Geography A Level - Migration, Identity and Sovereignty
Sovereignty?
The authority of a state to govern itself or another state Supreme power and authority
Types of migrants?
Voluntary Economic Migrants - people trying to relocate to improve their wealth and quality of life - family may follow them in aim of joining the family Refugees - people forced to relocate due to war, persecution or conflict e.g. Syria Asylum seekers - people fleeing for international protection Environmental refugees - relocating specifically due to tectonic disaster, natural events (wildfires, flooding) or climate change's impacts (desertification, sea level rise etc) e.g. Kiribati International students - large increase in volume of young people migrating to study elsewhere
Nation States example - Portugal?
6th least diverse country in world - ranked by ethnic fractionalisation index as 96.3% (100% = selecting neighbourhoods containing people of predominantly different groups is non-existent - all the same = 100%) One of the oldest borders in the world (around 1000 years old) - long history of independent conquest Mountain range on the East separating it from Spain - barrier makes it hard to cross -> cultures developed in slightly different ways Ethnically homogeneous
Ethnic composition of Germany?
80% are German 3.7% = Turks, but poorly integrated into German society Guest workers from Spain, Portugal, Italy + Greece (south Europeans) have integrated themselves the best Many guest workers from Turkey didn't want to become part of German society as want to make money and return home BUT formed ghettos and stayed on For 30-40 years, Turks not offered enough in terms of education BUT if have right to dual citizenship = promotes integration Should make effort to get education, speak German and accept legal order + cultural norms Xenophobia with 50% of Germans still thinking there are too many immigrants Gradual improvements with higher number of Turkish girls in highest form of secondary school exceeding % of Turkish boys Increasing number of Turks regarding Germany as home country VS in 1990's, 2/3 wanted to return home at some point
Tibet?
Central Asia between India, Nepal + China China maintains that Tibet is an integral part of China BUT Tibetan government-in-exile thinks they are an independent state under lawful occupation No country openly disputes China's claim to sovereignty 1913 = declared independence 1951 = incorporated in People's Republic of China 1959 = previous Tibetan government is abolished Enabled mass migration from China to Tibet -> ethnic Chinese people used to claim sovereignty over Tibet - cultural erosion OR integration NOW 7.5 million Han Chinese + 6 million Tibetans New railway link boosts economic expansion for Tibet
Imperialism?
Extending a country's power + influence through colonisation, use of military force or other means Can be through informal empires, TNCs, monopolies e.g. US
Nationalism?
Ideology founded on the belief that groups of people with the same nationality, characterised by a shared language or descent, should take the right to govern themselves politically Sense of loyalty to their country of origin or residence, by identifying with national values and celebrating traditions or beliefs
Tax evasion?
Illegal - not paying the taxes that you owe Starbucks (2009-2012) - reported no profit + paid no income tax on sales of £1.2 billion in UK BUT paid more tax voluntarily to save brand reputation
Advantages of free movement?
Lots of workers = wages fall as no problem filling jobs = good for employers, but bad for workers When employers can't find enough workers with skills they need = offer higher wages to attract more people = bad situation for employers, but good for workers Free movement of labour = popular with businesses as people move to areas where can get higher wages for same job -> wages can rebalance at a lower rate
Since 1945...?
New nation states have emerged as empires disintegrated -> conflicts
Migrant corridors?
Obstacles to migration are reduced when established route for migrants to follow e.g. through Mexico -> USA Network of 'connectors' helps immigrants travel route where can claim asylum, while people smugglers get others over border Cause of migration as mean people decide to migrate who would not otherwise do so BUT also consequence of demand for migration
Reasons for contested borders?
One state wanting to take over another e.g. perhaps because doesn't recognise other as a legitimate country (North and South Korea OR Taiwan and China) Desire to unite culturally and ethnically similar population Desire to gain access to valuable resources e.g. South China Sea + Ukraine and Russia
UN says how many states?
196 states
China's 'hukou' system?
350 million people expected to move to urban areas by 2025 Introduced restrictions on internal migration to keep people in rural areas e.g. hard for migrant workers to change their official residence to a new location - have to be registered and buy a permit Without a permit, hukou workers earn less and their families have no entitlement to schooling or healthcare Aims to address imbalance and inequality in urban and rural with differences in education, healthcare, school spending, job opportunities etc Changed because of global shift - too restrictive as China depends so much on manufacturing and service industries within cities
Causes of Rwandan Civil War>?
Colonial powers Migration - people that are outside country could come in and restart conflicts + increased instability as Hutus in Congo (resentment in society + genocide is not really over) Economics - Dependency Theory = needed aid as periphery and World Systems Theory as dependent on coffee (raw material = fluctuating prices), boom cycles Corruption - aid money used to build up armies etc (Hutus) Ethnic differences Violent action
Cost of Vietnam War?
1 million Vietnamese soldiers died + 1 million civilians Approximately 58,000 US troops were killed 11 million refugees 7 million tons of US bombs US chemical weapons caused heavy environmental damage + harmed 1 million people + destroyed Vietnam's infrastructure
Japan's immigration policy?
1.7% of population is born overseas AGEING + SHRINKING POPULATION - Declining with 27% aged 65 and over UN believes Japan requires 50 million migrants by 2050 to make sure population levels do not drop below 2007 levels + fertility rate above replacement level to MAINTAIN ECONOMY AND LIVING STANDARDS Limited migration because Japanese isn't an international language - many do not speak it outside Japan Closed-door policies towards migrants BUT many Japanese people believe increasing immigration -> societal disruptions and crime increases Restricting immigration has helped Japan to avoid social issues and conflicts After 2008 financial crisis, Japan offered foreign-born residents money to leave Babies born to parents born abroad = not automatically Japanese citizens, but have to use naturalisation process (lots of guidelines)
Iraq's colonial borders?
1916 = British and French made secret agreement to divide up parts of Middle East between them Sykes-Picot Agreement Went on to influence borders of nation states, including Iraq Iraq's borders cut through ethnic groups e.g. Arabs and Kurds creating conflicts where Kurds, Sunni and Shia Muslims have clashed in civil war
Australia's immigration policy?
28.5% of population is born overseas Based strictly on skills and employment 70% of immigrants accepted based on skills shortages - mostly living in major cities, such as Melbourne Ageing population and migrants are usually young so ageing population is balanced out On average, immigrants contribute 10% more per capita than non-immigrants In 2013, only 190,000 economic migrants were allowed to enter Australia Between 2015-2020, skilled immigrants are expected to add US$1.2 trillion to Australia's GDP
Globally, how many people live outside their country of birth?
3-4% Proportion varies greatly between countries because of different policies relating to international migration and levels of engagement within the global economy
Nation?
A group of people who lack sovereignty (lack power) Welsh and Scottish nations as part of the sovereign state of the UK - lack full control, despite having their own parliaments and language A large population that shares the same culture, language, traditions, history etc
Ethnic?
A particular group of people who share common traditions/culture because of living in the same geographic region Cultural over biological (race)
Nationalism concise definition?
A political ideology where it is believed that groups that share common characteristics of a nation should have the right to self-govern Shared feeling for a special, significant geographical area Sense of belonging + political identification to a nation End result - self-interest as priority
Nation state?
A sovereign state in which most of the citizens and subjects are united also by factors that define a nation e.g. language or common descent Great majority shares the same culture and are conscious of it Identity Physical and political borders are often contested A political entity: existing as a single, complete unit Has sovereignty over its boundaries: complete freedom and power to govern over its territory Collective identity from a shared history and (often) ethnicity
State?
A territory that no other country has power or sovereignty over Independent political entity with clear geographical boundaries
Colonialism?
Acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers + exploiting it economically e.g. direct control
Why has migration changed?
Advancement of transport networks making it easy to travel easily to other countries to live, work and visit Global trading has increased -> increasing international migration since collapse of empires International migration has regionalised e.g. Mexicans to America or Poland to Germany
Demographic impacts of migration?
Ageing, declining populations are boosted by increasing numbers BUT people perceive their country as becoming crowded or 'full'
Ethnic composition of The Netherlands?
Almost 4 in 5 residents are ethnic Dutch Turks = 2.3% of population -> shortage of labour in Netherlands + unemployment rates in Turkey = recruitment agreement signed by both countries Post-WW2 reconstruction = shortage on labour market Leave to stay/guest workers from Turkey + Morocco 1960's + 1970's = Dutch government had no integration policy - little pressure to learn Dutch language 1980's = minority policy - became an immigration country, but many former guest workers lost jobs however Government attempted to help them e.g. free language education and vocational programmes 1989-1998 immigration policy = quicker + better integration of immigrants into Dutch society - free voluntary language courses aimed at newcomers 1998-2006 = WIN Law (Newcomers' Integration Law) - aim to increase self-sufficiency of migrants and have to attend integration programme if there for less than a year + sanctions if failed to meet law 2007 = WI - imposes duty to integrate - new and old arrivals - have to pass integration exam for permanent residency
Ethnic enclaves?
Areas where inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct e.g. Hindu or Sikh communities in Southall, West London
Trickle-down effect?
Benefits to some groups leads to advantages of other groups in society e.g. pioneering technologies - now cheaper for rest of population because of economies of scale etc
Patterns of migration...?
Between former colonies + imperial core country are still evident (neo-colonialism) Important in changing ethnic composition + heterogeneity of countries
Different economic model - case study?
Bolivia - 2009 = socialist government used wealth to reduce social inequalities Turned against neo-liberalism + undid 20 years of privatisation + IMF influence Poverty decreased by 25% during his government Nationalising oil + other resources = revenues go to government rather than shareholders + private owners Subsidising costs for poorer citizens so food cheaper than would be Promoting low-energy and low resource-use economies - REJECTING ECONOMIC GROWTH Import substitution - reducing imports by producing more products in Bolivia - economic growth is above 4% a year BUT GDP per capita still remains lowest in South America Fraudulent election + won, but can't be president for 4th term = lost support from police + military and protests He sought asylum in Mexico + replaced by self-declared Anez of opposition party - centre (capitalist) He regarded political situation as coup/popular uprising Model not feasible as too much power given to people
19th Century nationalism importance to the development of empires?
British Empire began because of trade rather than nationalism Over time, pride in British achievements + wealth created national unity Most British people believed that their huge empire proved the British were a special nation Other European nations also began to form as war and revolutions overturned Europe's dynastic elites Germany became nation in 1871 after war with France = bringing together of many small states of German-speaking peoples European nations industrialised -> empire expansion e.g. French Empire = Asia and South Pacific (French Polynesia) European nations competed to take over more colonies -> created tensions + conflicts between nations = added strength of nationalism Empires helped create nationalism in colonies -> people living in colonies often resented being controlled by another country
Nationalism in India?
British Raj - India was part of the British Empire Before = divided into several kingdoms like it is now Opposition to British rule helped bring Indians together despite the many ethnic and cultural differences between Indian people
Independence movements?
Brought people together who might not otherwise have felt that they have much in common e.g. because of different ethnicities Based on recognising and promoting shared history and special qualities of people + looking forward to the independent nation state that the people could build together once they were free of colonial control
Rural-Urban migration case study?
China Rapid industrialisation began when government reforms allowed foreign investment in Chinese industry (financial deregulation) More than 200 million rural migrants working in China's cities + around 20 million arriving from cities each year Low skilled and a lot in construction
Impacts of nationalism on...? (4)
Colonialism - European Nations extended the oversea interest in colonies -> change in culture and decreased culture growth in areas that have been colonised Conflicts + genocide -> increased conflicts because some groups may not agree with majority group e.g. Rwanda with Tutsis and Hutus + Croatian War of Independence, Yugoslavia = genocide-focused - range of tactics used to deliberately move people out Ethnic differences complicate nation situation Migration - closer language + cultural ties means that most UK migrants, if not from geographically close countries, come from former British colonies e.g. India (significant number of migrants since WW2, English as one of national languages, Commonwealth Games, compete with UK with cricket) Jamaica, Pakistan, Australia + South Africa Passed relationships = overlap to UK = make more migration likely e.g. adopted cricket better than UK post-independence Independence - 'Winds of Change' + national consciousness grows -> don't give resources to colonial/imperial power as right to self-govern
Causes of European Migrant Crisis?
Conflict in Syria - combination of civil war + ISIS' actions led to 11 million people leaving homes in Syria Other conflicts e.g. Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, Nigeria Restrictive immigration policies - many Syrian refugees first went to Turkey where 2 million put into refugee camps. Turkey's immigration policy is v strict e.g. immigrants are not allowed to work, so those not in camps have been forced to work illegally in unsafe or unhealthy conditions EU opportunities - Refugees in Turkey then tried to get to EU with more opportunities -> migration corridors by land (Balkan corridor) + sea Open immigration policies - thousands of migrant deaths crossing Mediterranean in overcrowded boats -> EU public opinion = feel sorry for migrants. Germany said would take 500,000 migrants each year until 2020
National borders?
Consequence of physical and historical development Natural borders - most successful because unarguable division as physical geography - armies can't cross natural borders unnoticed - band of inhabitable land, easily separating states without conflict over residents' sovereignty - e.g. Niagara River between Canada and USA, coastlines, mountains Colonial or political intervention - borders drafted by sovereign state + may have been influenced by past empire expansion - aim to resolve political crises e.g. between North Korea and South Korea as part of ceasefire in Korean War (1950-1953) Cultural borders - mark divide between different ethnic groups that have a different cultural identity e.g. border between Czech Republic + Slovakia is partly cultural However, often borders created by governments do not take into account differences between religious and ethnic group, which could lead to conflict between social groups in the future e.g. Rwanda = clashing ethnic groups within one state spiralled into the genocide of 800,000 Tutsis
Tax havens?
Countries with very low or no tax rates Allows - Corporate profit-sharing - TNC locates its headquarters in a low-tax country + registers its profits there Individuals can move to a tax haven + live there, but not always popular as want to live in own country Invest money in trust in tax haven Cayman Islands = 0% personal income tax + low business taxes - 4/10 of world's top investment banks have headquarters there Luxembourg = 1% - special tax breaks allowing millions to be saved on tax payments on profits earned in other countries - over 40,000 TNC holding companies Ireland = 12.5% VS UK's 20% A lot around Caribbean + Central America Global wealth = $96 trillion and it is estimated that $32 trillion goes through tax havens
Social consequences of migration?
Cultural diversity -> more interesting and vibrant communities Migrants are often young, educated and skilled, employers benefit e.g. NHS Improved local services e.g. more shops, restaurants, cafes BUT segregated areas are created that non-migrants feel excluded from More people in an area puts pressure on health + education services Non-migrants feel cultural identity of places is under threat Inward migration = increasing house prices as supply fails to meet demand and overcrowded schools etc Large out-migration from source regions = skill shortages + ageing populations Poverty + violence in Mexico and Central America = motivated millions to go to America Political upheaval and religious repression in Myanmar causing people to leave the country, particularly those from Muslim minority
Causes of migration?
Economic - employment opportunities + higher paying employment in other countries for same skill set (impacts many people, pull and push factor) Movement to high-income countries e.g USA, UK + Saudi Arabia from middle-income countries e.g. MRICs (Mexico) BECAUSE migration is too expensive for poor people + economic migrants are usually the wealthier people in an area BUT technological developments could mean that can connect over the Internet with other international branches without needing to relocate OR technology could mean that more likely to migrate as can still connect with family back at home Social - reuniting and reconnecting with family (less pressing concern) and Montserrat 1997 - people were sponsored to move to the UK and then the dependents joined them, better quality of life, better welfare system, culture Political - influences amount of migration as war and poverty in Somalia means increased emigration and increased immigration in other countries - qualifier for where end up, censorship Environmental - climate change e.g. Kiribati - likely to become worse in the future with temperatures increasing by 3-5oC by 2100 meaning higher sea levels etc - MORE PUSH THAN PULL
Mexico-US border?
Economic impact - Mexican immigrants contribute approximately 4% of total US GDP = important to US economy BUT USA spent $3.8 billion on border security in 2015 Social/cultural impact - Hispanic/Latino culture has made major contribution to US cuisine e.g. tacos, burritos, music, media, religion + language BUT by accepting lower wages, Hispanic migrants have lowered wages for poorly educated, low-skilled Americans who resent this Demographic impact - Hispanic migration has added 58 million people to USA's population (2016) -> main reason for US population growth since 2000, combating effects of an ageing US workforce BUT projections suggest white Americans will no longer be the majority ethnic group by 2065, affecting election results Trump's Mexican Wall aims to end 'catch and release' + stems flows of drugs, crime + illegal immigration as over 11 million illegal immigrants in USA
Changing migration patterns are caused by...?
Environmental, economic + political events in sources and destinations Environmental changes = impacts of climate change e.g. sea level rise - migrants are already leaving low-lying islands e.g. Kiribati to move to New Zealand + Maldives = 500,000 environmental refugees Economic changes = influential to voluntary migration e.g. migration from Bangladesh, India + Pakistan to Qatar has increased because of recruitment of workers for 2022 Fifa World Cup construction projects Political changes = positive/pull factors e.g. Canada's welcoming immigration policy OR political conflict is main cause of migration by refugees and asylum seekers e.g. Syrian Civil War has created 5 million refugees outside Syria
Varying identities of national sovereign states?
Factors affecting unity include history of population growth, cultural + geographical isolation and the role of migration
Significant historical migrations?
Forced migration of Africans to the Americas - slave trade (16th-19th Century) Economic migration of Europeans to North America in 1880-1910 8 million refugees in Europe following end of WW2 (1945) Movement of Muslims into Pakistan + Hindus and Sikhs into India following partition of India in 1947 Refugees fleeing war in Afghanistan in 1980s
Migration between EU states?
Free movement between EU states 2017 = 3.8% of all EU citizens of working age were migrants Opinions vary with Brexit indicating strong differences of opinion about impact of migration
Globalisation has changed...?
Global economic system and changed the pattern of demand for labour Encouraged rural-urban migration within countries and international migration between countries
Globalisation ->? (chain of analysis)
Globalisation -> Integration/Assimilation -> Overpopulation -> Negative Externalities -> Cultural erosion -> Media (way in which reported e.g. emotive language) -> Perceptions -> War + genocide as worst outcomes
Economic Theory? (rationale FOR encouraging migration)
Governments will maximise 'economic efficiency' - productive workforce and developed financial market - allow free movement of goods, capital and labour Increased efficiency and productivity are created through free flows of goods (free trade), capital (deregulated financial markets - free-market capitalism) and labour (open-borders) Free-market capitalism - efficiency and therefore improved productivity is created through free flows of goods, capital and labour Some do not agree or fear they'll lose their national identity through unrestricted flows - flows aren't restricted in a global scale Can pose serious challenges for national identity and sovereignty Migration can be seen as an efficient way of ensuring that economic output of a place is optimised Internal migration is mostly unrestricted and international migration is typically within trade blocs and governmental agreements
Nation States example - Iceland?
Harsh, big ocean historically created a barrier to travel meaning development of local culture (Mid-Atlantic Ocean - hundreds of km from neighbours) Independence gained from Denmark in 1944 Ethnic composition = descendants of Norse and Celts=94% and foreign population of foreign origin=6% Icelandic language remains unchanged since 870AD - all names taken from list of those found in Icelandic sagas Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland covers 74% of population Monocultural + ethnically homogeneous Try to prevent other words from entering language e.g. computer as proud of distinctive culture 2200KM FROM MAINLAND EUROPE
Cultural assimilation?
Immigrants take on the culture of their host country e.g. USA waves of immigration, but eventually developing a recognisable American culture Problematic = each wave of immigration has fundamentally changed what 'American culture' is Sometimes seen as too slow Rates vary from country to country and different ethnic groups
Decolonisation?
Independence movements in many colonies gained strength after WW2 Caused by colonial powers not being able to afford administrative and security costs of running an empire e.g. Britain + France after costs of war AND Cold War superpowers (USA + USSR) were both ideologically opposed to empires and used influence to HELP OPPRESSED PEOPLE LIBERATE THEMSELVES FROM COLONIALISM Inability of colonial powers to stop liberation movements by force + support for independence meant that creation of new independent nation states was rapid
4 potential acculturation outcomes?
Integration = Cultural maintenance + maintaining relationships with larger society Assimilation = No cultural maintenance + maintaining relationships with larger society Separation = Cultural maintenance + no relationships with larger society Marginalization = No cultural maintenance + no relationships with larger society
Disadvantages of tax havens?
Investing abroad reduces amount of money left to invest at home Tax havens allow individuals to hide income from own governments - increasing corruption in both developed + developing countries TNCs make huge profits in countries, such as the UK, but pay very little tax meaning less money for government services e.g. NHS Terror funding Criminals e.g. drug dealers money launder
NGO opinion of tax havens?
Involved in development object to tax havens as they reduce the amount of money that is invested in developing countries and encourages corruption
Political consequences of migration?
Japan = homogeneous + sluggish economic growth BUT limit immigrants as fear of crime by foreigners + disruption of harmony and co-operation that characterise Japanese society therefore NO immigration principle is widely supported USA-Mexico - by 2015, over 11.7 million Mexican immigrants in USA, making largest immigrant in USA 51% of Americans say immigrants benefit country BUT 41% say BURDEN Extremist groups e.g. EDL in High Wycombe, Donald Trump with Mexico (rapists, crime), National Front in France Rise of far right e.g. Nationalist + xenophobic parties topping the polls Varying levels of tolerance in societies Forces Governments to decide nationalities Citizenship test, testing fundamental vales e.g. democracy, rule of law, mutual respect as cannot undermine values as citizen Globalisation = political uncertainty = rise of extremist groups/views
Family Reunification?
Law in 1974 - made easier for families to reunite and live together e.g. in the Netherlands as migrant worker's families from Turkey + Morocco could join loved ones BUT impacts just small minority of people compared to large-scale economic impact derived from free movement of people
Variations in migration opportunities due to...?
Levels of skill + income Points-based immigration - limitation for some as prioritisation of highly skilled workers e.g. in UK. Awarding points for certain skills a person possesses e.g. educational qualifications, professional experience, age, language skills + earn above certain level to apply Shortage occupations - points-based systems often prioritise applications for shortage occupations (jobs that not enough people in the country have the skills to do) e.g. Australia's data processing technicians, skilled construction + mechanical engineers
Why do some states not have full control over their borders?
Long borders especially coastlines e.g. Greece with many islands Conflict that reduces central government control over its country Conflict in neighbouring countries which strongly motivates people to migrate + creates a market for people traffickers -> illegal migration
Globalisation has encouraged the growth of states that have...?
Low-tax regimes -> haven for profits for TNCs and homes for wealthy expatriates (person residing in another country other than their native country) National governments have reduced restrictions on who can invest in their countries in order to encourage more FDI -> deregulation Free movement of money = TNCs move some operations to nations charging lower tax 'Shelter' money from government taxation
The EU-Schengen Agreement?
Luxembourg, 1995 - Abolished many internal border controls within the EU Enabled passport-free movement across most EU member states, with no checks at the borders 26 Schengen countries - 22 EU members and 4 non-EU members (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein) - NOT UK Positives - helped to fill job vacancies in other EU countries Negatives - too easy for migrants outside the EU to travel to high labour demand countries e.g. Germany, criticised by some that it gives access to cheaper labour as undercutting domestic workers and lowering wages + free movement of criminals and terrorists e.g. Paris 2015 terrorist attacks 2015 - more than 1 million migrants (mostly Syrian refugees) travelled into EU through Hungary, introduced temporary border checks 2016 - 6 Schengen countries reintroduced internal border controls e.g. Germany, France, Sweden, Denmark
Growing global inequalities =...?
Major threat to sustainability of global economic system China = major growth in inequality since 1990 1% of the world hold 50% of the world's wealth - BUT can be solved by socialism which rejects parts of unfair economic systems e.g. reverse privatisation -> Bolivia
Changes to location where there is a demand for workers? (Global shift)
Manufacturing jobs -> lower-wage countries e.g. China therefore demand for manufacturing workers follows shift Rapid industrialisation in lower-wage counties created high demand for workers -> met be internal migration (rural-urban migration) Globalisation = capital to flow freely around the world - investment has created demand in construction and services Globalisation has encouraged international migration - workers can move, earn more and send money home
Gini coefficient?
Measure of distribution of wealth/income equality -> how much equality is there? 100 = complete inequality 0 - complete equality Greater wealth inequality within developed countries due to higher incomes Caused by savings + investment BECAUSE income inequality has decreased
Cultural fractionization?
Measures how diverse countries are by measuring people's attitudes towards religion, democracy and the law
Creating States examples?
Middle East Physical Geography - river and mountains Deliberate divide and rule Ethnic groups - Kurdish had no homeland but found across many countries Syrian Civil War - fighting government for authority Oteman Empire collapsed (1914)
Economic consequences of migration?
Migrants create economic opportunities by opening new businesses Migrants contribute more taxes to economy than take in benefits Migrants fill important gaps in the labour force e.g. healthcare BUT migrants take jobs that could be given to non-migrants instead Migrants send remittances instead of spending in host country Migrants may accept lower wages for low-skilled jobs, meaning lower wages for non-migrants Separation of skilled and unskilled workforce -> tensions + economic disparities Attempts to illegally + riskily cross borders with Mexicans paying up to $10,000 to do so UK = North -> South drift accelerated in 1980's - caused by peripheral DEINDUSTRIALISATION and young people move down to opportunities in London + South (House prices tripled since 1995 due to increase demand and London population is almost 9 million) -> increased costs of living in London -> out-migration to other Southerly regions/Bristol/Cardiff which have been regenerated (REGENERATION OF LARGER CITIES) London's global hub status = core-periphery balance is likely to persist No migration = economic slowdown as shown in Japan's sluggish economy
Consequences of international migration?
Migration changes the cultural and ethnic composition of nation states May not increase ethnic diversity in terms of race if migrants are from the same race as host country e.g. white Australians in London BUT Increases cultural diversity because migrants bring different traditions and lifestyles with them e.g. London's 200,000 Australians have influenced city's nightlife, language + entertainment industries
Lee Model of Migration?
Migration occurs when balance of push and pull factors is strong enough to overcome intervening obstacles Patterns of migration may change in response to environmental, economic or political change in either host or home areas (If people migrate, they do so on the path of least effort, where people speak the same language, where the visas are easy to get, and where the physical gap is least)
The 'wind of change'?
Most British colonies in Africa became 17 independent nations in 1960's. Prime Minister (Harold Macmillan) only addressed white South Africa + said 'the wind of change is blowing through this continent' New nations faced challenges e.g. British left without establishing a secure government + military often seized power Economies of former colonies had been constructed to supply raw materials to empire and were not industrialised Ethnic + political differences within and between nations produced conflicts Superpowers tried to gain influence in new nations, which increased corruption
International migration?
Most international migrants live in high-income countries (64% in 2017) USA has the most at 50 million people Approximately 10% of international migrants are refugees or asylum seekers, mainly residing in low-income countries (84% in 2017)
Justification points regarding which is the biggest cause of migration?
Most number of reasons Affects most people Type of people affected + if majority/minority Severity of impacts e.g. deaths Knock-on effects Global reach
Regional movement?
Movement of labour remains unrestricted within many nation states to ensure efficient allocation of resources UK = between 2016 and 2017, 3.24 million people moved from one part of England + Wales to another Young adults most likely to move 13% of UK population in London + disproportional incomes with South earning more than the North London has highest rate of out-migration in England - move to other places in South East as v high house prices in London East Midlands had highest rate of in-migration
Rural-Urban migration?
Movement of people from traditional farming areas to cities (often industrial cities) Pull Factors = Higher wages of urban economies, better working conditions, high provision of services + wealth of opportunities Push Factors = Hard work + low wages of traditional rural economies, low level of health and education services and lack of opportunities
Tax havens uses? (advantages)
NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY Countries that offer tax incentives develop quickly or recover from severe recessions more quickly Most governments + IGOs accept tax havens + tax avoidance because of the boost to economic growth they deliver When TNCs are located in several different countries, it would not be fair to tax them in full in each one More competitive TNCs -> monopolies More earnings for individuals FDI + earnings for tax haven state Profits from TNCs reinvested into HICs Cheaper goods for consumers
Factors influencing the ethnic composition of states?
Past population growth - different ethnic groups have different birth rates Political geography/history - where actual borders have been drawn (typically in easy straight lines) - Oteman Empire collapsed so territory briefly held by Britain and France and borders drawn so have equal Physical geography - barriers e.g. mountains, deserts, seas, rivers Economic contribution of migrants - factors encouraging immigration
Causes of decolonization?
Political - Nationalist leaders e.g. Kenya - charismatic leaders who led case for independence Atlantic Charter signed by Churchill + Roosevelt during WW2 - US introduced autonomy to colonies and after war, colonies + US pushed Britain to act on terms of agreement of removing colonies - legally-binding, but only UK (colonies are not morally correct and threat to superpower status) National self-determination (ability to self-govern) became objective for some countries + international organisations e.g. US + UN - new superpower + reduced economic competition Economic -> knock-on political effects - Demographic transition in developing countries means subjugation (control) became harder for colonial powers 2 World Wars left Britain bankrupt + unable to finance admin of large empire Europe's economy is heading towards post-industrial economic activity therefore less dependence on raw materials Social pressure (motivated by religious movements) - Growing concern for injustice of colonial rule among young European citizens - protests + demonstrations against colonial rule were growing at home
Factors separating states/areas?
Politics Language Religion
The least globalised countries are the world's...
Poorest countries e.g. Eritrea, South Sudan, Central African Republic Attract few migrants
Rwandan Civil War?
Pre-Berlin Conference - Rwanda was unified region, home to Tutsi, Hutu and Twa people - Tutsi in control but council contained Tutsi and Hutu Germany established colonial rule over newly created country of Rwanda, after Berlin conference, and Belgium took over after Germany's defeat in WW1 Belgians favoured the Tutsi minority (14% of population) 1926 - introduced ethnic identity cards that officially differentiated Hutus from Tutsis 1962 - gained independence, but government contested and not legitimate Hutus rebelled against Belgian and Tutsi elite and Tutsis fled and many were killed between 60s and 70s In 70s and 80s, majority of Hutus were given preferential jobs in public services and military Plans stalled of idea to introduce multi-party government April 1994 - presidents of Rwanda and Burundi killed after planes shot down Genocide (mass killing) of 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus July 1994 - Hutu government fled with 2 million Hutu refugees to now known as Democratic Republic of Congo UN Security Council established international tribunal to oversee prosecution of suspects involved in Rwandan genocide Mass prisoner release
Taiwan?
Recognition dropped over time - only have formal diplomatic relations with 14 countries 95% population = Han Chinese Currently functions as a nation state, but not recognised as one by most countries, with Chinese government not recognising as legitimate + refuses to have diplomatic relations with any countries that does, leaving Taiwan in DIPLOMATIC ISOLATION One of biggest investors in China + one of Asian Tigers -> is economy dependent on China OR reduced likelihood of Chinese military action China reached out with 'three links' approach, improving and opening up trade, transport + communication BUT Taiwan responded with 3 Nos - no negotiation, no contact, no compromise US has unofficial relations through Taiwan Relations Act -> US policy is strategically ambiguous
Kashmir?
Small Indian-administered Himalayan border state in India Recognised as a disputed territory 1947 = partition of British India (colonialism) -> had to choose India OR Pakistan -> became part of India BUT indirect military by Pakistani forces -> Indo-Pak fighting -> 1/3 of India's territory under Pakistan's control UN has maintained long-standing institutional presence in contested area 1.5 million Muslims migrated to Pakistan because Kashmir leaders -> exodus to drive out Muslim majority -> India's governance has turned people against them 100,000 Muslims killed + 20,000 Hindus + Sikhs -> restrictions on political rights, civil liberties + refugee camps India revoked Kashmir's special status -> made it FEDERALLY CONTROLLED TERRITORY 5th August 2019 = Internet blackout 25th February 2020 - partially restored but for 'essential' services $1.4 billion of economic losses in a month + longest shutdown ever imposed on a democracy + Supreme Court considered ban as 'illegal' and abuse of power
Rationale AGAINST encouraging migration?
Some governments have more restricted controls to limit the number of immigrants coming into their country = due to perception of migration Positive and negative consequences of migration to different players National Culture - fears of cultural diffusion and loss of national culture Employment - some blame immigrants for the loss of job opportunities in their area National Security - recent events e.g. terror attacks and the 'War of Terror' has caused political controversy regarding national security - pose a security risk and these views have been exacerbated by some media outlets and politicians - Donald Trump, Brexit and the rise of extreme right-wing political parties
Diaspora?
The dispersion or spread of any people from their original homeland
Assimilation?
The gradual integration of an immigrant group into the lifestyle and culture of the host country, sometimes at the expense of their own distinctiveness -> happens over time as migrants become more mobile, have mixed marriages and adjust to the host nation's way of life
Acculturation?
The modification of an immigrant group's culture in response to the dominant culture of the area
Negative externalities?
The negative impacts an action can have on a third party e.g. increased immigration to a host country could lead to pressures being placed on their public services, such as school places and doctor's appointments
Contested borders examples?
Tibet Northern Cyprus Taiwan Kashmir
Variation in rates of assimilation?
Time - amount of time resident in host nation e.g. in 2011, 77% of those resident in UK for more than 30 years reported having a UK identity VS 10% for recent arrivals, arriving between 2007-2011 Ethnicity - English language proficiency was 89% among non-UK born residents, but 70% among Bangladeshi-born residents and 62% among Chinese-born residents State support e.g. if Government funds translation service for government websites = recent migrants can better access information about host country + state-funded language training for recent migrants
Political instability - case study?
Trump's political base includes working-class voters who felt 'left behind' as result of global shifts in manufacturing Protecting 'America first' threatened the global economic system based on the free movement of goods, capital + people 2019 Trade War with China threatened global growth
Northern Cyprus?
Turkey is the only country who recognises Northern Cyprus Bangladesh/Pakistan used to recognise BUT withdrew due to US pressure UN = legally invalid as 'puppet state' Turkey invaded whole island to gain power after 1960 independence from British rule -> only gained power of North (36% of island) 200,000 Cypriots displaced + UN consented to transfer of 51,000 Turkish Cypriots trapped in the south to settle in North as previously moved to areas under UK sovereign control Different visas needed
% of migrants in populations?
UK = 14% HICs = 5% World = 3-4% Australia = 28.5% UAE = 90% Japan = 2% (closed door policy)
Consequences of inequality?
Unequal access to quality education Reduced life expectancy for the poorest Low-pay, low-skill jobs with no prospects Increased physical and mental health problems for the poorest Political instability as people reject the established political classes who they identify with the rich elite -> Anarchy (black bloc protesters) - rejection of set hierarchy
Rwanda Civil War (short)?
Unified region -> Germany -> Belgium Preference of Tutsi minority (14% of population) Ethnic identity cards Belgians then favoured Belgians because Hutus were growing in power + size -> preferential jobs in public services + military 1962 - independence, but illegitimate government 100 days of genocide + 800,000 Tutsis killed 1989 - coffee collapsed and farmers lost their jobs
Not all states are...?
Universally recognised e.g. Northern Cyprus + Taiwan
Tax avoidance?
Using legal loopholes to legally reduce how much tax you have to pay
Singapore's immigration policies?
Very high percentage of foreign workers as LOW FERTILITY RATE + AGEING POPULATION - population growth is 1% per year 64% = foreign-born Great ethnic diversity World's 4th largest financial centre High demand in construction, domestic labour and manufacturing industries so recruit from neighbouring countries Many TNCs have Asia-Pacific HQs in Singapore Many international schools have been set up to cater education towards migrants whose first language may not be Malay (the national language) HOWEVER very strict regarding who is given permanent resident status as only skilled workers who integrate well are considered Low-skilled workers treated more harshly, with immigrants having to leave within 7 days of contract ending
Post-colonial conflict - case study?
Vietnam War 1950's - Vietnamese, led by the communist leader, fought for independence against the French French were defeated and left Vietnam BUT USA supported an anti-communist regime in South Vietnam Civil war broke out between North + South, and USA aided South Vietnam + USSR and China aided the North The superpowers 'fought' each other without actually going to war Vietnam was divided by North + South in 1954 1975 = North Vietnam defeated South Vietnam -> country was unified under communist leadership
Globalisation's contribution to increased inequality?
Washington Consensus - leading industrialised nations have adopted belief that economic efficiency can only be achieved if regulations are removed e.g. trade liberalisation saves times + costs Deregulation - trend in 1970's-1980's with state interference being reduced or removed altogether + used to regulate home and abroad investment Post-deregulation = capital transferred freely, cheaply + quickly, with digital systems Privatisation - Government assets in services + industries ownership shifts to TNCs and wealthy individuals Decreased government spending = decreased taxation = tax havens
Cultural unity?
When people agree + feel united = complex Different languages, dialects, sports teams, music and literature within a single state Result from historic migration e.g. USA - European settlers have vastly outnumbered the descendants of indigenous tribes HOWEVER some states have a single ethnic group due to physical location e.g. Iceland or political forced isolation e.g. North Korea (government restricts interactions with foreign countries)
Economic theories about migration?
World Systems Theory - neo-colonialism as former colonies stay dependent on former colonial superpower -> cause migration along trade routes from poorer to richer -> Free trade, with NO DEPENDENCIES, can make all countries richer, reducing migration Neoclassical Economic Theory - wage differences is most significant push/pull factor Dual labour market theory - pull factors in developed countries bring migrant workers to fill lowest skilled jobs because home population does not want these jobs New economies of labour migration - migration causes are more complex than neoclassical theory -> living conditions improved in source country by remittances sent home Relative deprivation theory - awareness of income differences between neighbours in source country. Successful migrants = example for others in source community and encourage movement
