Forestry (States)

a mature oak tree pumps water from the soil and can transpire how many gallons of water into the atmosphere during a hot summer day?

100 or more, allowing the soil to store additional runoff

log

16 feet

amount of forested land in NC

18.6 million acres; #13 in U.S. (forests continue to cover about 60 percent of the State's land area)

global amount of timber cut each year used for heating and cooking (in the form of fuel wood and charcoal)

55%

amount of land classified as forestland in the US in 2008

751 million acres of land (33% of the total land area)

percent of forested land used for timber production

97% (18.1 million acres)

ecotone

An area where two ecosystems in different stages of succession meet. Ecotones are often home to a wide variety of wildlife. By providing different types of vegetation, these areas are better able to meet more habitat needs for food and cover for an increased variety of species. Ecotones not only have a wider variety of wildlife, but they also usually have a high population density of wildlife, which is more animals living in a smaller area. These two characteristics (the greater variety of wildlife and greater population density) are collectively known as the edge effect.

phloem

the soft and moist inner bark located just outside of the cambium; it carries food made in the leaves down to the branches, trunk and roots

coniferous

Coniferous trees are gymnosperms or plants that have "naked seeds." These plants produce seeds on the scales of woody strobili called cones. The seeds are not protected by a fruit. The tree produces both male and female cones with the male cones usually lower on the tree and the female cones higher to keep pollen from fertilizing its own seed. It takes about 2 years for a pine tree to go from pollen to a fully developed seed inside of a female cone. Coniferous trees, or softwoods, make up 32% of the forests found in North Carolina.

measuring tree height with a Biltmore stick

1. Pace off 66 feet, or one chain, in a straight line away from the upper side of the tree. 2. Hold the stick vertically 25 inches away from you with the end of the stick level with the base of the tree. 3. Using the scale on the stick count the number of 16 foot logs that could be made from the tree. Use your best judgment in determining what part of a log any area left would be. 4. To determine height in feet multiply the number of logs by 16 and then add any partial log (in feet) that may exist.

NC forests

"...North Carolina remains forested with some of the most diverse forest types and the widest range of species occurring in North America" (especially in the Appalachians; the biodiversity in this region is why the far western portion of the state, part of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, is included in the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory being conducted to identify what experts estimate as over 100,000 species of plants/animals living there and experts feel that fewer than 10 percent have been identified)

whole tree harvesting

A controversial type of clear-cutting: in tub grinding whole tree harvesting, machines cut the tree at ground level or sometimes even uproot the entire tree. The tree is then cut into wood chips by a machine. This method is only used for site preparation for development or construction, and it causes severe ecological damage. No large roots remain to hold the soil in place, greatly increasing erosion. Dead and fallen logs are also removed, causing the loss of many wildlife habitats and decreasing the amount of nutrients returned to the soil and available for use by plants that survive. The forestry practice of whole tree chipping uses only the live wood cut off at ground level. It does not remove dead wood or forest litter, thus it does not result in the same environmental damage.

reforestation

A fairly common practice, reforestation is the replanting of trees after harvesting. Two methods can be used: planting seedlings or allowing for natural regeneration. Reforestation by planting seedling is usually done for stands of conifers, while hardwoods are left to natural seed dispersal and sprouting regeneration. Conifers are planted because they grow quickly and can grow in poorer quality soils. Most reforestation uses nursery stock and allows for genetically stronger trees to be grown. These species are generally stronger and more resistant to disease and pests. Reforestation produces even-aged stands of trees.

Dutch Elm Disease

A fungal disease that has been killing elm trees. It is carried by bark beetles and slowly kills the trees by stopping up the vascular tubes. Today, most fungal diseases don't create the threat of extinction, but this has not always been the case (chestnut blight).

Emerald Ash Borer

A new comer from Asia and found in Michigan in 2002. In 2014 it has expanded its range to include over 24 states and Canada. The larvae kill the ash tree by girdling the tree. It was found in North Carolina in 2013 in several northern counties.

Sudden Oak Death

A new disease which began in California by killing oak trees. It is an invasive and is killing oak trees and several other species.

Oak Wilt

A stem disease that attacks most oak species, particularly the red oaks, wilt causes the tree's leaves to die from the edges inward. Defoliation progresses from the outer limbs, inward and down.

seed tree cutting

A type of clear cutting: all of the trees are cut except for some good quality, seed bearing trees. These trees are left to reseed and repopulate the area, allowing for more natural succession to take place. Seed tree cutting is usually used with trees that bear seed often and have the ability to disperse their seeds over a wide area. Foresters leave between four and ten large trees per acre. In most cases these trees are able to repopulate the forest in a reasonable amount of time.

strip cutting

Another type of clear-cutting: a strip of trees is cut along the contour of the land. The strip is narrow enough so that natural regeneration will happen after a few years. After regeneration has occurred, another narrow strip in the stand is clear-cut and the process cycles through again. Strip cutting allows for a stand to be clear-cut over a few decades. It causes less destruction of habitat for wildlife, lessens the amount of erosion and water pollution, and does not leave a large, ugly scar like regular clear cutting.

dominant crown

Crowns of larger trees, forming upper level of the canopy and receiving light from above and partially from the sides. These trees are also referred to as emergent.

deciduous

Deciduous trees have broad leaves that they lose during one season of the year, usually autumn. In fact, the term comes from the Latin word deciduous, "to fall off." These trees have a growing season that last about six months. During this time, usually in the spring and summer, the tree has leaves and is growing rapidly and storing food to be used during the fall and winter months. This food is stored in the tree's trunk, branches, and roots. In the autumn the shortening days cause a chemical change within the tree that causes the leaves to change color and eventually fall off. Deciduous trees are dormant and do not grow during the winter months. In the spring, warmer temperatures and longer days trigger another chemical change that causes leaves to once again grow. These new leaves immediately start to produce food for the tree to use and to store for the next winter. North Carolina has more species of deciduous trees than any other state in the United States. Hardwood trees make up 68% of the forests found in our state.

Water Pollution Control Act - 1972

EPA provided information to control pollution from silviculture practices

selective cutting

Generally used in uneven-aged stands, it involves cutting individual or small groups of large, mature trees in order to provide better conditions for the remaining trees. It creates small gaps in the canopy that allow for more sunlight to reach the forest floor and thus encourages the growth of other trees. After a few years have passed, more trees can be cut. Selective cutting is beneficial in many ways, because it allows for the continued growth of the uneven-aged stand and promotes growth of younger trees while reducing crowding. It encourages the natural re-growth of native plants in the forest. Selective cutting causes less soil erosion and decreases the amount of damage done by wind while providing a more diverse habitat for wildlife. Some negative aspects of selective cutting are: it produces less money than other harvesting methods, it requires planning and skill, it can cause damage to the remaining trees, and it requires more frequent human disturbance.

Dr. Carl Schenck

German forester who worked for the Biltmore Estate and founded the first American school of forestry, the Biltmore Forest School ("Cradle of Forestry"), in 1898

forest types

Elevation is a major factor in determining where each type of forest will occur. Other factors that play a role include: the general topography, the amount of annual rainfall, soil type and depth and exposure to the elements, such as sun, wind and harsh weather.

downed logs

Important micro-ecosystem in a mature forest that becomes habitat for a variety of bacteria, fungi, and insects, which live under its bark or within its tissues. Downed logs are used by wildlife for nesting, foraging, roosting, perching, hiding, feeding, and displays. A wide range of animals from insectivorous birds to game animals uses these logs. Woodland salamanders may lay their eggs under the moist decaying log, snakes may hide under or in them, rabbits may use holes in them to hide, insects, spiders, shrews, squirrels may sit upon them eating a nut, birds use them looking for insects to eat, lizards, and many more animals. Downed logs are also important because as bacteria and fungi, the main decomposers, break them down, essential nutrients are returned to the forest ecosystem to aid the growth of new vegetation. Some new trees, ferns, or weeds may actually be found growing on the downed logs.

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid

Invasive insect from Asia. Feeds only on hemlocks and kills them. Hemlocks are ecologically important as a riparian species where they keep the mountain streams cold and allow the trout to survive. Shade tolerant species that has survived for thousands of years and has developed a large ecosystem which benefits many bird and animal species.

co-dominant crown

Medium-sized crowns that form the general crown cover or canopy and receive sunlight from above.

mountain cove forests

Mountain cove forests are found in the remote areas of the North Carolina Mountains. They are home to some of the oldest, largest trees in the state. Their rugged and remote location has saved them from logging and other human development. Common trees in the mountain cove forests are tulip poplar, yellow buckeye, hemlock, and sugar maple. Other plant life found in this ecosystem includes trilliums, may apples, yellow-flowered violets, and foam flowers. Many ferns grow in this area, including the walking fern and the Christmas fern. The mountain cove forest is also home to a wide variety of wildlife, such as the black bear, bobcat, and a large number of salamander species - including the red-spotted (or Eastern) newt. These forests provide a temporary home for a wide variety of migratory songbirds.

fire-dependent ecosystems

One such ecosystem, found in North Carolina, is the long leaf pine forest. Organisms found in fire dependent ecosystems often have special adaptations that enable them to survive the fire and/or use the fire to their advantage. In the past, fire has burned the long leaf forest, on average, once every three to five years. To survive fire, the long leaf pine has an unusual growth pattern: During the first few years of its life, known as the "grass stage," it doesn't appear to be growing. It looks like a small clump of needles growing from the ground. The actual tip of the tree is not visible, because it is surrounded by dense needles. The real growth is going on underground. It sends a thick and sturdy taproot deep down into the soil. This large root provides all the water and nutrients the young tree needs and firmly anchors it in place. If a fire burns through the area during this stage, it may burn up the needles that protect the tip, but rarely burns the actual tip of the tree. The burned needles are quickly regrown by the young tree. Usually after seven or eight years, noticeable growth begins. The long leaf may grow three to four feet a year once it begins the pole stage of its life. The tree is tall enough after one year's growth for its growth tip to escape wildfires, provided there is not much fuel on the forest floor. Another adaptation is the thick bark of the mature tree, which protects the inner, living tissue from harm. The fires stop natural succession by killing young turkey, blackjack, and post oak that would eventually prevent the growing long leaf pines from receiving enough sunlight. The seeds of the long leaf pine need cleared ground to reach the soil and germinate. The fire clears the forest floor and returns nutrients to the soil, favoring the tree's reproductive success. Some other pine species are also adapted to fire; the cones of the pond pine will open and drop their seeds only in the heat created by fires.

high grading or creaming

One type of selective cutting, which is not an ecologically good harvesting practice: involves removing the best quality trees in a stand, leaving genetically inferior stock to repopulate the area. It is commonly used in areas with a tropical forest. It is no longer a common practice in the U.S. High grading usually ends up injuring one-third to two-thirds of the other trees in the forest. Damage can be caused by the equipment used to harvest and remove larger trees or by falling trees. Some of the injured trees are knocked down. Others have branches and/or bark removed. These injuries make the remaining trees more susceptible to insects and diseases.

shelter-wood cutting

One type of selective cutting: harvests the mature trees in an area over a period of time in several cuttings. It usually occurs over a period of ten years and consists of two or three cuts spaced at least two years apart. The first cut removes the tallest trees, as well as any smaller trees that are damaged or diseased. The removal of these trees allows for more sunlight to reach the forest floor and thus causes the growth of new seedlings and other plants, as well as improving the health of the forest. A few years later, the second cut is made. By this time, many new trees have begun to grow. More of the canopy trees are harvested during this cut; however, some large trees are left to protect the young trees. Several years later, the final cut is made where all of the remaining mature trees are harvested. The younger trees in the stand are then left to grow as an even-aged stand.

Fusiform Rust

Rusts usually affect the stem, the trunk and the branches of the tree and cause galls, or swollen growths. Fungal galls usually have a rougher outer covering and may look like they are covered by warts. Insect galls on the other hand, are usually smaller and have a smooth outer covering. Rusts are a problem for coniferous trees. It mostly affects loblolly and slash pines. Trees with fungal galls should be removed as soon as possible to stop the fungus from spreading. Fusiform rust is the main one in loblolly pine. Trees with insect galls do not necessarily have to be removed, because they generally pose no immediate threat to the other trees. In the spring when the fungus starts to produce spores, the gall will turn a bright orange.

human threats to forests

Over 95% of the forests that once covered the U.S. have been cut. Our industrialized, heavily fossil fuel dependent activities produce air pollution, a major threat to forests in some parts of the country. Acid rain and deposition cause leaf damage and acidification of the soil resulting in weakened, less resistant trees. Damage to the trees is mainly through their foliage, and conifers are affected more than hardwoods. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, chlorine, and fluoride are known defoliators. Any damage to a tree's bark during logging or other human activities, opens the tree to infestation by insects or disease. Man is responsible for the majority of forest fires.

piedmont stream forests

Piedmont stream forests are common in North Carolina. They often vary a great deal in size. There may be only a small strip of trees surrounding a stream, or they may be a much larger stand of trees with a stream running through it. No matter the size, they provide a home for a large number and variety of wildlife species. In fact, they are home to about half of the 200 species considered to be endangered, threatened, or of special concern in North Carolina. Some plants found within the piedmont stream forest are oaks, hickories, red and silver maples, river birch, persimmon, ferns, vines, weeds, bushes, and many types of wildflowers. Common animals in the piedmont stream forest include the southern leopard frog, salamanders, mink, turtles, deer, opossum, raccoon, southern short-tailed shrew, big brown bat, and southern flying squirrel. Fresh water mussels are often found in the streams of these forests. Many of the animals in the piedmont stream forest are nocturnal. The piedmont stream forest is important because it is often the only remaining habitat for wildlife in some cities. They provide a long "edge" habitat. These areas serve as cafeterias and highways for many wildlife species, making them important areas for food supply and movement from one area to another through highly developed regions. Many of the rarest mussels are found in piedmont streams, and these forests act as a buffer and help protect the area's water quality.

site index

Site index is a measurement of the overall quality of the soil of a particular stand of trees. It is based on the height of the dominant trees at a specific age. In the eastern United States this age is set at 50 years old. In the western United States site index is measured when the trees are 100 years old. Each tree species has its own site index. Charts have been made that determine what the site index is, and you simply read the chart. For example, a site index of 70 would mean that after 50 years the trees in the area would reach an average height of 70 feet.

overtopped crown

Small trees with crowns below the canopy, receiving no direct sunlight. These may also be referred to as oppressed, or as suppressed when they are not growing or are dying.

intermediate crown

Small-crowned, shorter trees with crowns that just reach into the general canopy and receive little direct sunlight. These may also be referred to as the understory.

clear-cutting

Some of its benefits include: an increase in overall timber yield, trees that are genetically stronger or more well suited to the site may be planted, helps animals needing early successional growth, requires less skill and planning; and provides timber companies with the most money in the shortest amount of time. One other positive aspect of clear-cutting is that it requires very little road building. Some negative aspects of clear-cutting include ugly patches of forest, habitat fragmentation, altered wildlife habitat which benefits early successional species, increased rate of erosion, and increased amount of sediment in the water causing an overall decrease in the water quality. In some cases, clear-cutting makes surrounding areas more prone to flooding because living trees store water. In certain situations clear-cutting may be the best method of tree harvesting; an example would be stands that are full of mature or over mature trees or species that are not desirable.

spruce fir forests

Spruce fir forests, or boreal forests, are common in the northwestern part of the United States and New England. In North Carolina, they only exist at the highest elevations, above 5,500 feet. This is a coniferous forest composed mostly of Fraser fir and red spruce. At first glance, these trees may look similar, but their leaves are actually very different. The leaves of the Fraser fir are flat, narrow, and straight. The leaves of the red spruce are more needle-like, pointy, and slightly curved. The climate and vegetation of these forests are different from elsewhere in the state, and many of its species are unique or unusual. It is the southernmost limit of the range for the tiny saw-whet owl, and it provides habitat for a subspecies of Northern flying squirrel. Today, the spruce fir forest is slowly being destroyed by air pollution and acid rain. It is thought that the air pollution is weakening the trees allowing the Balsam woolly adelgid to finally kill the fir trees. It is important that we protect this unique forest, because it provides habitat for many endangered and threatened species, as well as, species of special concern. These include the Northern flying squirrel, Weller's salamander, long-tailed shrew, Rugel's ragwort, spreading avens, and Heller's blazing star.

Pine Sawfly

The caterpillars of the sawfly feed on pine needles leaving just stubs. The trees may be stunted or deformed, and serious infestations may kill young pines.

roots

The five primary functions of roots are to anchor the tree in the ground to provide support, to store food for future growth, to take in nutrients and water from the soil, to transport the water, nutrients, hormones and sugars, and they produce some hormones. Roots tend to grow in two patterns: surface-rooted and deep-rooted. Surface-rooted trees extend roots laterally in a wide area below the tree. Deep-rooted trees have taproots that extend down into the soil strata. Larger roots grow smaller roots called rootlets, which act as an extension of themselves. In many species, the rootlets grow even smaller, fine, hair-like roots called root hairs, which take in nutrients and water from the soil.

forest distribution

The forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains are unsurpassed for their plant and animal biodiversity. Traveling up the mountain slopes from valley to the highest peaks is the ecological equivalent to a trip from North Carolina through New England and into Canada. This represents a trip of over a thousand miles. The southeastern portion of the state is dominated by pine forests of loblolly, pond, and longleaf pines. Historically the area was dominated by longleaf pine forest on most upland soils. Hardwood species, such as oak, gum and cypress, dominate in the flood plains and riverine swamps of the southeast. Mixed forests types including pine, hardwoods and mixed hardwood-pine forests cover the northeastern portion of North Carolina. In the piedmont region of the state, pine forests and hardwood forests dominated by oaks and hickories are predominant. Historically much of this region would have been oak-hickory forests.

Gypsy Moth

The gypsy moth is an exotic species that mainly attacks deciduous trees. First introduced in the United States in 1869 by a French scientist living in Massachusetts, it continues to spread south and west. The gypsy moth is the most destructive defoliator in the U.S. It is only harmful to trees during the larval, or caterpillar, stage of its life. This stage begins as leaves start to emerge. When they have eaten all the leaves from their host tree, they crawl away and find another tree. The mature moth lays its eggs on or near hardwood trees so the new larvae will have an immediate food source when they hatch. The adult gypsy moth dies shortly after it has laid its eggs. Tree species most commonly attacked by the gypsy moth larvae are oaks, apple, sweet gum, speckled alder, basswood, gray and white birch, poplar, willow, and hawthorn; but hungry larvae will eat leaves of most other trees including conifers. Some trees and shrubs appear to be resistant to the gypsy moth larvae, including ash, yellow poplar, sycamore, butternut, black walnut, catalpa, flowering dogwood, balsam fir, red cedar, American holly, mountain laurel, rhododendron, and arborvitae. The real danger to trees happens when they are attacked by gypsy moths several years in a row, preventing the tree from making adequate food through photosynthesis because the larvae defoliate the trees.

heartwood

The heartwood is made up of old cells that are actually dead. It is usually darker in color than the other parts of the tree's trunk. The major purpose of the heartwood is to provide support and to strengthen the tree. In most trees, the heartwood is the largest part in the cross section of the tree. Finally, the very center of a tree's trunk is called the pith.

sandhills' longleaf pine forest

The longleaf pine forest found in the coastal plain is a fire dependent ecosystem. Fire is necessary for the native plants and animals to survive and not be taken over by other species. Many of the organisms found here have developed adaptations that allow them to survive fire and grow in spite of it. The dominant tree is the longleaf pine. Its dependence on and adaptations to fire have been discussed previously. Other plants found in the longleaf pine forest are turkey oak, Michaux's sumac, wiregrass, and sandworts. Some animals of the longleaf pine forest are the red-cockaded woodpecker, fox squirrel, gray fox, pigmy rattlesnake, Eastern diamondback rattlesnake, Carolina anole, tree frogs, and Eastern king snake. The longleaf pine forest once covered much of the coastal part of the Southeastern United States from North Carolina through Florida. Much of this habitat has been lost, and the longleaf forest is quickly disappearing. The forests were cut for naval stores, harvested for timber, and cleared for development and other human activities.

mature and overly mature forests

The mature forest is characterized by trees of large diameter and a diverse understory. Development of the understory may result from the natural thinning process that removes suppressed or damaged trees, due to disease or insects, or selective timber harvesting. The falling of larger trees allows more sunlight to reach the midstory or forest floor. This light encourages the growth of woodland wildflowers, ferns, herbs, and shrubs containing berries such as huckleberry and blueberry. Wildlife benefits from the understory development. Mature forests may remain for a century or more until disease, insects, age, pollution or other factors begin the cycle again. An important component of a mature forest for wildlife is the snags, which are standing dead or partially dead trees. Mature forests also have cavity trees, or den trees. These are live trees that have at least one nesting site. Mature, large trees with some type of damage, such as broken off tops, large broken off branches, large wounds or scars, or holes make good cavity nesting trees. These trees can provide permanent shelter for squirrels, raccoons, opossums, flying squirrels, owls, or even gray foxes. They are also the sites favored for seasonal dens by North Carolina's black bear. These forests also offer a wide variety of recreational opportunities and produce good saw timber for homebuilding/furniture.

middle-aged forests

The middle-aged forest is made up of trees of relatively small diameter. Some of the grasses, weeds, and shrubs have been shaded out giving this forest the characteristic of a more open woodland area. This period usually ranges from 10 to 70 years. As the forest develops, leaf litter begins covering the forest floor and the brushy cover understory and food for small wildlife becomes scarcer. The midstory tree level produces an increased amount of mast, seeds and fruits, including wild cherry, wild grape, mulberry, hickory nuts, holly berries, persimmon, beech nuts, sassafras, black walnuts, acorns, black gum, pecans and flowering dogwood.

Southern Pine Beetle

The southern pine beetle is about the size of a single grain of rice, but it is the most damaging insect, causing millions of dollars of damage to southern pines each year. It mainly feeds on the loblolly, shortleaf, pitch, and Virginia pines, but it will feed on any pine tree that is dead, dying, or weakened by some other force of nature. Pine trees are often attacked by more than one type of beetle at the same time. Each beetle attacks a different section of the tree; the southern pine beetle is usually found in the lower portion of the tree just above the stump while the Ips beetle are usually found higher up on the tree's trunk. It can kill a pine tree by itself. It does this by boring through the bark of the tree and making galleries, or paths, which look like the letter S. Females lay their eggs on the sides of these galleries. When their eggs hatch, the larvae eat through the cambium, or living part, of the tree. This stops the flow of water and nutrients to other parts of the tree, killing it. The adult beetles also eat the cambium of the tree. Blue stain fungus, which lives inside the beetle, is excreted in its waste and hastens the tree's death by also blocking water and nutrient intake. The first signs of an attack are small lumps of pitch on the outside of a pine tree. These pitch tubes are about the same size as a kernel of popcorn. When the beetle bores into the bark, the tree produces pitch to try to keep the beetle out. Weakened trees cannot produce enough pitch to keep the beetles out. The next symptom is the small S shape paths, or galleries, found on the inside of the bark. The last and most noticeable symptom is the needles changing from a healthy green color to yellow, red, or brown in color. Once the needles of the tree have started to change colors, there is little that can be done to save the tree.

Black Turpentine Beetle

The turpentine beetle is the largest beetle pest. They are usually about a fourth of an inch in length but can be up to a half of an inch in length. It is the largest but it causes less damage than the Ips and southern pine beetles, although in recent years, it has become a more serious forest pest (stress on trees, natural and man-made, has increased tree susceptibility). This beetle is typically less destructive, because smaller groups of beetles attack smaller groups of trees each year. They tend to live in and attack the lower portion of a tree, and will sometimes even make their homes in tree stumps that have just been cut. Trees that are weakened or dead and dying are the ones that are typically attacked. The distinguishing mark of the turpentine beetle is that its galleries do not look like a letter; the galleries of a turpentine beetle are usually just wandering paths that take on no particular shape. They can also be distinguished because they attack only the bottom portion of the tree. The pitch tubes of the turpentine beetle are often shaped like a thumb. Methods of control include spraying insecticide or, more preferable, logging the infected trees.

wedge prism

The wedge prism is used to determine which trees should be counted in a timber cruise sample. It eliminates the need for sample plots and individual tree measurements used in traditional cruising. The prism allows for point-sampling to select trees to count based on their size rather than on frequency as in traditional cruising. The prism provides one of the easiest methods for estimating basal area, or cross- sectional area of trees at breast height. The basal area is used to determine the degree of stocking of a stand of trees, the amount of timber to remove in thinning an over-stocked stand, and timber volume.

bottomland hardwood forests

These forests are composed of deciduous trees that grow in the floodplains of rivers and streams. The bottomland forest floods annually and is home to special trees like the tupelo gum and bald cypress. On the higher drier areas, oaks, sycamore, beech, hickories, elm, and sweet gum trees grow. The bald cypress looks similar to a coniferous tree because of its needle-like leaves, but it is actually a deciduous tree. It is related to the giant redwoods and sequoias found in the western part of the United States. The bald cypress grows knobs that are known as "cypress knees." These knees grow straight up from the roots and help the tree taken in oxygen when the area is flooded. Cypress knees can grow as tall as five feet. Bald cypress trees in general can be quite large. They can grow to five or six feet in diameter, well over one hundred feet tall, and be 500 to 600 years old. The oldest bald cypress trees are found along the Black River and are estimated to be more than 1,600 years old. Bottomland hardwood forests are home to a wide variety of plant and animal species. Common animals are wild turkey, barred owl, pileated woodpecker, water moccasin, bobcat, great blue heron, wood duck, and migratory birds and waterfowl. Common plant species are sedges, wild grapes, privet, and giant cane. Trees of the forest include cherrybark, willow, water, overcup and shumard oaks, black willow, sycamore, sweet gum, pawpaw, shagbark and water hickories, and red and silver maples.

Tent Caterpillars

These insects often cause much defoliation of hardwoods, but are not presently a very injurious forest pest in the South. Eastern tent caterpillars in the spring and fall web worms in the fall.

Annosus Root Rot

This disease is caused by a fungus and attacks a wide range of conifers. Red cedar is especially prone to attack. This disease starts when the fungi spores enter the stump left after a tree has been cut. From there, the fungus works its way down to the roots. The disease is spread as the roots of infected trees come in contact with the roots of other trees.

young forests and openings

This forest results from a disturbance or land-use change and ranges in age up to 10 years. Hurricanes, tornadoes, ice storms, fire, or human actions, such as abandoning fields or pastures, or logging and reseeding can be the causes of this age of forest. The young forest has many young trees, weeds, wildflowers, native grasses, and some shrubs and brambles. The plants and characteristics of this forest provide food and cover for wild turkeys, rabbits, grouse, deer, bear, and many songbirds including bluebirds, goldfinches, song sparrows, and indigo buntings. Insects are plentiful, making these excellent areas for birds to raise and feed their broods.

Red Heart/Red Ring Rot

This fungus attacks and decays the heartwood of the tree. It can attack almost all conifers and often infects long-leaf pines. Long leaf pine trees infected by red heart disease provide habitat for one of North Carolina's endangered species, the red cockaded woodpecker. This disease is most damaging in the south in mature and over mature pines. The best way to prevent infestation is to reduce wounding of trees from logging, fire, or other actions and to harvest when tree matures.

Heart Rot

This fungus is the single most damaging disease to merchantable hardwood timber.

IPS Beetle

Trees that are weakened, dying, or recently fallen are susceptible to attack by the Ips beetle. It is often the first beetle to attack a pine forest weakened by a drought. Ips beetles only attack pine trees. An attack of the Ips beetle on a pine is usually not noticed until long after the beetles have damaged the tree. The first noticeable sign of the Ips beetle is that the needles of the trees start to turn yellow or red in color. The bark of the tree may also have small holes that are surrounded by red or yellow dust. The needles change colors and die because the beetles and blue stain fungus introduced into the tree by the beetles cut off the supply of water and nutrients to the crown of the tree and its needles. Another sign of the Ips beetle is patterns, or galleries, on the inside side of bark that looks like the letters Y or H. These patterns are the places where the beetles laid their eggs. The best way to prevent Ips beetle attacks is to limit the number of weakened, dead, or dying trees in an area.

Balsam Woolly Adelgid

This sap sucking, tip-feeding insect is primarily a concern for North Carolina's Christmas tree growers. They are invasive from Europe. Mortality rates have been 90-99%.

Asian Gypsy Moth

This strain of gypsy moth was introduced aboard a military cargo ship into Wilmington, N.C. This version of the gypsy moth is perhaps a greater threat to forests, because they are very good flyers and may spread quickly.

isolated crown

Trees growing in the open with little or no competition.

chain

a chain is equal to 66 feet, eighty chains equal one mile, ten square chains equal one acre, and one square mile equals 640 acres

board foot

an imaginary piece of wood measuring 12 inches long by 12 inches wide and 1 inch thick, equaling 144 cubic inches of wood or lumber; board feet are determined using diameter measurements and the number of logs a tree will produce (there are tables on most Biltmore sticks that convert these into board feet)

seeds travel through...

animals, wind, water, gravity (especially in mountains where nuts roll downhill), and special adaptations which shoot seeds from enclosed pods (usually in plants other than trees)

percent of the world's forests currently managed for wood production

approximately 25%

forests that can tolerate the conditions of the state's highest slopes

boreal forests or spruce-fir forests

ecological benefits of trees

control of runoff, prevention of soil erosion, forest soil development, retention of snow melt, flood prevention and water flow, positive influence on climate, the cycling of essential nutrients, removal of air/other pollutants, wildlife habitat, improved water quality and fish environment, noise abatement, greenbelts for moisture storage zone, reduction of wind erosion, provision of food for streams, reduction of glare and reflection, as well as social, recreational, and aesthetic value

diameter

diameter is measured at 4 and 1/2 feet, or diameter at breast height (DBH) directly across the tree, and on the uphill side of the tree

backfires

fires intentionally set to burn toward the fire, eliminate fuel from its path, and create a firebreak to slow or stop the wildfire

ground wildfire

fires that burn close to or beneath the forest floor, burning the organic material on and within the soil, such as peat

surface wildfire

fires that burn the litter on the forest floor: leaves, branches, and other debris

crown wildfire

fires that burn the tops, or crowns, of trees often destroying the tree, and are difficult to control

pole stage

from sapling stage to limb clearing of most of the trunk and decline in height growth

seedling stage

from seed to 5-15 years, the beginning of the closing of a stand

over mature timber stage

from start of deterioration in the stand

sapling stage

from the closing of the stand to death of lower limbs and crowns well above the ground

mature timber stage

from time of complete height growth to beginning of decline in quality and volume; the tree actually starts to use more oxygen than it will produce

young timber stage

from time of slowed height growth to full height growth

if trees were planted around each house in the US...

homeowners would save an estimated 15 to 50% on heating and cooling bills

The McSweeney-McNary Law - 1928

initiated a national program of forest research and a survey of forest resources

silviculture

managing a stand of trees for a specific purpose and to meet certain needs of an area or wishes of the individual who owns the stand; to accomplish this, a management plan with management objectives is the first step (things that may be considered in a forest management plan are wildlife habitat, protection of the watershed, recreational uses, aesthetic value, and the production of timber)

The Clarke-McNary Law - 1924

offered additional help for fire protection, production and distribution of nursery stock, and assistance in farm forestry

The Norris-Doxey Cooperative Farm Forestry Act - 1937

offered federal financial assistance to provide technical services to landowners in the management, harvesting, and marketing of forests

In part due to the capillary motion of water, trees can lift water up through their trunks at the amazing rate of...

one hundred fifty feet an hour (during the summer a tree can lift more than a ton of water each day; gravity is the limiting factor that determines how high a tree can grow)

Emergency Conservation Work Program, later known as the C.C.C. - 1933

provided aid in reforestation, road construction, and fire control, and other activities

The Weeks Law - 1911

provided financial aid to states in forest fire protection

The National Forest Management Act - 1976

required the use of multiple-use management (an ecosystem approach)

The Forest Incentive Program - 1973

shared the cost of tree planting and forest management with small forest landowners

a belt of trees 98 feet wide and 49 feet tall has been shown to reduce highway noise by...

six to ten decibels (almost 50%)

cambium

the actual growth of the tree: a thin layer of living cells located between the phloem and xylem which produces the cells for the phloem and xylem producing a tree ring

cord of wood

the amount of lumber that exists in a stack of wood 4 foot high by 4 foot wide and 8 foot long, equaling 128 cubic feet of wood and air space; air space must be included because the trunk of the tree is round and it is impossible to eliminate all of the air space from

Dr. Franklin Hough's 1873 report "The Duty of Governments in the Preservation of Forests" resulted in....

the first appropriation for forestry in 1876 and eventually a Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture in 1881

xylem

the living wood of the tree: it carries water and raw nutrients from the roots to the crown. It also stores excess manufactured food

pruning

the removal of low-hanging vegetation to prevent the risk of ladder fuels reaching the crown

hard snags

trees that have died recently and still retain some limbs, are mostly sound in their interior, and have fairly intact outer bark

soft snags

trees that typically have no limbs, little remaining bark, and are in advanced stages of decay; they are important feeding and nesting sites for insect-eating birds

forests provide habitats for more wildlife species than any other biome in the world (T/F?)

true

a row of trees, with dense foliage, 20 feet high can reduce the speed of the wind by...

up to 400 feet

wildfires are influenced by these three major factors that determine the risk, spread, and behavior of the fire

weather, topography, and vegetation (Ground fuels are vegetation close to or built up on the forest floor. They include forest litter, such as leaves or pine needles, limbs, downed logs, and low growing plants, such as weeds, shrubs, and young trees. These fuels are the primary means for the spread of wildfire. The build-up of ground fuels poses a serious threat of wildfire. Fires that begin in forests with a heavy accumulation of fuels spread rapidly and often move up through shrubs, vines, and small trees to the tops, or crowns, of the trees. The fuels that allow the upward spread to the crowns are called ladder-fuels, and the resulting crown fires are devastating to the forest.)

percent of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere that forests take up

~90%