General Psychology Chapter 6

Observational learning

Extends the effective range of both classical and operant conditioning. The process of watching others and then imitating what they do.

Secondary reinforcer

Has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer. Praise linked to affection is one example. Money is another example.

There are several types of partial reinforcement schedules. Described as:

Either fixed or variable and either interval or ratio

The steps of shaping

1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. 3. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. 4. Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. 5. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.

Way observational learning can occur according to Lefrancois

1. You learn a new response. 2. You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. 3. You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

A Russian physiologist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical conditioning. Concluded how learning occurs completely by accident. Studied the digestive system of dogs, he surgically implanted tubes inside dogs' cheeks to collect saliva and then measured the amount produced in response to various foods. Over time he observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food but also at the sight of food, an empty food bowl, and even the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps.

Cognitive map

A mental picture of the layout of the environment

Reflexes

A motor/neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. Involve the activity of specific body parts and systems, and more primitive centers of the CNS. (Simple)

unconditioned response (UCR)

A natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus

In classical conditioning:

A neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus

classical (Pavlovian) conditioning

A process by which we learn to associate stimuli and to anticipate events. Organisms learn to associate events/stimuli that repeatedly happen together.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

Observational learning involves:

A specific type of neuron called a mirror neuron.

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Specific steps in the process of modeling described by Bandura for successful learning

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

The law of effect

Behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged.

Edward C. Tolman

Believed that cognition (thoughts and expectations) plays a role in learning. His experiments with rats demonstrated that organisms can learn even if they don't receive immediate reinforcement. Latent learning

Prosocial (positive) models

Can be used to encourage socially acceptable behavior.

Our minds have a natural tendency to...

Connect events that occur closely together to in sequence.

Skinners teaching machine

Designed to reward small steps in learning. The machine tested students knowledge as they worked through various school subjects. If students answered correctly they received immediate positive reinforcement and could continue, if the answered incorrectly they didn't receive any reinforcement.

Positive

In operant conditioning, means you are adding something

Punishment

In operant conditioning, means you are decreasing a behavior. Can be positive or negative. Decrease the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, means you are increasing a behavior. Can be positive or negative. Increase the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Negative

In operant conditioning, means you are taking something away

Ratio

In partial reinforcement, means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.

Interval

In partial reinforcement, means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements

Fixed

In partial reinforcement, refers to the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging.

Variable

In partial reinforcement, refers to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements, which varies or changes.

Instincts

Innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as aging and the change in seasons. Involve movement of the organism as a whole and higher brain centers. (Complex)

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.

The three kinds of models identified by Bandura:

Live— demonstrates a behavior in person, verbal- does not perform the behavior instead explains/describes the behavior, and symbolic- can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, tv shows, video games, or internet sources.

Associative learning

Occurs when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment. Central to three basic learning processes.

Habituation

Occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the stimulus occurs over and over, we learn not to focus our attention on it.

Operant conditioning

Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences. A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.

vicarious reinforcement

Process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior.

vicarious punishment

Process where thee observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior.

Albert Bandura

Proposed the social learning theory, which took cognitive process into account. He believed pure behaviorism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. Internal mental states must also have a role in learning and observational learning involve more than imitation.

Unlearned behaviors

Reflexes and instincts. Help an organism adapt to its environment

reinforcement schedules

Reinforcement schedule - description - result - example Fixed interval - reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes) - moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement - hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief Variable interval - reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (after 5 ,7, 10, and 20 minutes) - moderate yet steady response rate - checking Facebook Fixed ratio - reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses) - high response rate with pauses after reinforcement - piecework —factory worker getting paid for every x number of items manufactured Variable ratio - reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses) - high and steady response rate - gambling

Primary reinforcer

Reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. Not learned. Examples are water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, touch, and pleasure.

Shaping

Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior. Behaviors are broken down into many small achievable steps.

Positive punishment

Something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive reinforcement

Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative punishment

Something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

B. F. Skinner believed:

That behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior, the reinforcements and punishments. Based on the law of effect proposed by Edward Thorndike.

conditioned response (CR)

The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

Extinction

The gradual decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.

Variable ratio reinforcement schedule

The number of responses needed for a reward varies. The most powerful partial reinforcement schedule. The most productive reinforcement schedule and the most resistant to extinction. (Gambler)

Partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement)

The person or animal doesn't get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior.

variable interval reinforcement schedule

The person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable. (Restaurant manager)

Spontaneous recovery

The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period.

Watsons work

Through experiments with Watson's graduate student, Rosalie Rainer, and a baby called Little Albert they demonstrated how fears can be conditioned. It was Watson's intension to produce a phobia through conditioning alone, thus countering Freud's view that phobias are caused by deep hidden conflicts in the mind.

Behavior modification

Uses the principles of operant conditioning to accomplish behavior change so that undesirable behaviors are switched for more socially acceptable ones.

Higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)

Using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus. It is hard to achieve anything above second-order conditioning.

Stimulus generalization

When an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimulus that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimulus that are similar.

Continuous reinforcement

When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded. (Eyeglass saleswoman)

Acquisition

when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During acquisition the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response and eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus.

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time. The least productive reinforcement schedule and the easiest to extinguish. (Surgery patient)