Foodservice Organizations Chapter 6
Planning Stage of Production Scheduling
-forecasts are converted into the quantity of each menu item to be prepared -distribution of food production to supervisors in each work center (ex: main production, salad unit, bakery unit)
Efficiency of the Process
dependent upon the control of costs for labor, material, and facility use -along with product and process, leads to customer service
Formal Product Evaluation
detailed assessment of product or service; evaluation form used and detailed evaluation procedure followed
Emergency Preparedness
detailed plans for food preparation in times when the organization is operating in an emergency situation many operations hold multiple days of food and paper supplies for emergency use; some have stock of bottled water and MREs (Meals, Ready to Eat) Hospitals have supplies and plan to feed for 3-5 days (96 hours) with on-hand supplies Table Top Drill
Food Production Cost
determines whether or not a product should be produced for a specific customer in that operation
Thermostats
devices that control temperature automatically and precisely - should not be affected by ambient temperature changes - should respond quickly to changes on the sensing element and easily set - should be checked periodically equipment - meat thermometer,
Temperature
the common denominator for producing the correct degree of doneness vital for food safety (burgers compared to roast or salmon), baked products must be exact,
Convection
the distribution of heat by the movement of liquid or vapor; may be either natural or forced natural - occurs from density or temperature differences within a liquid or vapor (temperature differences include water boiling, fryer oil in constant motion) forced - caused by a mechanical device (convection ovens have a fan that moves the heat)(rotisseries rotate the meat in a hot space)(stirring that moves the heat preventing it from staying at the bottom)
Production Planning Primary Objectives
the effective synthesis of quantity, quality, and cost objectives
Food Production Quantity
the element that distinguishes production in food services from home or family food preparation
Heat Transfer
the factor that causes many reactions to occur conduction convection radiation induction
Radiation
the generation of heat energy by wave action within an object - infrared and microwave
Carry-Over Cooking
the internal temperature will continue to rise even after removed from the oven - outside hotter than inside and heat continues to be conducted until equalized throughout
Alpha (alpha symbol)
the judgment factor in exponential smoothing forecast model a number between 0 and 1 - used to adjust for any errors in previous forecasts -a constant, usually between 0.1 and 0.3 -'a' is the weight assigned to the most recent customer demand and '1-a' is the weight for the most recent forecast
Casual Regression Analysis Forecasting Model
-the most common casual model -2 kinds, linear and multiple -generally a linear relationship between variables that will continue for a reasonable period of time -uses a dependent (variable being studied) and independent variable (variable that is changed/manipulated) y=a0 + a1X -generally multiple is quite complex and needs a good computer program
Multifunction Equipment
Combination of several pieces of equipment to increase space in production area includes: combi-oven, tilting skillet, tilting fry pan, convection/microwave oven,
Exponential Smoothing Model Mathematical Expression
F1 = [aDt-1] + [(1-a)Ft-1] New Forecast = [judgment factor x last demand] + [(1-judgement factor) x last forecast] a = judgement factor (a constant) F1 = smoothed value at time t (new forecast) Dt-1 = actual observed alue at time t-1 (last demand) Ft-1 = preceding smoothed value (last forecast)
Methods of Production
Many different processes are involved in production of food Preparation - washing or making a lemon meringue pie includes cooking, chilling, and freezing in some combination
Quantity Food Production
Production of quality food in quantity involves a highly complex set of variables quantity is the primary element that introduces complexity to production in the system - the more people, the more complex - the nuts and bolts of the foodservice industry control of ingredients, production methods, quality of food, labor productivity, energy consumption, cost true test is customer acceptability, appropriate quantity, microbiologically safe, and prepared within budgetary constraints
Centralized Ingredient Control
a cook is only issued what is needed for that specific recipe for that day, leftover are held in storage -storage is centralized instead of various stations
Losses
a cumulative effect that can impact the number of portions available from a recipe
Recipe Standardization Process
a cycle of three phases: recipe verification, product evaluation, and quantity adjustment; repeated until standardized
Delphi Technique
a decision-making method in which members of a panel of experts individually complete questionnaires on a chosen topic until a consensus is reached -the first set of questions returned to reviewers, revised, sent back to the panel for answers, consistently repeated until an answer is reached -time-consuming and expensive, not especially suitable for foodservice forecasting
Panel Consensus (Subjective Forecasting Model)
a forecasting model based on the assumption that a group of experts can produce a better forecast than one person - differs from Delphi by requiring free communication among the panel members
Production Forecasting
a function of production and procurement the art and science (both needed) of estimating future events and provides the database for decision making and planning art: intuition of the forecaster science: the use of past data in a tested model
Cooking
a scientific method based on chemistry and physics
Market Research (Subjective Forecasting Model)
a systematic and formal procedure for developing and testing hypotheses about actual markets
Recipe Format
a uniform, definite pattern or style that is most effective for a particular foodservice operation quantity recipes generally use a block format (ingredients on left, amounts in middle, procedure on right) separated by horizontal lines -ingredients listed in order of use -production, service, and storage procedures are notated that will prevent or reduce hazards including food safety -corresponding procedures for each group of ingredients is printed directly opposite each item group (oven temp, baking times, and portioning are repeated for convenience) -equipment needs and times are clear (cream shortening, sugar, and vanilla medium speed for 10 minutes) -special serving instructions (garnishing, portioning, and storage instructions) at bottom of page Should be checked for clarity and explicitness without asking manager for further clarification -large print, easily read from 18-20 inches
Batch Cooking
a variant of production scheduling, cooking small quantities of menu items as needed for service -total estimated divided up for final cooking or heating then cooked as needed (often vegetables or fried)
Historical Production Records (Forecasting)
accurate records constitute the basis for most forecasting processes -must be accurate and complete or they are not reliable -used to determine the number of menu items to prepare Should include: date and day of week; meal or hour of service; notation of event, holiday, weather conditions; food items prepared; quantity of items prepared; quantity of items served
Edible Portion (EP)
amount of food available for eating after preparation and/or cooking AP price / EP %yield = EP price
As Purchased (AP)
amount of food before processing decrease after processing (meats, seafood, poultry) increase after processing (rice, pasta) EP / %yield = AP
Product Yield
amount of product resulting at completion of various phases of procurement/production/service cycle usually expressed as a definite weight, volume, or serving size
Food Production Quality
an essential concomitant of all food preparation, becomes an extremely vital consideration in mass food production due to the number of employees involved -includes aesthetic aspects, nutritional factors, and microbiological safety -concomitant - existing or occurring with something else, often in a lesser way; accompanying; concurrent
Quantity Recipe
any recipe that produces 25 servings or more - not standardized until they have been adapted to an individual operation
Casual Forecasting Model
based on the assumption that identifiable relationship exists between the item being forecasted and other factors factors include: selling price, number of customers, market availability, or anything that can influence that item -vary in complexity from one factor to multiple -cost is high, popular for medium- and long-term, not cost effective for short-term such as produce
Ingredient Assembly
concepts related to receiving, storage, and inventory control are important components of ingredient control, particularly issuing from storage. Clear policies and procedures control the issue and assembly of all foods and supplies, from delivery to service, by requiring proper authorization for removal of products from storage and by issuing only required quantities for production and service
Adapting Home-Size Recipes
considerations from small number servings to a large number of servings - methods vary, generally factor method is most common - careful evaluation of food and employee cost is in important -for original recipe know exactly what ingredients and quantity -make exactly and figure out anything unclear -evaluate if viable for a large number of portions -convert in incremental increases, testing quality at each phase -determine handling and cooking losses, determine actual yield -check ingredient portions -evaluate for quality
Moving Average Values
continually recomputed as new data becomes available (1) reduce the effect of temporary variations in data, (2) improve the 'fit' of data to a line (a process called 'smoothing') to show the data's trend more clearly (3) highlight any value above or below the trend
Advantages of Centralized Ingredient Assembly
contributes to the cost reduction and quality improvement redirection of cooks' skills away from collecting, assembling and measuring ingredients to production, garnishing and portion control more efficient use of labor by limiting access to ingredients, over- and under-production of menu items can be eliminated, thus controlling costs
Dry Heat Methods
cooking without liquid; roasting, baking, oven frying, broiling, grilling, pan-broiling, barbecuing, rotisserie cooking, frying is classified but there is debate includes: sauteing, pan frying, and deep fat frying equipment includes broilers (charbroilers, grill, cheesemelter, salamander, clamshell) deep fat fryers (cooking zone, cold zone, and heat recovery time) ovens (range, deck, convection, conveyer, impinge, microwave, smoker, low-temp cooking and holding, rotisserie, wood-fired, flash bake)
Time and Temperature Control
critical element in quantity food production that must be controlled to produce high-quality product equipment comes with internal time and temperature devices
Production Meetings
daily meetings with employees in the production unit - short meetings, new recipes, menu changes, employee assignments - take place when activity is minimal -discuss effectiveness, problems of under- and over-production, corrective measures, substitutions, prep for the following day, morale builder
Handling Loss
decrease in the yield of a recipe because of preparation and portioning process vary from 1% to 30%
Table Top Drill
exercise that involves simulated emergency situations to test emergency plans
Forecasting Model Criteria
factors needed to consider when choosing this element include: -cost: the expense of both development, validation, operation, and education -required accuracy -relevancy of past data: data must be relevant to future events, if no correlation between past and present, then useless information -forecasting lead time: length of time the forecasts for the future (short, medium, or long-term) -underlying pattern of behavior: depend on the assumption that behavioral patterns observed in the past will continue into the future and that actual occurrences follow some known pattern -not all work equally well for all patterns of data, appropriate for particular situation
Centralized Ingredient Preparation Control
focus efforts on direct tasks, simpler tasks assigned to less skilled employees combining tasks for multiple recipes (onions chopped for meatloaf, salad, soup, and sauce) completed at one time instead of as needed
Resource Managers
foodservice managers responsible for production
Visionary Forecast (Subjective Forecasting Model)
forecast characterized by subjective guesswork and imagination
Historical Analogy (Subjective Forecasting Model)
forecast that involves comparative analysis of the introduction and growth of new items with similar new-product history
Recipe
formula by which weighed and measured ingredients are combined in a specific procedure to meet predetermined standards -a written communication tool that passes information from the foodservice manager to the ingredient room and production employees -a quality and quantity control tool that meets customer and management approval -cost control because easily computed - amount stays the same for each recipe used
Informal Product Evaluation
general assessment of product or service; no evaluation form or procedure is used
Food Production
generic - process by which products are created managerial - function of converting food purchased in various stages of preparation into menu items that are served to customers -after procurement, it is the next major subsystem in the transformation element of the foodservice system -increased use of partially processed foods, such as peeled and sliced apples, parts of preparation will be done in the production process -involves planning and controlling ingredients, production methods, food quality, labor productivity, and energy consumption
Moist Heat Methods
heat conducted to the food by water or steam; boiling (reserved for vegetables and starches), simmering, stewing, poaching, blanching, braising, and steaming to cook in a liquid, the temperature of the liquid determines the method equipment includes steam-jacketed kettles and steamers
Microwaves
heat waves have a very short length and are generated by an electromagnetic tube - penetrate part way into food and agitate water and/or fat molecules causing friction which creates heat to the center by conduction
Infrared Waves
heat waves that have a longer wavelength than visible light broiling; high-intensity ovens are designed to heat food more rapidly; infrared lamps for hot holding
Production Decisions
important elements: forecasting, planning, and production scheduling -must be made within the constraints of existing facility
Production Process Characteristics
include method of preparation (broiling to baking) -closely related to product because both determine quality of the product and service -along with efficiency and product, leads to customer service
Traditional Ingredient Control
individual cooks obtain ingredients from storerooms, refrigerators, etc. Ingredients not being used may be stored at work bins or randomly added to a different meal (such as leftover vegetables to a soup) -keeping track of unused portions is difficult and leads to decreased control and higher food costs
Ingredient Room
ingredient assembly area designed for measuring ingredients to be transmitted to the various work centers primary function is to coordinate assembly, preparation, measuring, and weighing to meet the daily production needs and the advance preparation needs of future meals generally, operate 24 hours in advance of production needs partial amounts weighed and sorted by production unit recipe (tomato sauce needed in both main production and salad unit, therefore, one can used instead of two partial cans)
Time Series Forecasting Model
involves the assumption that actual occurrences follow an identifiable pattern over time -specific relationship to time -deviations in the data make forecasting difficult -most suitable for short-term -may indicate a general trend but nothing more accurate long-term -moving average, exponential smoothing, and casual models are options
Quantity Demand (Forecasting)
knowing the estimated number of customers or number of servings of each menu item in time to order from the procurement unit -essential for smooth transition from current to future output -can vary from historical and intuition to complex models requiring large amounts of data and computer time -choosing a model suitable for a particular situation is essential
Ingredient Control
major component of quality and quantity control - critical in cost control -begins with purchasing, receiving, and storage, continues through forecasting and production -major aspects include assembly and standardized recipes
Planning for Production
managerial function that establishes a program of action for transformation of resources into products and services -manager identifies necessary resources -manager determines how the transformation process should be designed to produce the desired products and services -once developed, it's integrated with the other managerial functions of organizing and controlling -would not be effective without accurate estimating of future events (forecasting)
Factor Method for Quantity Adjustment
method that converts all ingredients including liquids into weight and decimals, then creates a conversion factor, multiples all ingredients by conversion factor, then reconverts all ingredients back to original measurements
Percentage Method for Quantity Adjustment
method that converts measurements for ingredients to weights and then the percentage of the total is computed, the portion numbers are forecasted, -this method allows for adjustment to the portion size or forecast and permits an easy shift of the ingredients because percentage is a ratio of total ingredients -easily done with a calculator and computer
Product Evaluation
part of the standardization process where determine the acceptability of the recipe by the foodservice managers, staff, and customers and whether the to proceed with further standardization -critical component -informal and formal
Recipe Verification
part of the standardization process where they review components of the recipe, make the recipe, verify the recipe yield, record changes on the recipe
Managerial Functions
planning, organizing, and controlling -overlapping functions and cannot be considered separately ex: manager established a schedule for preparation times to prevent vegetables from being overcooked (controlling), but an employee calls in sick so must revise schedule quickly (planning) and that task must be reassigned. The content of jobs must all be analyzed or be sure all tasks are covered (organizing).
Sweet Spot in Pricing
point of best value at the lowest cost - the size or capacity of equipment from which the buyer gets the best value and lowest cost per menu item produced equipment is the highest cost item but saving a few dollars isn't necessarily going to save in the long run -selecting equipment based on criterion can offer far more savings than just the lowest price
Sustainable Production Practices
practices that include locally grown products, waste reduction, and resource conservation
Production Subsystems Objective
primary objective is to transform human, material, facility, operational resources into outputs secondary objectives: -product/service characteristics -process characteristics -efficiency: effective employee relations and cost control of labor, material, and facility use -customer service: producing quantities to meet expected demand, meeting the delivery dates for products or services
Production Controls
process of ensuring that plans have been followed comparing what is set out to do with what was done and taking corrective action as needed directly related to control of costs and profit (commercial) or budgetary constraints (non-profit) quality control; time and temperature; product yield; portion control; product evaluation
Recipe Standardization
process of tailoring a recipe to suit a particular purpose in a specific foodservice operati0on -developed for use by a given foodservice operation and found to produce consistent results and yield each time it is prepared the most important responsibility of a production manager -time-consuming task, but essential to food cost and selling price -employee training and supervision critical to maintaining product quality and uniformity essential to limited-menu changes does not eliminate variations in food and ingredient substitutions will affect the final product
Production Schedule
production worksheet the major control in the production subsystem - activates the menu and provides a test of forecasting accuracy -every foodservice operation, however small, must have a daily production schedule to control both labor and food costs -highly individualized but always includes: the unit, production date, meal, actual customer count, weather, special events, employee assignment, prep timetable, quantity to prepare, substitutions, actual yield, special instructions
Forecasting Production Demand
products must be available for producing menu items for customers primary result: customer satisfaction - customers expect to receive what ordered food cost: both overproduction and underproduction affect the bottom line
Subjective Forecasting Model
qualitative approach to forecasting used when relevant data is scarce or patterns and relationships do not tend to persist over time -rely on opinions and other qualitative information that might relate to the item being forecasted -includes Delphi technique (not suitable for foodservice) -other techniques include: market research, panel consensus, visionary forecast, historical analogy
Standardized Recipes
recipe that consistently delivers the same quantity and quality of a product when followed precisely
Locally Grown Products
restaurants are serving more local produce, organically grown, and sustainable seafood 86% fine dining 30-50% onsite
Ingredient Room Organization and Staffing
room design should be between storage and production areas, nearer to storage -most essential equipment includes scales and countertop and shelving - other equipment varies by type of service the more activities that are centralized, then the greater the realized benefits staffing - must be literate, able to do simple math, familiar with storage facilities - responsible for receiving, storage, and ingredient assembly training - environmental condition requirements; ventilation and humidity factors; safety precautions in handling food and toxic materials; security against stealing; weighing and measuring procedures
Action Stage of Production Scheduling
supervisors in the work centers (ex: main production, salad unit, bakery unit) assume the responsibility by preparing a production schedule and give feedback to managers
Food Production Objective
the preparation of menu items in the needed quantity and the desired quality, at a cost appropriate to the particular foodservice operation
Underproduction (Forecasting)
the production of less food than is needed for service, can increase cost -customers disappointed if menu item unavailable, have difficulty making another selection -may involve high labor costs and possible substitution of a more expensive ingredient -similar backup items to be available in case of underproduction, better customer satisfaction than bottom line at that point (if grilled meat patties run out, frozen minute steaks are an acceptable substitution)
Overproduction (Forecasting)
the production of more food than is needed -generates extra cost: salvage not always easy, leftovers spoil easily and lose quality -policies and procedures should be well defined and rigorously enforced -salvage efforts incur high labor costs -customer suspect of using leftovers may damage image
Demand Data (Moving Average Model)
the quantities of a commodity or a service that people are willing and able to buy at various prices, over a given period of time
Induction
the use of electrical magnetic fields to excite molecules of metal cooking surface - no open flame, burner does not get hot - molecules in the pan are activated to heat the food fast, even, clean
Direct Reading Measurement Tables Method for Quantity Adjustment
this method uses premade tables that are simple and quick to use - no calculations required ex: a recipe calling for 100 portions of beef can easily be converted to 225 portions
Operating in the Black
when revenue minus expenses is a positive value
Food Production Objectives
three primary reasons food is cooked 1. destruction of harmful microorganisms, making food safer for human consumption. Includes methods of the time, method, type of food, and type and concentration of organism 2. increased digestibility 3. change and enhancement of aesthetics: flavor, form, color, texture, and aroma important adequate controls throughout the preparation, production, and service processes
Quantity Adjustment (Standardization)
three procedures have been developed to alter recipes Factor Method Percentage Method Direct Reading Measurement Tables
Production Scheduling
time sequencing of events required by the production subsystem to produce a meal -two phases: planning and action -essential for production control
Exponential Smoothing Forecasting Model
time series model set up on a computer spreadsheet using an exponentially decreasing set of weights to give recent values more weight than older ones -does not uniformly weigh past observations -data: weights, alpha judgement factors, the last forecast -eliminates the need to store historical data
Moving Average Forecasting Model
time series model that uses a repetitive process for developing trend line by averaging the number of servings for a specified number of times, dropping the oldest and adding the newest number for subsequent points. -demand data, smooth data and moving average values plotted -point one: takes an average of the number of portions sold for the last 5 or more times the menu item was offered -point two: dropping the first number and adding the most recent portions sold then calculating the average
Types of Forecasting Models
time series, casual, subjective -some may include features of others but ALL include trends and seasonality
Conduction
transfer of heat through direct contact from one object or substance to another -can occur in all three states -metals are good conductors but different metals conduct heat at different rates -primary means in grilling, boiling, frying and to some degree baking and roasting
Converting from Weight to Measure
weight = pounds, oz, grams measurements = cups, volume,
Portion Control
an essential control in production. the achievement of uniform serving sizes (important for cost and customer satisfaction) operation should develop guides (proper tools and portioning) to be used by production personnel important principles: -foods purchased accurately by exact specifications -using standardized recipes -using proper tools and techniques during all aspects of production and service (knowing size and yield of all pans, dishers, ladles) equipment quality: good quality SS to prevent corrosion, ensure long-lasting service, and dishwasher safe; ergonomic; color-coded by size; heat resistant as needed equipment: spoons (etc), scales, slicers,
Cooking Losses
decrease in yield of many foods in production primarily because of moisture loss
Characteristics of the Product
menu items depend upon the type of operation -closely related to process because both determine quality of the product and service -along with efficiency and process, leads to customer service
Smooth Data (Moving Average Model)
statistical technique for removal of short-term irregularities in a time-series data to improve the accuracy of forecasts -an average of what happened in the past, does not factor in special events, holidays, and weather -an approximating function that attempts to capture important patterns in the data, while leaving out noise or other fine-scale structures/rapid phenomena
