Gender Communications Final Exam
Separatism
Feminist group that believes that, because patriarchal culture cannot be changed or reformed, women who find it oppressive must create and live in their own women-centered communities separate from the larger culture
Promise Keepers
Begun in 1990, a Christian branch of the men's movement that calls men together to pray and commit to Christ-centered living
Nonverbal Forms: Kinesics
"all forms of body movement, excluding physical contact with another's body" - learned by preschool age - Females use more submissive gestures and take up less space (i.e. cross legs when sitting, tilt head while talking or listening, put hands in lap, yield space, sit forward in chairs) - Men take up more space use gestures to show dominance (i.e. stand with legs apart, sit outstretched, spread knees while sitting, use larger gestures, sit back in chair, hold arms away from body)
Nonverbal Forms: Territoriality
"need to establish and maintain certain spaces of one's own" - how was space divided in childhood home? i.e. dad had office, mom worked on kitchen table or in communal living space
Nonverbal Forms: Proxemics
"personal space that reflect gendered norms determined by society's values" - space designates who has status & privilege i.e. larger homes, bigger offices, nicer cars - people with power tend to invade the spaces of those with less power
Functions of nonverbal communication
(1) to supplement verbal communication (2) to regulate interaction (3) to convey the bulk of the relationship level of meaning *Responsiveness:* the dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses attentiveness to others and interest in what they say and do *Liking:* The dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses affection for another *Power:* Dimension of relationship-level meaning that expresses the degree to which a person is equal to, dominant over or deferential to others
Nonverbal Forms: Haptics
(touch) - sons touched and handled less than daughters - when touched, sons treated ,more roughly than daughters - men tend to use touch to demonstrate their power and control - women just touch to demonstrate support, affection and comfort
Growing Up Feminine
*Appearance Still Counts:* - urged to be pretty, slim and well dressed - women are judged by looks - disorders related to body image have become so common within young women they are considered "normal" - female athletes feel pressure to look and act feminine *Be Sensitive and Caring:* - expected to be nice, deferential and helpful - expected to be empathetic and care for others - encouraged to soften their opinions and to not be outspoken *Negative Treatment by Others:* - subject to sexual assault - more likely to face work discrimination - more likely to live in poverty - children learn how society values each sex *Be Superwoman:* - expected to have it all - not enough to be just a homemaker and mother or just a career woman but expected to do both
Stereotypes of Women in workplace
*Sex Object* - defines woman in terms or their sex and sexuality - i.e. Sarah Palin described as "hot" and "a babe" and Senator Hilary Clinton criticized for being not sexy and not feminine enough *Mother* - figurative and literal forms - women employee are expected to take care of "emotional labor" -- pink collar - 75% of women in the paid labor force are in traditionally female jobs (i.e. secretaries, clerks, administrative assistants- job is to take care of others like a mother) - women who have or plan to have children are taken less seriously as professionals by male employees -*maternal wall*= refer to unexamined assumptions held by coworkers and superiors about how women will behave once they become mothers *Child* - child, pet, cute- not to be taken seriously - reflects view that women are less mature and competent - "protecting women" *Iron Maiden* - woman who is independent, ambitious, directive, competitive and sometimes tough - perceived as competent but unlikeable and unfeminine - i.e. Hilary Clinton
Stereotypes of Men in Workplace
*Sturdy Oak* - self sufficient pillar of strength who is never weak or reliant on others - can hinder men in workplace because they don't want to ask others for advice or assistance when they have doubts - feel forced to act independent *Fighter* - brave warriors who go to battle - be aggressive "give em' hell" - expectation to beat the competition -must be fully committed *Breadwinner* - used to justify paying men higher wages - beings the primary or sole breadwinner for a family is central to how our society has historically judged men & how men judge themselves
1st Wave of Feminism
*Time Period*: 1840s-1925 (peak 1911 and 1916 and women won the right to vote in 1920) *Goal*: Antisuffrage and right to vote, liberal ideology *Leaders*: Lucretia Coffin Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Fredrick Douglass *Women's Rights Movement*: came into being to gain basic civil rights for women - Between 1840-1848 Mott and Stanton organized first women's rights movement, the *Seneca Falls Convention*, which was held in New York in 1848- keynote addressed entailed "Declaration of Sentiments"- was modeled on Declaration of Independence -*Cult of Domesticity*: did not agree with women's rights activist- thought women were suited for the domestic sphere because women were more moral, nurturing, concerned about others, and committed to harmony- but wanted right to vote so they could represent domestic sphere and public life --> fought to end child labor laws, end slavery and ban consumption of alcohol--> cult of domesticity was big reason women won right to vote -*Antisuffrage movement*: aimed to prevent women from gaining the right to vote - After 19th Amendment passed between 1940-1944 six million women women went to work- a 500% increase in # of women in paid labor -- BUT women's participation in workforce was halted when men returned from war - more effective and accessible methods of birth control were created - Amelia Earhart showed women could be daring and adventurous - Women's sports teams were established - Activism aimed at enlarging women's political rights - associated with abolition and suffrage - 1848: Seneca Falls Convention (liberal feminists) --> Early efforts: voting rights, gain political rights, property rights, religious freedom- to participate, access to education and employment - Both liberal and cultural feminists involved
3rd Wave of Feminism
*Time*: Mid 90s to now *Goal:* build on second wave radical and liberal feminism and insights from womanist and multicultural feminists *Leaders*: Eve Ensler's book I Am an Emotional Creature - More inclusive of all women (race, class, ability, sexual orientation, etc.) - Focus on intersectionality - Personal acts instigate change - media savvy and consumerist - challenge sexism and racism within workplace - Media used to make feminism more inclusive and more engaged - Indvidualism
2nd Wave of Feminism
*Time:* 1960-1995 *Goal*: legal, economic and social equality for women - "The personal is POLITICAL" *Leaders:* Betty Friedan- Feminine Mystique 1963 - Connotations for feminists: - Feminism= "active commitment to equality and respect for all forms of life" . . . "to become fairer, to respect differences among human beings, and to affirm the entire human race - *NOW* - National Organization for Women - 2nd wave of feminism more focus on leadership by white middle class women
Growing Up Masculine
- *Don't be female:* - "suck it up" "grow up" - learning courage and the ability to withstand pain - *Be Successful:* - breadwinner expectations - *Be Aggressive:* - take stands, be tough, don't run from confrontation - in team sports telling boys to "destroy the other team" or "make them hurt" - *Be Sexual:* - interested in sex all the time - pressure to be highly sexual with women "B.Y.O.A"- frat "Bring Your Own Ass" - *Be Self-Reliant:* - "real men" only depend on himself - don't rely on others - be self-sufficient
Gender Pressure from Peers
- Boys are encouraged by their male peers to reinforce masculine identification - Males engage in drinking and sexual activity to demonstrate their masculinity and encourage peers to do the same - often pressured to behave ways that they never would outside of the group -Female peer groups encourage and reward feminine stereotypes - girls make fun or exclude girls who aren't wearing popular brands or who weigh more - women in college face pressures to be academically successful but also to be attractive and fun - women face effortless perfection: to be beautiful, fit, popular, smart and accomplished without any visible effort
Functions of Social Media
- Gatekeepers goals=motivate us to consume Functions - Social networking - learning and sharing information - holding other accountable -activism
Gendered use of social media
- boys and men tend to use media for instrumental purposes more than girls and women - girls and women are more likely to see phone conversations and texting as ways to massage relationships
Promasculinist
- branches of the men's movements that sees feminism in conflict with men's needs and interests - masculinist: a category of men's movement that sees men as oppressed and seeks to preserve men's freedom from women and feminization
Gender and academics: Boys
- elementary school structure and role models disadvantage boys --> boys are active learners - Boys 33% more likely to drop out of high school - Earn 70% of all D's and F's assigned - Make up 2/3 of students labeled "learning disabled" - 1.5 times more likely to be held back a grade - 11th grade boys writing at same level as 8th grade girls - "role reversal" for gender discrimination in education - encouraged to think independently, be active and speak up - middle school boys rank independence and competence as important Men Out-earn Women at Higher Levels - full professors who are women earned an average $108,031 a year compared to $123,899 for their male colleagues
Gender and academics: Girls
- fewer female representations in history - socialized towards a feminine ideal - middle school girls rank popularity more important than school performance - more women attending 2-4 year colleges - standpoints differ (class, race, sex factor into graduating rates) - 60% of graduates with bachelors degree are women - women perform similarly in math and science but fewer will earn doctorates in these fields Men Out-Rank Women in U.S. Faculty Positions: - women hold 48.4% of tenure-track positions - women were more likely to be found in lower-ranking academic positions - 32.5% of women faculty are non-tenure track positions compared to 19.6% of men faculty - Raising of family negatively impacts women's academic careers Women of Color are Under- Represented in Academia: - Asian women held 4.8% of tenure-track positions and 2.6% of tenured positions - Black women held 3.7% and 2.2% - Hispanic women held 2.5% and 2.3%
Consequences of Gendered Media
- normalize unrealistic standards - normalize violence against women - portray men and women stereotypically
Nonverbal Forms: Artifacts
- personal objects that affect our identity and how we view ourselves - clothing defines women and men differently - women's clothing tends to be more decorative and restrictive - men's clothing tends to be less colorful and more functional - clothing can indicate one's status - cosmetics and jewelry convey importance of physical appearance
Children Play: "Masculine Games"
- play involves larger groups with competitive, clear cut goals, organized by rules - status is determined by being the best - communication is used to assert the self and achieve something -i.e. team sports, tag, etc.
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act
- signed into law by president Obama in 2009 - The new act states that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action
Rapport Talk (feminine communication)
- talk tends to be the center of relationships - use conversation to support and include others - often includes intimate self-disclosure - Feminine verbal communication can be tentative: -- one study found: women use more hedges, qualifiers and tag questions- can be seen as a powerless communication - others view tentativeness as inclusive Perceptions: - society tends to privilege masculine forms of public communication and devalue feminine forms of public speaking - androgynous women and men are flexible communicators who engage comfortably in both report and rapport styles of speech
Report Talk (masculine communication)
- use verbal communication to establish and maintain status - use speech to accomplish instrumental objectives - in general, masculine people express themselves in fairly direct, more authoritative ways
Gender
A *social*, symbolic construction that expresses the meanings a society associates with biological sex. Gender varies across cultures, over time within any given society, and in relation to other genders. Also called *gender roles*
Fathers 4 Justice
A British father's rights group that relies on the two rhetorical strategies of humor and dramatic stunts to raise public awareness about the custody rights of separated and divorced fathers
Radical Feminism
A branch of feminism that grew out of New Left politics and demanded the same attention to women's oppression that New Left organizations gave to racial oppression and other ideological issues. Radical feminists pioneered revolutionary communication techniques such as consciousness raising, leaderless group discussions, and guerrilla theater. - Belief that women's oppression is the fundamental form of oppression on which all others are modeled - rap sessions - speak outs - protested and picketed - personal is political
Million Man March
A branch of the men's movement that began with a march in Washington DC in 1995 in which black men atoned for sins and committed themselves to spiritual transformation and political action. Annual marches were also help in subsequent years
Free Men
A branch of the men's movement that seeks to restore the traditional image of men by celebrating and encouraging the qualities of competitiveness, independence and ruggedness in men
Multiracial Feminism
A branch of the women's movement that is concerned with race and the racial oppression of women
Cognitive Development Theory
A developmental theory according to which children participate in defining their genders by acting on internal motivations to be competent, which in turn leads them to seek out gender models that help them to sculpt their own femininity or masculinity.
Liberal feminism
A form of feminism that maintains that women and men are alike in important respects and that women should have the same economic, political, professional and civic opportunities and rights as men. NOW (the National Organization Women) is the best-known organization representing liberal feminism
Traitorous Identity
A group member's criticism of particular attitudes and actions- for example, sexist jokes- that are accepted and normative within the group
Glass Walls
A metaphor for sex segregation on the job. Glass walls exist when members of a group, such as women, are placed in positions based on stereotypes of that group - typically, such positions do not entail advancement ladders
Power Feminism
A movement that emerged in the 1990s as a reaction to feminist emphasis on women's oppression. Urges women to take the power that is theirs and to reject seeing themselves as victims of men or society - contends that society does not oppress women because women have the power to control what happens to them --> claiming victim has kept women in oppressed state
Ecofeminism
A movement that integrates the intellectual and political bases of feminist theorizing with ecological philosophy. The specific oppression of women is seen as a particular instance of a larger ideology that esteems violence and domination of women, children, animals and the Earth.
Good Men Project
A multifaceted effort to stimulate a national conversation about what it means to be a good man today
Quotas
A particular number or percentage of women or minorities who must be admitted to schools, hired in certain positions, or promoted to certain levels in institutions
Gender Identity
A person's private sense of, and subjective experience of is or her own gender
Gender constancy
A person's understanding, which usually develops by age three, that her or his sex is relatively fixed and unchanging.
Sex
A personal quality determined by *biological* and *genetic* characteristics. Male, female, man and woman indicate sex
Standpoint Theory
A theory that focuses on the influence of gender, race, class and other social categories on circumstances of people's lives, especially their social positions and the kinds of experiences fostered within those positions. According to standpoint theory, political consciousness about social location can generate a standpoint that affects perspective and action. - complements symbolic interactionism by noting that societies are made up of different groups that have different amounts of pow and privilege
Womanism
Activism started by black women to define oppression as resulting from both race and sex. The womanist movement arose out of dissatisfaction with mainstream feminism's predominant focus on white, middle-class women and their interests
Glass Ceiling
An invisible barrier, made up of subtle, often unconscious prejudices and stereotypes, that limits the opportunities and advancement of women and minorities
Cis (cisgendered, cisman, ciswoman)
Cis is a prefix that designates a person who fits conventional categories. *Cis* means "on the same side of." People who stay on the side of the gender identity assigned at birth are cis. Example: A biological woman who identifies as female and acts feminine is cis
Performative Theory
Claims that identity, including gender, is not something individuals have, but rather something they do through performance or expression
Affirmative Action
Collective term for policies that go beyond equal opportunities laws to redress discriminations. Assumes that historical patterns of discrimination against groups of people justify the preferential treatment of members of those groups; focuses on results, not on the intent of effort to redress inequities; and attempts to increase the number of qualified members of minorities in education and the workplace, commensurate with their availability
Androgyny
Combination of qualities society considers both masculine and feminine. Androgynous people tend to identify and enact qualities socially ascribed to both women and to men.
Queer Theory
Critique of conventional categories of identity and cultural views of "normal" and "abnormal," particularly in relation to sexuality. Queer theory argues identities are not fixed, but fluid.
Anthropological Theory
Examines definitions of gender from culture to culture - Gender rolls vary throughout culture Examples: - Western society: capitalism, public and private spheres restricts moms to the less-values domestic sphere - Fafafini in Samoan Culture: teach femininity to whomever cares for children- sometimes even young boys - Native American Culture: "Two Spirits" recognize more than two genders, highly value transgendered - Australian Aboriginal fathers have no say in their daughters' marriages; mothers have the authority - Tahitian men tend to be gentle, mild-tempered, and nonaggressive & it's entirely acceptable for them to cry, show fear and express pain - Samoan males tattoo their bodies from waist to below the knees to mark the transitions from boyhood to manhood - a man is not considered a man until he's gone through this process - Mbuti tribe of pygmies in central Africa: don't discriminate strongly between sexes - Mukogodo people in Kenya: place higher value on females than on males- daughters are given greater care than sons - Orango Island on western shore of Africa: women choose their mates and a man cannot refuse without dishonoring his family
Planned Leave Policies
FMLA (Family and Medical Leave Act)- 12 weeks of unpaid leave to care for new babies or sick family - covers only about 60% of employees in companies with 50 or more employees
Intersex
Having both male and female biological sexual characteristics
Transgendered
Individual who feels that her or his biologically assigned sex is inconsistent with her or his true sexual identity.
Transsexual
Individual who has had surgery and/or hormonal treatments to make his or her body more closely match the sex with which he or she identifies.
Queer Performative Theory
Integration of queer and performative theories into a perspective on performances as means of challenging and destabilizing conventional cultural categories and the values attached to them.
MVP
Mentors in Violence Prevention - A male anti violence program that educates men about socialization that links masculinity to violence and aggression; motivates men to reject violence in themselves and in other men; emphasizes role of bystander
NOMAS
National Organization for Men Against Sexism - An activist men's organization that promotes personal, political, and social changes that foster equality of men and women and gay and straight people through workshops and informal group discussions, public speaking, educational outreach programs and enactment of traitorous identities
Children Play: "Feminine Games"
Play tends to occur in smaller groups without clear cut rules and roles - talk is used to include others and facilitate the process of interaction - use collaborative and cooperative communication to create and sustain relationships - focus on relationships by including and being sensitive to others -i.e. play house, play school, dress up, dolls, etc.
Ego Boundaries
Psychologically, the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins; an individual's sense of the line between herself or himself and others. Ego boundaries range from permeable (a sense of self that includes others and their issues, and problems, and so on) to rigid (a sense of self as completely distinct from others). - individuals with feminine gender identities tend to be more permeable whereas individuals with masculine gender identities tend to be more rigid
Essentialism
The reduction of a phenomenon to its essential characteristics, which generally presumed to be innate or unchangeable. To essentialize the sexes is to imply that all women are alike in basic respects, that all men are alike in basic respects, and that the two sexes are distinct from each other because of fundamental, essential qualities.
Title IX
The section of the Educational Amendment of 1972 that makes it illegal for schools to accept federal funds to discriminate on the basis of sex - women must be provided equitable opportunity to participate in sports - colleges must provide female athletes with athletic scholarship dollars proportional to their participation - equal treatment includes more than playing time and scholarships- schools are required to provide female and male athletes with equivalent equip,met and supplies, practice time, travel and daily allowance, tutoring and coaching, locker rooms and facilities, publicity and promotions, recruitment programs and support services - Despite Title IX the playing field is not even- male athletes and coaches for male teams continue to have more support and financial aid - more full scholarships go to males
Biological Theory
The theory that biological characteristics of the sexes are the basis of differences in woman's and men's thinking, communicating, feeling and other functions. Maintains that biological characteristics such as chromosomes, hormonal activities, and brain specializations account for gender differences. e.g. (women and men's brains are "wired" differently)
Symbolic Interactionism Theory
The theory that individuals develop self-identity and an understanding of social life, values, and codes of conduct through communicative interactions with others in a society. (e.g. how we talk to girls vs. how we talk to boys- "sit like a lady" "be a man")
Social Learning Theory
Theory that individuals learn to be masculine and feminine (among other things) by observing and imitating others and by reacting to rewards and punishments others give in response to imitative behaviors.
Lesbianism
Women in committed relationships should enjoy the same property, insurance and legal rights granted to heterosexual spouses
Gender stereotyped curricula
Women: degrees in liberal arts, communications, Human Development & Family Sciences, etc. Men: Business, Sciences & Maths, Engineering, etc. - History curriculums lacks information on women's contributions focusing one important white male leaders - Even science and reproduction curriculums reflect sexism "passive egg waits" "invading sperm" - When students learn primarily about straight, white, economically advantaged men and their expectations, perspectives and accomplishments, they are deprived of understanding the perspectives and contributions of most of the population
Goals
a stated intention to achieve a defined representation of minorities or women
Culture of Romance
created when forces in higher education encourage women students to regard being attractive to men as more important than academics or career preparations
Third Person Effect
media affects others more than they affect us
Profeminists
men who believe that women and men are alike in important respects and that the sexes should enjoy the same privileges, rights, opportunities and status in society - join liberal women feminists in fighting for equitable treatment for women. In addition, many male feminists seek to rid themselves of what they regard as toxic masculinity promoted in men by socialization, and to develop sensitivities more typically inculcated in women
Gatekeepers
refers to people or groups that control which messages get through to audiences of mass media - i.e. editors owners, bloggers, producers and advertisers
Invisible hand discrimination
the inadvertent application, in discriminatory fashion, of policies that are not inherently biased - unwritten discrimination in applying policies that are not inherently biased - Example: if male professor is seen as assertive he is viewed as intelligent and confident whereas if a female professor is assertive it is scene as antagonistic or confrontational
Agenda Setting
the process by which media tell us what we should attend to- mass media and some web-based media have the ability to direct large audience's attention to particular issues, events and people- don't tell us what to think but tells us what to think about
effortless perfection
to be beautiful, fit, popular, smart and accomplished without any visible effort
Liberal Feminism
women and men are alike & equal in most respects >> They should have the same rights, rules and opportunities *NAWSA:* National America Women's Suffrage Association *NWA:* National Women's Association
Cultural Feminism
women and men are essentially different >> therefore they should have different rights, roles and opportunities