Gender Final

Homemaking as a Career

much more acceptable for women. - domestic work highly under-valued & not respected (unpaid labour) - ex: 40$ to mow lawn for 20 mins, under 10$ to take care of kids. - women who work outside the home still do more home-related work

Actions

incited by emotions approach (when we're happy, we want to go towards that feeling) vs. avoidance (upset we avoid the situation)

Historical Origins of Current Stereotypes

industrial revolution: late 1700s - shift from everyone working in the home and on the homestead to men working outside of the home and women working inside the home (2 spheres) the cult of true womanhood: 1820's, 4 categories women should excel in: Piety Purity Submissiveness Domesticity - marketed as natural but why then do you need to tell women how to act this way?

WAIS-III Verbal Subtests

information: whats the capital of France?- dependent on education Comprehension: what should you do if you find a wallet on the street? Arithmetic: if you have 4 apples and eat 3, how many are left? Similarities: how are a dog & cat alike? Vocabulary: what is the definition of asylum? Digit Span: repeat number sequences in forward and reverse order

Sex Differences in IQ

most research finds few or no average differences between males and females - on the WAIS-III (and all of them) females score higher on verbal and males score higher on performance - males more variable in their scores (this is debatable) - problems/perk on chromosome usually balanced out by other x in females, this is not possible in males

Breast Cancer

mostly affects women, men still have a risk ( 100x less) - can affect sense of masculinity & femininity - can affect women's sexuality and relationships - Scar Project: showing real face of breast cancer

School

school aged children taught about gender typical jobs/career paths

Deaux & Lewis's Model Of Gender Stereotyping

- Figure 3.2 in textbook. - physical appearance: traits, behaviours, occupations.

Measures of Stereotypes?

validity of measures? what are they measuring? - measuring stereotypes (and conformity) with little validation

Motor Tasks

women are slightly better at fine motor tasks men are slightly better at gross motor tasks

Social Learning Theory

- reinforcement for gender appropriate behaviour - observation

Story of the Egg & Sperm (Martin, 1991)

"scientific fairytale" - words we use in science shape our beliefs out culture shapes our science: - belief of passive female/active male - forgotten/ignored knowledge of clitoris structure - male vs. female bodily fluids true story of egg & sperm: - sperm go back & forth, don't really have forward thrusts - egg decides to release its casing and envelops the sperm Cultural beliefs interfered with good science: - would see how it as really happening, and still believed to see the false story

Relationships with Gender Roles

- Androgynous people do best in relationships - Highly masculine paired with highly feminine do worst - androgynous people score better than M or F people on many psychological measures - Studying positive vs. negative traits for androgyny results in different outcomes - high on positive M&F characteristics related to better mental health & well-being - high in negative masculinity linked to lower levels of health/well-being and do poorer in relationships

Binet & Simon's 1905 Intelligence Test

- Focused on higher mental processes: reasoning, understanding, judgment - most now agree that intelligence to do with the capacity to understand theoretical concepts (abstract thinking) - Females scored lower

Sex (Gender) Role Strain Theory

- Gender roles for men are contradictory and stressful ex. good father, provide for family, don't care or have feelings? - Violating Gender Roles has worse consequences for men than women ex. Society values masculine things, women engaged in these things are also elevated - Some characteristics prescribed by male gender role are maladaptive ex. leads to morbidity - not expressing emotions, independence, etc.

Lewis Terman

- Stanford prof based intelligence test on Binet's work for use with Americans - Did not believe women were less intelligent - called revised test the Stanford-Binet (1916) - Formula for computing IQ (intelligence quotient) - Mental age/Chronological age x100 = IQ - Ex of items on the test: - age 2: here are some pegs of diff sizes & shaped, put them in correct hole - Age 4: why do people live in houses? - Age 6: here are some candies, Can you count how many there are? - Age 10: why should people be quiet in a library? - Age 12: what does "regret" mean? - Age 14: what is the similarity between high and low?

Anger & Aggression

- aggression involves anger when it is reactive or hostile - anger is very common, aggression is not - small or no gender differences in experiencing anger - large gender differences in aggressive behaviour (partly due to how we look at aggression - ex. physical) - anger is more likely to lead to aggression in men - women more likely to cry when angry (may be due to anger causing anxiety) - gender role, rather than gender, is a better predictor

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence: Psychological Problems

- anger management issues - severe mental illness - wide spectrum of psych problems - can't explain all incidences

Categories to Behaviour

- can intervene between each level. Having stereotype does not mean you have to be prejudice 1. Stereotypes: Beliefs - cog. structures or categories that contain our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about social groups (or the world) 2. Prejudice - Affect/Feeling - a positive or negative attitude, belief or feeling about someone or something by which we prejudge on the basis of some characteristic 3. Discrimination - Behaviour

Quantitative Research Methods

- collecting data that can be reduced to numbers & statistics - much of psychology - effect size is important (more difference within genders than between them) ex: X1-X2/SD or r or r^2 - Experimental Studies: IV & DV - Correlational Studies: measures 2 variables and sees how they relate to one another - Ex post facto/ Quasi Experimental Studies: person variable/subject variable/factor - cannot be manipulated ex. Gender/anxiety) & DV - Surveys: could be used in any of the above studies, may just be descriptive - CORRELATION =/= CAUSATION

Cons

- culture is the problem - victim blaming: - she blames women who have been socialized to behave these ways their entire lives- can't expense them to change in a heartbeat because they 'know better' - being fully aware doesn't help much: social structures tell women they need value putting others first. Hard to overcome this, even when aware of the issues. - choose between being liked & being successful - Sandberg: rich & powerful - her message is to a specific group of people.

Gay Fathers

- few studies, but gay men more motivated to become fathers, and they place a high value on relationships with their children - on avg. place importance on the child-parent relationships - without automated gender roles, gay fathers struggle with devising a de-gendered system of child care - they tend to divide child care more evenly than heterosexual couples, and then to be more satisfied with the division of labour

Mentorship/Advisors

- having a faculty member increases success - mentors & advisors (formal & informal) tend to choose students like them - in many departments, much fewer female faculty members

Gender Stereotypes Across Cultures

- many core stereotypes about gender exist across cultures - benevolent sexism exists across cultures - stereotypes also vary across culture - cultures in which women dominate are rare - egalitarian cultures tend to be less industrialized

Gender in College & Beyond

- men dominate in college classrooms (interrupt more/ take leadership positions more) - men prefer hierarchical classroom syles - women feel more comfortable in collaborative discussions - women feel less supported in post grad systems (esp. male dominated)

Acquaintance Rape/Sexual Assault

- more common than stranger rape but much less likely to be reported - 54% of women reported sexual assault/rape experiences, only 25% of men. - often men who rape acquaintances don't recognize it as rape

Crime

- most aggression - related crimes/assaults are male-male - men more likely to be victims and perps of crime - men commit a large majority of violent crimes - men commit more non-violent crimes as well

College/ Uni

- most of history men attended college in larger numbers > women - for women, it was a way to find a husband - Betty Friedan (1963): "problem with no name" to describe women's discontent: - give up everything they are interested in to take care of family/home - use of drugs (uppers) and meds to get happy

HINES & DOUGLASS: Men's experiences as Victims

- often don't tell anyone - when called, police may ignore, mock, or arrest the man - violence hotlines may be taken less seriously than women's - men's allegations may be taken less seriously than women's - physical & mental health problems: similar to female victims

Stereotype Threat (Steele & Aronson)

- people feel threatened when they believe that their performance will identify them as examples of their group's negative stereotype - affects those who accept stereotype more - worry more about it - will perform worse (implicit, unconscious trigger)

HINES & DOUGLAS: IVP Committed by Women

- rates of IPV against women have declined since 1970s while rates against men have stayed the same - there are little supports in place for male victims & women perps - he tries to understand her side of the argument: talks rather than hits me, I still hit him- like to enrol but no programs - women, even if start the fight, will get hurt worse

Bias in Recommendations

- recommendation writers more likley to describe women as "social-communal" (nice, team member, etc) - men described in agentic terms (more leadership) - male letter writers more likely to describe women and men in more 'agentic' terms - hiring committee decisions negatively correctly with 'social-communal' terms in letters

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

- related more strongly to reactive aggression - frustration is the cause of aggression - tested extensively in lab studies - ignores the role of anger: mediating factor between frustration and reactive aggression

Transformation: Feminist Standpoint Epistemologies

- scientific method is inherently flawed - knowledge is situated - focus on issues relevant to marginalized groups - use more qualitative approached to get at the experience of those who are no the dominant culture

Pros

- start a convo (being able to name something is first step to addressing/changing it) - gives concrete suggestions (simple fix)

Prostate Cancer

- treatment affects sexual response - radiation & prostatectomy = can have temp or permanent loss of erections - Androgen Deprivation Therapy = loss of libido & erections - Can affect sexuality and relationships - Richard Wassersug, UBC - erection-oriented approach - affection-oriented approach -exploratory/queer approach - take estrogen to restore libido - clinical trials on self & animals - says it works

Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus et al.)

- within the past year, has your partner: slapped, kicked, pushed, chocked, punched you? - within the past year, has your partner: forced/coerced you to have sex? - within the past year, has your partner: made you feel afraid you would be physically hurt? - within the past year, has your partner: used words/yelled/screamed in a way that has frightened you? - a lot of variability & usually answer Y/N - variability within these things in the same question.

Current Stats

- women currently receive more degrees than men (56% in Canada) - US: women earn 58% of masters, 48% doctoral degrees - Degree area still highly segregated - whites overrepresented for all higher education - most women are employed

Themes from Research on Psych of Women & Gender

-Gender Similarities - Traits vs. Situational determinants of behaviour - the importance of values in a scientific understanding of marginalized groups - psych is bad for this: highlighting differences & comparing to dominant gorup - should study them as themselves or focus on strengths of marginalized groups & compare them to one another & a dominant group

Our Stereotypes Affect our Research

-research in 60s/70s studied sexual behaviour in rats in small cages - assumed that female was passive sexually - when allowed choice of freedom, quickly was apparent that females were in control during intercourse - way more likely to get pregnant when female was in control

Groth & Marnat (1997): Definitions of Intelligence include the following 5 areas

1. Abstract Thinking - ability to think beyond what is not directly in front of you 2. Learning from experience 3. Solving problems through insight 4. Adjusting to new situations 5. Focusing and sustaining one's abilities to achieve desired goal

Dimensions of Stereotypes: Figure 3.3. in textbook

2 dimension stereotype model of groups - warmth (high/low) - competence (high/low) - high in warmth & competence: Admirations - admired leaders - high in warmth & low in competence: Pity - homemakers -high competence & low warmth: Envy - business execs, feminists - low in competence & warmth: contempt- people in prison

Cancer

2nd leading in US 1st in CAN - mortality rates vary widely by type of cancer - behavioural, genetic, environmental factors (air, income, toxins)

Sternberg & Berg (1986): Experts identified 25 components oh higher intelligence

50% said "higher level components" 29% said "Executive Processes" 27% said "That which is valued by the culture"

Rape & Sexual Assault

90% of rape victims are women 99% rape perps are men - men rape other men more than women rape men - more structurally complicated for women to be the perp Only 30% of rapes committed by a stranger 15.4% of women report being raped An additional 12% reported being sexually assaulted Rape & sexual assault severely underreported to authorities

Factors Related to Achievement in School & Careers

Achievement Motivation Fear of Success Self-Esteem & Self-Confidence Attributions Imposter Syndrome Confidence/ Perception of Work

Measuring Masculinity & Femininity

Attitude Interest Analysis Survey (Terman & Miles, 1936) - unidimensional & bipolar - never validated on women - used in WW2 to make sure men were masculine and heterosexual Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974) = BSRI - multidimensional - introduced "androgyny" - box like - low/high fem., low/high masc. - low in fem & high mass: masculine - Low in both: undifferentiated - Low in masc. and high in fem: feminine - high both: androgynous - people are are androgynous are most healthy, better sex lives, healthier, etc. - they are not opposites or even related ( no correlations between score on masculinity and femininity in a group) Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence et al., 1975) = PAQ - multidimensional: all positive traits for both masculinity and femininity - instrumental and expressive

Diversity Across Industries

Faces of American Power, nearly as white as the Oscar nominees - more likely to see women in admin. positions > profs

History of Intelligence Testing:

Binet & Simon's 1905 Intelligence Test Lewis Terman Cougle's Intelligence Test (CIT) Wechler-Bellevue (1939)

Career Development

Career development models reflect a linear, hierarchical progression (ideally) - individualistic (fixated on one person, doesn't take the work environment into account) - continuous full time employment Drew Dudley - The List (Ted Talk) - challenges idea of what success is and how success is defined. - defined by a typical male pathway These models don't necessarily fit for women - they have different pressures in the workplace and in the home

Lean In (Sandburg)

Focus on women's "internal barriers" focus on professional women key messages: 1. women need to be more like men to be successful - women in position of power, would corporate culture change? 2. women will be punished for being more like men

THEORIES OF EMOTION:

Folk Psychology Jame-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory Schacter's Cognitive Theory - therapy for things such as anxiety work on feedback aspect of this theory

Cognitive Theory

Gender Schemas: of male and female (stereotype less as you get to know someone because you see them as an individual) Illusory Correlation: pay a lot of attention when things go together that we think go together, discount things that go against our schema

Self-Esteem & Self-Confidence

Gender differences in self-esteem, men report higher levels of self-confidence ex: Sandberg reading - author embarrassed she won't worlds 5th most powerful person - b/c women generally aren't supposed to be confident

(Some) Institutional Barriers

Gender salience: how aware others are of your gender - glass cliff effect: company tanking - women hired as CEO to save it - cannot be saved - gets shoved off cliff with failing company & loses opportunities for her in the future - Queen bee Effect: women in higher positions of power - mentality of we already have a woman, don't need more.

Barriers to Advancement

Glass Ceiling - see women who work as hard as men, act like men, dominate in male-dom. environments, never make it to top. - constantly bump up against the invisible barrier no matter what or how they act ex: Hilary Clinton Women don't have advantages for management/exec. positions even in female-dominant females - Glass elevator ex. men in these jobs get promoted way faster Sticky Floor - dont get promoted because now seen as having potential to be good in a promotion ex; women likely to be hired as entry-level jobs & get stuck there. men less likely to be hired - then get promoted for beating odds Potential for having kids - affects those giving birth.

Francisco Ibanez-Carracso

HIV research & activity director, education & training at ontario HIV treatment Network (OHTN) - HIV+ - importance of queer/trans people being their own advocates in healthcare system

Myth of Maternal Instinct

Harlow's Monkeys - studies show maternal behaviour is not instinctual - mothering not necessary to develop functional babies, but rather socialization with others of its kind will help a baby develop - nulliparous rats: show no 'instinct' to care for young - do not give birth to babies & put them with them - will ignore them completely or eat them. - little support for necessity or early bonding - bonding & attachment research focuses almost exclusively on mothers - social acceptability of nurturing behaviours

"Maternal" Deprivation & it's Consequences

Harry Harlow: studied maternal deprivation by raising monkeys who were separated from their mothers at birth - monkeys were reared with a cloth "mother" provided comfort and a wire "mother" that gave food. - what do monkeys associate motherhood to? whoever provides food or comfort? - always chose cloth, even if wire was only way to get food. Harlow's Monkeys: LT effects - lack of exposure to parental figure & social situations = abnormal behaviours & poor parenting skills (intergenerational trauma) - research suggests caregiving dependent on experience & not instinct

Obesity

Higher BMI related to more health problems - correlations not that high, doesn't account for food intake/ muscle mass/ etc. - more accurate to get a look at entire life and health behaviours Fat in & of itself not necessarily the problem - most health risk comes from yo-yo dieting (rapid weight loss/gain) - obesity hysteria: assocaiting health problems with fat content not always accurate

Gender Bias in Research

Historically, research has been presented from a male perspective - there are qualitative differences between female experience & male experience (throughout your life) - there are qualitative differences between the experiences of cisgender and transgender/non-binary people.

Sources of Difference (Cognition)

Hormonal (organizational) - how your brain is constructed in utero Brain Activity - variability in how people use difference brain areas to solve different problems, sometimes goes alone gender lines, sometimes it doesn't Experience (social, cultural, environmental) - verbal fluency - WM - Spatial rotation - Spatial placement memory - Fine motor tasks/gross motor tasks

Hostile & Benevolent Sexism (Glick & Fiske)

Hostile Sexism: - negative attitudes - ex. women's emotions make them incapable of being good leaders Benevolent Sexism: - ex. women better at taking care of children, women nicer than men, women should be put on a pedestal - reinforces belief they should fulfill these roles and leaves behind the individual differences - can be most harmful type of sexism because its harmful intent is hidden

Scientific Method

Hypotheses (testable) systematic testing/ empirical observation replication- hallmark of science objectivity

Male Sex Role Identity

Industrialization required men to get jobs - new role as provider increased pressure and insecurity

Cancer for the Margins

LGBTQ experiences with cancer & healthcare system - Mary Bryson: UBC: lgbtcancer.ca

Spatial Performance

Males have a medium to large advantage for most Spatial perception: d=.44 Ignore frame, when rod is in the middle of the frame perceptually correct mental rotation, d=.73 (1985) and .56 (1995) spatial visual visualization, d =.13 (men have small advantage) women tend to do better in two spatial domains: perceptual speed d=.43 (1988) and d=.28 (1995) placement memory/visual array (practices in class- did the objects move places)

Development of Nurturing Behaviour

Melson & Fogel (1988): interest in babies with similar between genders until age 4. Afterwards - involvement with infants in play situation increased for girls & decreased for boys. - no other possible explanation for this except socialization - no dramatic shift in hormones at age 4 that marks genders to be different - boys tended to care for & nurture pets more as they became less interested in babies (Melson, 2001) - their nurturing behaviour does not necessarily decrease, it is diverted to a more socially acceptable outlet such as a pet if it is available to him.

Other Cognitive Domains

Memory: seems to be related to nature of the memory tasks most are verbal: women do better. Even some non-verbal, still doing better. Creativity: difficult to assess- not easy to define. Does not show a clear advantage for males & females - men make eye contact more with strangers women make more eye contact during 1-on-1 interactions these are largely socialized) women smile more: may not be a socialization thing, seems to persist cross-culturally & in other primates not smiling: sign of dominance (cross primate) showing of teeth - aggression.

Cognition vs. Physiology in Emotion

Men may depend more on physiology than women - ex. if their heart is racing they are sweating, they are more likely to report high levels of fear Women may depend more on cognition But: men are stereotypically thought to be more logical/rational and women more irrational/emotional - the empirical evidence shows that the opposite of what we think happens: men rely more on internal sensations than cognition - women tend to use more cognition to perceive emotion since they are socialized from a young age to constantly be aware of other's emotions

Brannon's Male Sex Role Themes:

No Sissy Stuff: stigma attached to anything female especially if you're male The Big Wheel: the big cheese - status, security, in control. (now = CEOs, leaders, confident) The Sturdy Oak: strong, sturdy, withstand a lot of shit, self-reliant, emotionally stable Give 'em hell: air of aggression and violence at all times, don't mess with me.

Gynecologic Cancers

Ovarian (surgeons removed everything for the longest time) Uterine Cervical - pap test Varginal - less common than the 3 listed before - removal of some/all genitalia - disregard for sex life/quality of life - drastically affect women's sexuality & relationships

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence

Psychological problems Status Interpersonal Dynamics Societal/Feminist Theories * all of these theories are important to contribute towards theories of why domestic abuse happens. No one theory can explain all cases. Unique, individual experiences *

Research on Sex & Gender

Quantitative & Qualitative studies employed Feminist methodology is more qualitative True experiments are difficult to do with sex & gender CORRELATION =/= CAUSATION

Emotion vs. Rationality

Rationality-Emotionality dichotomy has pervaded Western thought - men more rational, logical, cognitive -women more emotional due to child rearing (which is seen as inferior to men's rationality) - Women = more emotional - sad/loving, caring. But not thingd like anger (although men see as more angry, they aren't described as emotional) - Division of emotions could be power vs. powerlessness - often goes along with the gender divide but not always (seeing it this way instead of as a gender division of emotion) - Children & adults more likely to perceive a women's emotion as sadness and men's as anger

Working Memory Task

Read a sentence, write down answer, then write down last word of the sentence - women usually do better than men.

Strong Objectivity

Sandra Harding - those who work in the dominant model have bias and ideology, but do not see it. - everyone has bias & ideology but we only call them out if they work in a dominant field. - acknowledging and being aware of bias makes us MORE objective - Constantly reflect & acknowledge our position as situated knowers

Evolutionary Perspective

Sarah Blaffer Hrdy: Evolutionary biology places primary emphasis on producing offspring and factors related to this success - idea in evolutionary theory that everything we do in the world is to propagate our genes to next generation - succes in evolutionary terms includes: having offspring that live long enough to reproduce - motherhood & nursing young are then important - study who produces offspring: how they produce offspring, what makes someone a successful reproducer - its that offspring live long enough to reproduce

Research Methods

Scientific Method Quantitative Research Methods Qualitative Methods

Theories of Roots of Gender Stereotyping

Social Learning Theory Cognitive Theory Stereotype Threat (Steele & Aronson)

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus (bang) Perception/interpretation (danger) General autonomic arousal (heart races, etc.) and particular emotion experiences (fear) happen at the same time and are both triggered by your perception of what's going on

Motives for Rape

Study of CONVICTED Rapists (Scully, 1990) - women on a pedestal - men have right to use violence against women - anger at partner - right place at wrong time - physical appearance doesn't matter

Bias in Psychological Research:

TABLE WRITTEN OUT

LGBTQ+ Healthcare

The Remedy - Zena Sherman - contains essays from people with diff. backgrounds key issues: - marginalization & discriminations in healthcare system - people in med/nursing get no training on LGBTQ+ experience/ how to behave/ how to approach in correct manner - invisibility of queer identities - ignorance towards queer & trans bodies & concerns - awkwardness and discomfort of care providers can lead to death - discomfort of care providers

Feminist Approaches to Psychological Research

Transformation Decreasing Bias

Verbal Fluency Test

Women do better than men on average. ex. C words changing more than one phoneme

Gender Stereotypes

categorical defined by beliefs and attitudes about masculinity and femininity psychological traits & characteristics, as well as the activities appropriate to men or women

Jacob & Eccles Model

Written out

Violent Deaths

accidents, homicides, suicide - males 3x more likely to die from violent deaths - ethnicity also affects likelihood of violent death - young people more at risk - social & biological factors

Gender Roles

activities that men and women engage with in difference frequencies - defined by behaviours - ex: Tide ads 1 & 2

Cultural Variations

all the findings discussed in class are based on North American samples - some cultures have similar findings, some show fewer differences, some show opposite findings - some countries are better or worse on average on certain tasks regardless of sex - this variability indicates strong evidence for experience playing a role

Effect Size

an unbiased measure of difference between groups a common measure is called Cohen's d (d = M1-M2/s) - cohen established average effect sizes in psych research: small: .2 (of a standard deviation) medium: .5 large: .8 - between groups: a lot of overlap between sexes, most people fall somewhere in the middle.

Experience of Emotion

anger is the emotion most associated with men - sadness & happiness most associated with women - Simon & Nath (2004) - men & women experience emotions with equal frequency - men report more positive emotions -women report more anxiety & sadness - equal in reported feelings of anger: men were more likely to express that anger than women - socialization aspect that anger is acceptable for men & not for women women express emotions more freely - women reported expressing their emotions more freely in general - socialization aspect that emotions in general are not as acceptable for men as they are for women

Universal Facial Expressions (Ekman)

anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise - most cultures can identify these emotions and can make them themselves when asked - importance of communicating emotion for humans as a social species in order to have functional society

So Much Bias!!

anon evaluations consistently show gender bias against women (same for class evals) - uni students ranked male classmates as smarter (Grunspan et al., 2016) - partially because they talk more in class, similar results when this is controlled. - uni instructors are rated in gendered ways, women receive lower rankings - men: genius, brilliant, funny - women: nice, helpful - anger in men is seen as evidence of high status - opposite true for women

motivation

argument: primary existence of emotion is to motivate us to meet our needs so we can survive ex: if you're attracted to someone, you will be motivated to be closer to them - underlying all our emotions: what are they motivating us to do?

Aggression

behaviour directed toward another organism intended to cause harm - proactive vs. reaction aggression - proactive: serves a purpose that will help you. Instrumental (cold). doesn't involve anger. ex: animals hunting over animals (murder) - punished more harshly - Reactive: responding out of emotion and anger. Hostile (hot) aggression.

Aggression over the life span

boys show more physically aggressive behaviour than girls - physical aggression decreases with age for all - gender differences are smaller in adulthood (ex. socialization, mobility, etc.) - aggressive tendencies are stable over the lifespans ( high aggression at 18 - still higher in later life than someone with lower aggression at 18) - aggressive and/or less nurturing parents beget more aggressive children (raising your own biological children) - being aggressive in childhood predicts higher levels of criminal behaviour

Diverse Leadership

companies with diverse leadership have better customer satisfaction outcomes - diverse perspective help for meeting the needs of a broader customer/client base - poor, rural, minorities, disabilities, etc.

"Doing" Gender

concept of "doing" gender: behave in certain ways that are related or not to our gender role, this behaviour is policed by others.

Primates are social:

contact with only one other monkey not sufficient. Nurting mother =/= promote nurtance, rather contact with others of its kind will.

What is Intelligence?

definitional confusion -psychologists can't agree on a precise def. of intelligence, multifaceted and different intelligences - intelligence is what intelligence tests test (Boring - 1923)

Emotional Expression

display rules: culturally defined for males & females - facial affect program: what you see on the face - argued by some theorists that there are 2 new expressions: embarrassment & contempt - mediation by culture-specify display rules: ex. men not supposed to cry in public, minimize emotion, camouflage as fear & sadness with anger. new hair cut - women tend to exaggerate the emotion when complimenting

Qualitative Methods

examining quality of experiences - not usually numerical or statistical - results based on objective and subjective interpretation of in-depth responses - subjectivity is acknowledged Case Studies - usually one or a few people who have a rare condition - often used in medical lit - sometimes used in psych - really rich in exploration -small sample: cannot generalize to the rest of the population Interviews Ethnography Focus Groups: - similar to interviews - groups of 6-8 - more out of people in groups, bounce ideas off each other - may cause issues with sensitive topics

Biases in all psych research

experimenter effects participant bias/demand characteristics observer effects/expectancy effects ethnocentrism androcentrism (the norm)

Attributions

external vs. internal - women who success/men who fail: external (teachers, teamwork, etc.) women who fail/men who succeed: internal (I'm smart/dumb)

4 Aspects of Emotion

feelings actions physiological arousal motivation

Social Determinants of Health

gender race/ethnicity age place class/socioeconomic status

Tokenism

gender & ethnic minorities in predominantly male jobs = tokens - hired because possess traits that look good for company - token hires usually included in the networking & business community - hard to be taken seriously if people see youas the token hire - mentorship is key for white males, may harm others

Gender & Health

health disparities between men & women Health disparities between married & unmarried people - married people: fewer health problems & live longer (effect of loneliness) - LGBTQ disparities: - die younger than heterosexuals - similar to married/unmarried - why do we see these differences? - discrimination in health care system * women more likely to live longer, but more likely to experience illnesses & disease *

Conflicts Cont.

heterosexual couples: ~50% of intimate partner violence is mutual (doesn't account for who started it/self-defence) ~25% women and ~25% men only - feminist theories don't acknowledge that violence can be perpetrated towards men by women. Less common & less severe, still happens. Gay couples: rates of IPV are similar or maybe slightly higher than heterosexual couples. - violence maybe due to internalized homophobia?

Caring for Children

hormonal changes occuring in late pregnancy may prime mothers to tend to babies (Hrdy, 1999) - ex. milk letdown (feeding & lactation) oxytocin leads to increased levels of holding the baby close (cuddling behaviours increases oxytocin) - oxytocin increases your wanting to be close to people you feel safe around and is also involved in aggression toward people you don't. - these hormonal events not sufficient to prompt maternal behaviour - not the same as maternal instinct - it will not make it happen, needs to be other things in play. But can increase chances of the behaviour happening.

Imposter Syndrome

idea that you "fluke" into the position you got. - any minute they will see you aren't good enough/ hired by mistake & will be fired any minute - very common in grad school. (top of undergrad to being normal)

Fear of Success

idea women are less successful b/c afraid of being successful. - tried to find ways to help: realized gender discrimination laws in place there aren't any differences for this (or fear of success)

Myth of the Maternal Instinct

instinctive behaviour is determined by biological factors and largely insensitive to environmental or situational conditions - Darwin: conceptualized instinctive basis for maternal behaviour - made these claims by observing different animals in the wild looking at how mothers responded to young - since then: people tried to observe maternal instinct in many species - isn't a well established among scientists.

Trait-Based Approach

instrumentality vs. expressiveness (get shit done, express emotions) - agentic vs. communal (focus on selves/ interested in relationships) - power/potency vs. niceness/nurturance - can score high in each, they are not binary

Hiring

issues start at this point already - data from 2006 show women make less than men in all job categories - discrimination in hiring hard to document (you can always make argument of the individual being better) - studies show: - women get lower-level jobs > men hired by same company - women offered lower salaries to start (negotiate less) - discrimination happens for any job that is more stereotypical for one gender - white, hetero males ranked highest by employers

Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

leading cause of death in US - second leading in CAN (cancer is 1) - men more at risk wen younger than 65 - women's goes up with ever year past menopause (estrogen protects against CVD) - hormones & behavioural factors play a role (behavioural = stress, anger, high fat diet, high BP) - Bias in medical system to women's treatment for CVD - symptoms of heart attack - heart disease more common in women - symptoms less known - women's symptoms: tiredness, heartburn & nausea, anxiety - because of these, women more likely to die of heart attack because no one knows symptoms/catches it - Ethnicity Bias - how someone looks/behaves can affect how people perceive hem ex: aboriginal man stroke & died - sent home because thought he was drunk - more likely to take white people's complained more seriously

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence: Societal/Feminist Theories

male dominated world, everyone socialized to view women as props for men- there to serve them in the household, sexually, etc. - objectify women: not worthy of respect, vessels for their pleasure/aggression/etc. - cannot explain relationships where women are the only abuser or there is a dual abuse

Mathematical Performance

males & females are fairly similar in mathematical performance females have a small advantage in computation: d=.14 males have a small advantage in problem solving: d=.08 males outperform females on SAT & GRE math subtests, but not in college math classes

Communication in Workplace

many believe men & women communicate differently (workplace & in the world) - men speak with more power - women speak more timidly (say sorry, please, less likely to interrupt) - evidence shows gender has no influence of speech style - power & situation do. - your own perception of your power fluctuates with the situation you're in

Career vs. Family

men generally don't have to make the choice; women do (have to work hard & do it all) - men more successful when have a family (wife at home) & women less successful when they have a family - mens careers typically take precedence over female partners' (almost normative for women to move wit their partners if they get a job somewhere new, atypical for other way around) - for women: children & partners a big factor in career development. (often nonlinear) - all people who want to devote to family less successful career-wise - men judged more harshly & less judged if not successful and have family - men pretends doesn't have a family at work= seen as more successful.

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence: Status

men supposed to be high status, so when this status is challenged, that is most most often when they become abusive ex. laid off from work - feeling inadequate arrested for domestic violence - feel "disrespected" Women in high status positions are more likely to be physically abusive to their partners - ex: generally not in positions of status, no training on how to handle high status and this translates into aggression

Mental Rotation

men usually do better than women (except on spatial relationships) ex: which 2 figures are rotations of the one on the left

Achievement Motivation

model developed using only men women took tests = scored lower - used to explain why women were unsuccessful in workforce - low achievement motivation

Psychological & Social Aggression

more common in adulthood than physical aggression - women engage in psychological aggression more than men

Cougle's Intelligence Test (CIT)

not a real test; joke to prove point about context & culture in intelligence test - define words you wouldn't know unless grew up in a certain context.

Decreasing Bias: Feminist Empiricists

noting sources of bias and making others aware challenging traditional reporting of results meta-anaylsis

Careers & Work

number of Fortune 500 companies led by women at all time high: 5% in 2014 - 24 women were CEOs 2016: 21 2017: should be 27 by end of 1st quarter - racial diversity: white women drastically outpacing men and women of colour/ other ethnicities

Verbal Performance:

on avg. females score higher on tests of verbal abilities some of the biggest differences from Hyde (2005): - spelling: d=.45 (medium) - language: d=.48 (medium) - speech production: d=.44 (small/medium) - mostly done in children

Passive (indirect) vs. Active (direct) Aggression

passive: easy way to get other blamed for aggression Active aggression: verbally or physically harming someone

Abuse

physical abuse: - sean connery vid. - why domestic violence crimes don't leave - leslie steiner Verbal abuse - names: assulated women's helpline PSA vid Emotional Abuse - world of psych: signs of emotional abuse - includes over dependence on another person - control of money, friendships, etc - turn things back on the other person

Measuring Stereotypes & Prejudice

physical features more central than traits, behaviours, or occupations for stereotypes - appearance, traits, behaviours & occupations all interlinked Explicit Measures: - Attitudes Towards Women Scale - Various Other ranking scales (ex. Diekman & Eagly, 1999) Implicit Measures: - implicit attitude test (IAT)- how associatively linked different schemas are in your brain - electronically activated recorder (EAR) (Mehl et al., 2007) - long standing stereotype that women talk more than men, are chatty/men are stoic - wear recording device around for 2 weeks: no difference in who talks more.

WAIS-III Performance Subtests:

picture arrangement- rearrange series of pics to tell a story digit symbol- #s associated with marks of different kinds, fill in Block design- assemble blocks to match this design Matrix reasoning- show pattern and draw thing that comes next Object assembly: put the pieces together to complete pics Picture completion: what's missing? Symbol search- find a square, then an array of symbols - find square as quick as you can

instrumental (cold) aggression punished more than hostile (hot) aggression

planned out - seen as worse.

Parental Involvement In Primates

primate studies (Hrdy, 1999): male primates involvement with infants varies widely - some males formed relationships, even with those they didn't father, some members were less involved.

Malamuth's Model of Sexual Aggression

printed - fosters violence against women - validated with DNA

Sari M. van Anders

psych, neuroscience, reproductive science, women & gender studies - Essay: nomenclature and knowledge-culture, or, we don't call semen 'penile mucous' - language shapes how we think.

Feelings:

psychological perception of emotion: does it feel sad? does it feel happy? does it feel angry?

Lettering Number Sequence

repeat list of letters and numbers in order

Research on Gender/Sex & Health (Johnson et al., 2012)

research may focus on only one gender - US mandate: have to use M & F species in testing - not taking into account major fluctuations of hormones & how they interact with meds - assumptions based on ones gender - assumptions based on ethnicity, sexual orientation, class. - good health research incorporates more complex design, models & statistics

Theories of Intimate Partner Violence: Interpersonal Dynamics

some people just bring out the worst in each other - ex: focus on relationships where both partners are abusive - something about those 2 together makes them abusive towards one another - minority of people

Maternal Behaviour & Feminine Emotion

stereotype women as more caring - pressure on women to be caring (if they aren't caring = bitches) - hormonal effects of pregnancy do not predict maternal behaviour - progesterone = nesting (not necessarily maternal behaviour) - more OCD type behaviour that can serve for protection to the baby - women & girls culturally caregivers in most societies - women & girls much more contact with children - myth: women enjoy childcare & happier doing it than men - opposite is true. - however: parents share care taking equally = similar levels of disliking of the labour

Schacter's Cognitive Theory

stimulus (bang) perception/ interpreation stimulus (loud) in context (danger) happen at same time from perception stimulus causes general autonomic arousal (heart races, etc.) combined with the context, general autonomic arousal creates a particular emotion experience (fear) you learn from the particular emotion expereince, so that when you hear the stimulus again, you know what it is

Folk Psychology

stimulus (bang) perception/interpretation (danger) particular emotion experiences (fear) specific pattern of autonomic arousal (heart races, etc)

James-Lange Theory

stimulus (bang) perception/interpretation (danger) specific pattern of autonomic arousal (heart races, etc) particular emotion experiences (fear)

Confidence/Perception of Work

surgical students asked to rate how they performed a surgery men rated themselves better than women women actually perform better

Provocation for Aggression in Adulthood:

table printed

Wechsler-Bellevue (1939)

tasks similar to Stanford-Binet, but aimed at adults. - used subtests: verbal & performance - standardized on 1700 white New Yorkers ages 7-70 designed to identify intelligence in soldiers - who should be promoted/who is not intelligent enough to be in the army - the latest version is WAIS-III: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - 7 verbal subtests - 7 performance subtests - standardized according to 1995 US census data * sometimes used on new immigrants to the US (which is crazy)

Body Image

thin ideal for women - fit ideal muscular ideal fro men - more variability for how men look & still considered attractive - eating disorders more common for women, increasing for men - body dissatisfaction main predictor of eating disorder - individual differences - cultural/environmental influences - peer groups, media, etc. - sexual orientation: straight men less likely to experience body dissatisfaction & eating disorders - gay men still less likely than all women - young queer women: internalize negativity may = eating disorder - older queer women less likely because less pressure to look certain way open & feeling safe = may reduce risk

Main Cognitive Sex/ Gender Differences

verbal (women) math computation (women- slight advantage) math problem solving (men) visual spatial (overall- men, but depends on the task) - doesn't usually take into account intersex/trans/etc. - there is a little research on how cognitive abilities of women transitioning shift

Fitness

vid - vintage 80s get in shape girl (rhythm & ribbons) - men more physically active than women across lifespan - NA more sedentary over time - Athletic participation has increased for girls because of social & legal changes - physical activity in any form is important for physical & psychological health

Women's Use of Intimate Partner Violence against Men: HINES & DOUGLAS READING

violence can be reciprocal, women seek help for their own violent behaviour - often no resources for working on the anger of women

Women Succeeding in Male Dominated Fields

why we see this as good? - success in organizations built by men for men - individual feminism: oxymoron - argument for non-feminist women to say they only need to care about themselves because they are succesful - wall street statue - idea: women help control men's wild urges.

Intimate Partner Violence

women are disproportionately harmed by IPV - women are often financially dependent on the men that harm them - how can you leave & support yourself? police reports show that ~76% of IPV is committed by men (other is women towards men or same sex relationships) - women make up 90% of hospital visits. - Maraget Mitchell: laughed at in 1982 when tried to aggress the issue in Canadian Parliament - at this time it was legal for men to abuse & rape wives. Home issues not a gov/authority issue - now have so many rules/laws: ex. go to therapy, etc. - still a pervasive issue.

Gender & Power

women in high status jobs = adopt more masculine behaviours - most jobs/work environments created by men, shaped for men by men. Women expected to be more friendly and less authoritative than men - women punished for being unfriendly in a way that men are not Women who aren't nice/people-oriented are disliked, men are not. - so: women punished for being too nice or not nice enough - Sandburg Ch.3 - women more critical of women leaders than men

Children:

women who lived with children experienced more negative emotion - sleep deprivation: lack of privacy, sex, quiet. - do/say same shit over and over - relentless questions - loss of control over one's routine - would be considered violation of Geneva Conventions if it were war - Jennifer Wise "Nobody's Mother"

men & women in non-traditional jobs

women with "male-typical" jobs are just as devoted as men they have more nontraditional views of gender roles & have more masculine values men thought of more negatlive when they have careers in traditional female jobs - workforce still v. gender segregated

Some Hope?

women's roles & access to leadership are increasing - diverse leadership (broadly defined) is GOOD for companies - Drastically changing work environments ex: 70's - normal to sexually harass women in workplace. now = illegal & women can flourish in workplace w/o this barrier

physiological arousal

your body changes when you are in a state of emotion as opposed to a state of neutrality (ex. sweating, crying, nervousness)