Gender

Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook's "Bathroom Battlegrounds and Penis Panics"

ABSTRACT: How transgender rights legislation got framed as "bathroom bills," with seemingly everyone trying to mark their territory. METHOD: Content analysis of transgender-inclusive legislation FINDINGS: Opponents of transgender recognition often brought up the specter of sexual predators in sex-segregated spaces as an argument against the passage of transgender rights legislation. Interestingly, such fears centered exclusively on women's spaces, particularly restrooms. Conflate sexual predators (presumed males) with transgender women (treated as male) Gender Panics: moments where people react to a challenge to the gender binary by frantically asserting its naturalness (replaced by penis panic, i.e. no penis in women's restrooms). According to society, women are vulnerable and men are inherently rapists. The media replaced 'transgender rights legislation' with 'bathroom bills' Transgender men are presumed not dangerous to cisgender women and children, but they also do not warrant protection and rights because they fall outside of gender and sexual normativity. Transgender people are more likely to be the victims of violence in the restroom rather than the perpetrator. Under the guise of "protecting" women, critics reproduce ideas about their weakness; depict males as assailants, and work to deny rights to transgender people. Moreover, they suggest that there should be a hierarchy of rights in which cisgender women and children are more deserving of protections than transgender people. IMPLICATIONS:

Maria Charles' "What Gender Is Science?"

ABSTRACT: Looking at science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields across countries challenges the assumption that women in more economically and culturally modern societies enjoy greater equality. Rather, freedom to choose a career may paradoxically cause women in affluent Western democracies to construct and replicate stereotypically gendered self-identities. METHOD: Using others' studies concerning gendered beliefs about preferences and affinities with regards to STEM fields. FINDINGS: UNESCO's statistics on male and female college graduates and their fields of study (in 84 different countries) revealed that it wasn't the case that economically/culturally modern societies had greater sex equality than other countries. In fact the countries leading in women in STEM were Iran, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. There exist gender differences within the sciences as well. Women made up 60 percent of American biology graduates, but only about 19 percent of computing graduates, in 2008, according to the National Center for Educational Statistics. Furthermore, more women work in computer science in Malaysia than the US because in Malaysia, computer science is a female-gendered occupation (less physical). Engineering is more male-dominated than science (even in the muslim countries that fared well in science equality). In Malaysia, the engineering subfields are gendered. In industrialized society, gendered jobs has come about because of the diverse fields that are available for study to accommodate women's presumed affinities (including nursing, early-child education, women's studies, etc). In developing countries, important fields were emphasized before they developed masculine contexts. Furthermore, women in industrialized societies have the luxury to pursue their interests (gendered or not), while women in developing countries must study whatever is most lucrative for them and their families. *Sex segregation is an especially resilient form of inequality because people so ardently believe in, enact, and celebrate cultural stereotypes about gender difference. Believe - Believing in difference can actually produce difference (self-fulfilling prophecy). Shelley Correll's social psychological experiment with 'contrast sensitivity' and gendered performances in response to purported gendered difference Enact - people expect to be judged according to prevailing standards of masculinity or femininity. This expectation often leads them to engage in behavior that reproduces the gender order (we do gender). Celebrate - Modern systems of higher education make the incursion of gender stereotypes even easier, by allowing wide latitude in course choices. The masculinity of STEM can be brought into question when the histories of these gendered occupations are considered. What actually happens is that economic forces make a job more attractive and so cultural and gendered explanations are given for why that job would be better for men. Self-segregation of careers may occur because some believe they're naturally good at gender-conforming activities (attempting to build on their strengths), because they believe that certain fields will be seen as appropriate for people like them ("doing" gender), or because they believe they'll enjoy gender-conforming fields more than gender-nonconforming ones (realizing their "true selves"). IMPLICATIONS:

Pamela Stone's "The Rhetoric and Reality of 'Opting Out'"

ABSTRACT: Professional women who leave the workforce may have fewer options than it seems. What does that tell us about work in America today? METHOD: interview study of high-achieving, former professionals who are now at-home moms. FINDINGS: These women who were former professionals and are now at-home moms did not voluntarily 'opt-out' of the workforce. Instead, they were forced out by inflexible workplaces (and absent husbands). Mothering pulls and workplace pushes. Connection to Lareau's "concerted cultivation" (i.e. intensive mothering). IMPLICATIONS:

Scott Melzer's "Ritual Violence in a Two-Car Garage"

ABSTRACT: Sociologist Scott Melzer goes inside suburban Fight Clubs to see why men are risking their bodies to take up arms, to bond, and to exorcise childhood experiences of emasculation. METHOD: Ethnographic fieldwork. Observant as participant (active participation). I observed fights, participated in one afternoon of combat, and interviewed 13 GFC fighters on their own and three in a group setting. FINDINGS: I found that these men fight to test their skills and toughness, to conquer their fears, and, in some cases, to restore a sense of masculinity and control they lost during experiences of boyhood emasculation. All this is to say, asserting masculinity isn't necessarily about inflicting damage. It's about controlling others, and controlling one's own reactions and fear. For these men, Fight Club offers an opportunity to replace the psychological scars of bullying and submission with physical scars they can wear as trophies of manhood. Fighting is therapeutic, and it brings more than understanding. The fighters can confront their feelings of failure directly, as adults. And they restore a sense of control, paradoxically, by choosing to give it up, placing themselves at risk. IMPLICATIONS: Repair and compensation (connection to Hollander's study about gender and dangerousness - to be a man is to be dangerous).

Craig Upright's "The Converging Gender Wage Gap 1980-2012"

ABSTRACT: The story of wage gaps in American labor is generally a story of improvement, but by separating data by cohort to follow women by age group across decades, we can spot persistent wage gaps-and even some that are widening. METHOD: Reviewing gender wage gap statistics from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) FINDINGS: Some of the reasons behind the closing wage gap aren't all that positive (e.g. everyone getting low wages). Older age groups have wider wage gaps but the gap is decreasing (more equality) while younger age groups have narrower wage gaps but the gap is increasing. Younger cohorts appear to be starting their careers with greater parity. We know they achieve higher levels of educational attainment than previous generations. This may be a result of lower initial wages in entry-level positions. When wages are relatively low for every-one, it is easier to achieve pay equity, especially given federal minimum-wage increases in the 1990s. Younger women have been making inroads into occupational sectors previously dominated by men, pursuing positions that also gain greater compensation. While wage gaps exist within these occupations, these women's higher wages could raise the median average for all women. Older women (cohort) experience decreasing inequality as they grew older (age group), while younger women are experiencing the opposite? IMPLICATIONS:

Michelle Budig study on the relationship of attitudes and public policies affect women's earnings

METHOD: Compared the earnings of mothers and childless women. FINDINGS: This motherhood penalty gap ranged across countries and was smallest in nations where the cultural attitudes supported maternal employment and the government provided job-protected parental leave and publicly funded child care. IMPLICATIONS: Sexism

Thomas J. Linneman's "Gender in Jeopardy! Intonation Variation on a Television Game Show"

METHOD: Content Analysis of Jeopardy episodes: 100 consecutive regular episodes in which there were 5,473 responses and 49 tournament episodes. Dependent variable: Coded whether they used upward intonation vs flat/downward intonation (used reliability check). Linneman hypothesized that the use of uptalk on Jeopardy might be patterned, both in terms of social demographics and social context. Independent variables: demographic, correctness of response, amount of lead or loss at moment of response, whether contestant was champion or contender, sex of first responder, contestant's opponents, correcting moments. FINDINGS: Men used uptalk when uncertain; women used uptalk when certain. Women used uptalk more in both cases. The young used uptalk more than the old. Black women hardly ever used uptalk. Uptalk is most prevalent in young white women. The more ahead men were the less they used uptalk The more ahead women were the more they used uptalk. Returning champions used more uptalk than contenders. Four hypotheticals A man owning the game uses 25% uptalk A woman owning the game uses 60% uptalk A man losing the game uses 61% uptalk A woman losing the game uses 70% uptalk Men do not uptalk when correcting men, but do so when correcting women. IMPLICATIONS: Uptalk is a gender, age, and race phenomenon. Success-related results offer an example of gender compensation. Women compensate for their success, and use uptalk to "repair" their gender performance (aggressive successful women are penalized).

Paula Eckberg "Ripping the Bodice: Romance Novels and the Perception of Rape in America"

METHOD: Content analysis of 50 best-selling romance novels, locating ever instance of non-consensual sexual contact (sexual assault = everything but penetration; rape = penetration) FINDINGS: Half of the 50 novels had non-consensual sexual contact. Frequency 28% featured a rape scene 40% featured a sexual assault scene 32% featured both Context 4 cases, the villain was the assaulter who eventually faced the consequences of his actions (killed by the hero). The vast majority of the cases of non-consensual sex, the hero of the novel was the assaulter. In all of these cases the hero faced no consequences and the women expressed a betrayal of the body. IMPLICATIONS:

Rob Willer's "Overdoing Gender: A Test of the Masculine Overcompensation Thesis"

METHOD: Experiment on men and women Cornell students. First, he gave them a gender identity survey (spectrum from very masculine to very feminine). Next, they were randomly assigned scores so that one group got gender threat and the other didn't (i.e. half of the men were given masculine scores and the other half were feminine and the same with women). Then, he gave them a political attitudes survey about support for Iraq War and hostility towards homosexuality. They were also given a Car Purchasing Survey to rate vehicles and how much they wanted to pay for each car. FINDINGS: Men faced with a gender threat on the gender identity survey overdid their gender by compensating with masculine answers on the political attitude and car purchasing survey. Among women there were no differences IMPLICATIONS: compensation and repair

Homans study of interviews with female applicants for positions as technical staff in the health services

METHOD: Investigated the practices and views of managers hiring FINDINGS: Managers always asked female applicants whether they had, or intended to have, children. They supported this practice by saying that women with children may have outside responsibilities with child care that prevent them from doing their work. IMPLICATIONS: Sexism.

Jocelyn Hollander's "Vulnerability and Dangerousness: The Construction of Gender through Conversation about Violence"

METHOD: Qualitative research: 13 focus groups with different identity groups to see HOW people talk about an issue with their peers. The focus groups were asked: "Do you feel that the issue of violence affects you personally or affects your friends and relatives?" FINDINGS: Participants made many more comments about women's vulnerability than about men's. 69 comments identified individuals or groups as vulnerable TO violence. 19% with men as vulnerable 81% with women as vulnerable Qualtiative difference about how men and women are vulnerable (i.e. the source) Men had to do specific things to become vulnerable Women were inherently vulnerable Vulnerability and dangerous are mutually exclusive 95% of dangerous mentions were male IMPLICATIONS: Gender gets constructed in a very specific way

Derek Kreager's "Unnecessary Roughness? School Sports, Peer Networks, And Male Adolescent Violence"

METHOD: Secondary analysis to look at the link between sports and violence. He looked at 5 sports: football, basketball, baseball, wrestling, and tennis. Independent variable: boy's participation in these five sports and percentage of reciprocated friends' who play the sports. Dependent variable: self-reported # of fights FINDINGS: Developed/hypothesized masculinity theory: "Hypermasculine contact sports create conditions where violence becomes an acceptable means of 'doing' masculinity." Participation in sports Participation in football raised likelihood of fighting Participation in wrestling raised likelihood of fighting Participation in basketball had no effect on fighting Participation in baseball had no effect on fighting. Participation in tennis lowered likelihood of fighting. Friends in sports The higher % of friends who were football players, the higher the likelihood of violence. Wrestler, basketball, and baseball friends had no effect The higher % of friends who were tennis players, the lower the likelihood of violence. IMPLICATIONS: Social control theory, masculinity theory

Norah Vincent's Self-Made Man: One Woman's Year Disguised as a Man

METHOD: Vincent spent 18 months disguised as a man, to understand not only how men behave when women aren't around, but also to reveal the ways that men (and, in Vincent's case, a woman!) "do masculinity" in everyday life. FINDINGS: Gender is powerfully shaped by social context and transcends one's biology. IMPLICATIONS: