fitness)

3 components of natural selection

variation differential fitness heritability

What are the three components of natural selection

variation, differential fitness, and heritability

Unlike humans, bats rely hardly at all on vision; they navigate instead using echolocation. Bats still possess eyes (like all mammals), but bat eyes are extremely small and poorly developed. Therefore bat eyes are considered

vestigial (rudimentary)

which of the following is not proof for why dinosaurs went extinct?

volcano

The presence of large amounts of carbonate in rocks dated in ~600mya provides clear evidence for . . .

volcanoes played a role in ending snowball earth

whats misleading about the image on google about evolution?

we didn't evolve from any current species, no timeline, that we are the pinnacle and that we wont evolve anymore...not an evolutionary ladder, we are a evolutionary tree..

because they moved around a lot they were very fit people

we stare at zoom, movies etc Hunger gathers had to move all the time

Under normal conditions, gravity is

weak

two adaptation that distingusihed humans from apes

were bipedialism and brain size

inference

what you do with evidence

day to day movements

when plants were in season, bird migration, how to stalk their pray, they would alway be on the move...a lot of consequences...how much stuff do you have?

What's the best way to define evolutionary fitness?

whoever leaves the most descendants

8M threshold

will blow up -> supernova

population structures

you would have known all the people around you. People you would interact with all the time

Estimate the percentage of the Earth's existence that Homo sapiens has existed.

~0.0033%