Geography

Climate in valleys vs peaks

Valley bottoms warmer and drier than highest peaks, often fill with fog and stagnant air for days on end.

Define frontal rainfall

When cold polar air mass meets warm tropical air mass, they do not mix they form fronts. Colder air mass is heavier than warmer air mass, therefore the lighter, warmer air rises over the top of the heavier, colder air. As warm air is forced to rise, it cools. Warm air is in contact with the cold air along the fronts, and also cools. Condensation occurs and clouds form. Rain occurs along the front.

Define convectional rainfall

When the land warms up, it heats the air above it. This causes the air to expand and rise. As the air rises it cools and condenses. If this process continues then rain will fall. This type of rainfall is very common in tropical areas but also in areas such as South East England during warm sunny spells.

Weathering definition

a physical breakdown and/or chemical alteration of rocks at or near the Earth's surface; slow but constant. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering.

Define wind

air that moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

Baltic Shield

all northern Scandinavia, Northwestern Russia. Part of ancient continent, mountains have been eroded, largely flat. Yields important industrial minerals and ores, contains oldest rocks of European continent

Define alpine

term used to describe similar climate, vegetation in high mountainous areas all over world.

Define Coriolis effect

the Earth spins on its axis from West to East. This changes direction winds, making them follow curved paths across Earth.

Define prevailing wind

wind that is most frequent in an area.

Factors that attract tourists

• Beautiful scenery, glaciated mountains, snow-topped peak and forests • Lakeside summer resorts (Garda, Lucerne) • Winter sports facilities, indoor and outdoor (ski slopes, ice rinks) • Good communications, international transport links (airports, tunnels, motorways) • Alpine climate, snowfall and crisp, clear days, warm summers with showers.

How ski resorts adapt to climate change

• Buses to transport tourists to higher level resorts for skiing • Artificial snow on slopes, can be expensive and damage vegetation which takes up to 30 years to recover. Resorts have to reinvent themselves, spas, rock-climbing or cross-country skiing. Diversification of outdoor summer activities, similar for winter ones. • Plans to build ski-lifts to link resorts but could cause damage to environment.

Benefits of tourism Chamonix

• Huge economic benefits, employment for local people in hotels and restaurants, sport facilities as guides and instructors • Construction and maintenance provide jobs for local people. • Town has to remain attractive, pedestrian streets provide safe access to shops, clean and well lit.

Features of glacial deposition

• Lateral moraine = ridges deposited along the sides of the glaciated valley. • Terminal moraine = ridges of unsorted material that marks the furthest part of glacier. • Medial moraine = formed when two glaciers merge and lateral moraines form single one • Ground moraine = boulder clay deposited as moraine retreated • Recessional moraine = temporary drop in temperature, retreating ice paused and produces mound of material. • Eskers = ridge of sand and gravel deposited by melt-water river flowing rapidly in tunnel beneath ice. • Drumlins = rounded oval shaped hills made up of boulder clay, occur in swarms. • Outwash plain = low-lying area of sand and gravel found near terminal moraines, featureless. • Erratic = boulder carried by ice and deposited in an area where rock type is different.

Processes of erosion

• Plucking • Abrasion

Explain patterns of ocean currents

• Prevailing winds on surface create friction with surface water, setting up the ocean currents. • Huge size of Atlantic and Pacific oceans allows patterns to form. • Trade winds drive pattern between 0° and 30° north and south and the westerlies create pattern between 30° and 60° north and south. • Ocean currents don't flow due north or due south because of the Coriolis effect caused by Earth's rotation. This deflects currents to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in Southern Hemisphere. • Uneven heating produces density differences in oceans. • Cold dense polar water sinks, then spreads towards equator where it pushes up less dense warmer water which moves off towards polar areas. • Flow is further complicated by world's land masses, which impedes flow of most currents.

Problems of tourism Chamonix

• Town can become noisy and congested at peak times • Access to Chamonix by motorway is good, but in town itself roads are narrow and easily jammed. • Mountain footpaths are eroded due to volume of tourists. • Shops, cafes and restaurants tourist-orientated and expensive. Local people have to pay more. Houses are expensive and become second homes for wealthy visitors.

Features of erosion

• Truncated spurs • Crevasse = long, narrow, deep crack in surface of glacier. • Waterfalls • Cirque = large basin-shaped hollows in mountains, steep on three sides. Birthplace of glacier, sometimes contain round lakes called tarns. • U-shaped valley = steep-sided and flat-floored valley formed by glaciation. • Pyramidal peak = pointed by frost action when three or more cirques are back to back. • Arête = knife-edged ridge created where two cirques meet side by side. • Fjord = glaciated valley that has been drowned by seawater.

Depressions

Depressions are areas of low atmospheric pressure which produce cloudy, rainy weather, strong winds. Low pressure systems form when cold polar air interacts with warm, tropical air, forms over Atlantic, warm forced to rise and condenses. They bring frontal rain, wet and windy weather. Blows towards N.W Europe by prevailing south-westerly winds. Several km across. Warm, light, ascending air. Wind blows towards centre in an anti-clockwise direction due to the Coriolis effect.

What do differences in pressure do?

Differences in pressure result in development of global wind system. Wind in Northern Hemisphere are divided into three wind belts. Winds are named after direction from which they blow. • Poles to Equator: cold winds • Equator to Poles: warm winds

Disadvantage of alps

Disadvantages are that fold mountains low pop density, hard to build settlements, little flat land for farming, cold and wet climate, growing season short, danger of avalanches and rockfall. Farmers have found new techniques, rich countries build roads and tourism has created demand for communication, tourism has brought prosperity, energy companies exploit landscape, industry uses natural resources providing long-term employment.

What happened during last great ice age?

During last great ice age, Alps covered by massive mountain glaciers, remnants found at high elevations. Scooped out broad valleys, glacier depressions large, deep lakes have formed. Northern side of Alps are Lakes Geneva, Lucerne, Constance, on Southern side are Lakes Maggiore, Lugano, Como, Garda. • Aletsch Glacier in Bernese Alps, 171 square km • Mer de Glace on northern slop of Mont Blanc.

Factors that affect alpine climate

1. Mild wind from the West 2. Cool, polar air descends from Northern Europe 3. Continental air masses, cold and dry winters and hot summers in East 4. Warm Mediterranean air flows northwards in South.

Three main topographic sections of alps.

1. Western Alps. High, narrow chain with many branches. Include Maritime, Cottian, Graian Alps. 2. Central Alps. Highest average elevations in system. Include Bernese, Apennine, Lepontine, Rhaetian Alps. Includes Mt Blanc. 3. Eastern Alps. Lower and broader than Western Alps, 240km north-south at widest. Include the Bavarian, Tyrolean, Carnic, Hohe and Niedere Tauern, Dolomites, Julian Alps. Separated by tributaries of Danube.

Armorican period

250 mya, pushed up massif central, ridge and valley landscape of North-West France, South-West England and Southern Ireland. When plate tectonics resulted in a collision between the Eurasian and African plates

Caledonian period

400 mya, pushed up Scottish Highlands, Norwegian highlands. When the Eurasian plate and the American plate collided. The in-between ocean floor was subducted under both continents and the seafloor sediments were buckled up to form the sedimentary rocks of the Caledonian Fold Mountains.

Alpine period

50-35 mya, pushed up central European Alps, Pyrenees mountains, Apennines mountains. These fold mountains were formed as the African plate collided with the Eurasian plate. Youngest fold mountains, some still increasing (Himalayans)

Theory of continental drift NEP

500 mya, all plates collided to form super continent Pangaea, convection currents in Asthenosphere moved plates. 250 mya, continents drifted apart. Northern European Plain was south of Equator, part of bigger plate had a lot of sand dunes, compacted and cemented to form sandstone. It sank beneath the sea, billions of sea creatures died, and shells/skeletons lay on sandstone base, compressed and cemented to form limestone.

Tourism in Maritime Climate

8.5mil overseas tourists in Ireland every year, from the UK or North Americans with Irish heritage. 80% tourists stay in Dublin region because of transport connections. Initiative to make tourists come to other parts of Ireland called Wild Atlantic Way. Emphasizes Irish coastline with beautiful bays and beaches. Activities like trekking, hill-walking, golf, surfing encouraged because rainfall doesn't disturb them. e.g. Skellig Island in South West are unique, famous for early Christian dwellings.

Define synoptic chart

A detailed weather map containing different lines and symbols, they display an overview of the weather conditions observed from many different weather stations, aeroplanes, balloons and satellites.

Define air mass

A large body of air with similar characteristics of temperature and humidity.

Climate change in alps

About 600 ski resorts in Alps. Popular Alps such as Morzaine and Magreve lie at about 1000m, in danger of running out of snow. UN estimates that in 30 years the snow line will have risen by 300m, up to half of resorts in Europe forced to close by 2050. Hardship for hotels, restaurants and shops, lack of business.

Transport in the alps.

Alpine passes above 1800m blocked by ice, snow in winter. Rail and highway tunnels under passes allow continuous traffic. Exception is Brenner Pass (1374m) low enough to be kept open. Alpine tunnels had rail traffic until 1964, when auto tunnels opened. St. Gotthard Tunnel (1980), world's longest road tunnel, Simplon is one of world's longest rail tunnels.

Anticyclones

Anticyclones are an area of high atmospheric pressure where the air is sinking. Brings blue skies and light winds, no clouds or rain, do not move for several days. As the air is sinking, not rising, no clouds or rain are formed. This is because as the air sinks it warms, meaning it can hold more water. The absence of fronts means winds may be very light. Consequently, high-pressure areas are often associated with settled, dry and bright conditions. In summer, anticyclones bring dry, hot weather. In winter, clear skies may bring cold nights and frost. In cold conditions, anticyclones may also bring fog and mist. This is because the cold forces moisture in the air to condense at low altitudes.

Describe passage of warm front

At the warm front, lighter, warmer air from the South (tropical maritime air) meets cooler air from the North (polar maritime air) and rises gradually over it. As the warm air slowly rises it cools, its water content condenses and clouds form. The result is steady rain, later giving way to drizzle and finally clearer skies with high cirrus clouds. Behind the warm front is an area of warm, rising air and low pressure - the centre of the low-pressure system. As this part of the depression passes over, there may be a short period of clear, dry weather. However, at the trailing cold front, heavier, cooler air meets the warm air at the centre of the depression, undercutting it and forcing it steeply upwards. Quickly moving air masses produce high winds and cooler temperatures. As the rapidly rising warm air cools, its water condenses and clouds form. The result is heavy rain or thunderstorms, giving way to showers and finally to clear skies as the cold front moves away eastwards.

Avalanches

Avalanches occur in regions where slopes are steep, and trees have been removed. Off-piste skiing is major cause. Deaths, injuries and property damage from avalanches has increased significantly during past 50 years. Due to growth of winter sports, expanding ski resorts, rise in temperatures. Average of 20-40 people killed each year.

Define climate

Average weather conditions over 35 years across a large area. Calculated using average weather records.

Describe passage of cold front

Before fronts arrive, weather is dry, quite cool. As warm front approaches skies start to cloud over, increase in winds. As warm front passes over country is cloudy with steady rain. Before cold front arrives, there is warmer, drier conditions "warm sector". Cold front arrives and stormy, showery weather arrives. After it has passed and depressions has moved away, good weather.

What did tourists do in 20th century, changes of alps

Beginning/middle 20th century, tourists started to degrade area, has resulted in poorer quality of air, water pollution, noise pollution, construction of ski slopes and roads. Natural Alpine forests destroyed by acid rain. Landscape changed forever due to human settlement patterns, concrete, asphalt, mass tourism, fierce competition.

Bex Salt Mines

Bex Salt Mines since 1554, use 70% salt for roads, 100 tons of salt every day, 2 active minors. Created because of ancient sea which left behind salt when it evaporated. Dangerous practice as high levels of methane mean it's very explosive. Salt is in the rocks, started excavating it in 1680.

Influence of Maritime Climate on human activities (Ireland, UK)

Britain and Ireland have island locations, are in North Atlantic weather systems (storm making centre). Prevailing south-westerly winds that bring mild temperatures all year round, blow frontal depressions across land. In Ireland and west coast of Scotland, very wet and windy. These mountainous regions experience relief rainfall. Over 1500mm/year. Enough to support its domestic and industrial water requirements. Driest region is in the East where market garden crops are grown. Large areas of waterlogged soils, low fertility. In mountainous areas sheep farming is more profitable, adapts to poorer grass yield. Small farms, farmers rely on the Common Agricultural Policy for their EU single payment. Due to a series of Atlantic storms, there has been flooding in lowland regions, (floodplain of River Shannon), pushing many people out. High rainfall and limestone bedrock mean that Ireland is ideal location for dairy industry (abundant grass growth). 90% land for grass used for dairy and beef production. Many sheep herds in upland regions, not suitable for growing crops. Area of forestry is increasing in these regions, coniferous trees. North Atlantic Drift stops Northern Europe's bays and harbours from freezing over. This happens on Labrador coast of Eastern Canada, where the cold current brings freezing water from North Pole down south. Production of renewable energy is also important in these regions, wind turbines, energy from fast-flowing rivers harnessed.

Influence of maritime climate on human activities

Britain and Ireland have island locations, are in North Atlantic weather systems (storm making centre). Prevailing south-westerly winds that bring mild temperatures all year round, blow frontal depressions across land. In Ireland and west coast of Scotland, very wet and windy. These mountainous regions experience relief rainfall. Over 1500mm/year. Many sheep herds in upland regions, not suitable for growing crops. Area of forestry is increasing in these regions; coniferous trees are well adapted. Large areas of waterlogged soils, low fertility.

Explain influence of ocean currents

Britain has a maritime climate. A warm ocean current called the North Atlantic Drift keeps Britain warmer and wetter than places in continental Europe.

Define Canaries current

Canaries current is cold current that flows in southerly direction off coast of West Africa. When winds blow over this cold current, they lose their moisture, so bring very little rainfall to Sahara, adding to desert conditions.

Cold fronts on synoptic chart

Cold fronts shown on synoptic charts by solid line with triangles along front pointing towards warmer air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, a cold front is drawn with a solid blue line with blue triangles.

How climate effects Chamonix

Cold winters, steep valleys cause challenges for transport, farming, industry. Settlement on valley floor. Engineers build roads and railways to cope with hostile environment (tunnels, viaducts). Winding roads form links with neighbouring valleys. Crops are grown on warmer valley floor, higher up they graze cattle or sheep and bring them down when winter approaches (transhumance). Significant viticulture on south facing slopes.

Uneven heating of the earth

Earth orbits sun once every 365 ¼ days, determines length of year. During orbit, different parts of Earth are tilted towards sun at different times. These receive more direct sunlight.

Chamonix 1

Fairly small town very famous tourist resort and many people travel there. North-westerly part of Alps 15km away from Swiss border and Italian border (Mt Blanc). Dominated by rounded summits of Mt Blanc (4810m). Centre of tourism for 250 years. Spruce trees, conifers, youthful fold mountains. Dangers of rock fall, avalanches.

Orogeny of alps

Formed 35 million years ago during the Alpine folding period, when African and Eurasian plates collided. African plate migrated northwards (10-15cm/year) and collided with stable Eurasian plate, swallowed up former sea (Tethys) separating plates. Constant pressure resulted in rocks being squeezed, folded, thrusted upwards. Result is spectacular, high standing mountains with visible bends and folds.

Define glacial deposition

Glaciers remove material from high-up in mountains and transport it down to valley below. When glacier runs out of energy and melts, it retreats back up valley and deposits eroded material down onto valley floor.

Define Gulf stream

Gulf stream is warm current that begins in Gulf of Mexico and flows in north-easterly direction towards Atlantic Ocean. Splits in two to form North Atlantic Drift and Canaries Current.

Glaciation effects on landscape

Heavy glaciation, since 2.5 mil years ago cyclic glacial periods have led to massive ice blocks carving out sharp mountain faces, rounding valleys by travelling from high peaks down to valley and deposits load on valley floor (classic glacial U-shaped valley of Lauterbrunnen). Ice has been significant factor in shaping Europe's landscape. Last great ice age ended 12 000 years ago.

Climate in the alps

Higher the elevation, colder the climate. Depends on whether are is shaded or open to sunlight, extreme differences between areas. Slopes facing south have milder winters than north facing ones. Heavy rain and snow everywhere, year-round snow on peaks. Avalanches (masses of snow, earth, loose rock) slide down slopes to valley below. Daily weather influenced by location of cyclonic storms and direction of winds.

How does Coriolis effect influence wind?

If it did not exist, all winds would blow straight from north or south. • Winds are deflected to right of direction in Northern Hemisphere • Winds are deflected to left of direction in Southern Hemisphere.

Explain influence of latitude

Imaginary lines around the Earth running parallel to the equator. Angular distance of place north or south of equator, measured in degrees as an angle. Areas closer to it are warmer because Sun's energy is greater, closest, so its rays shine directly upon it and are concentrated on smaller area. Further you go from equator, cooler it gets because Sun's rays have longer distance to travel and become slanted, heat spreads over wider area, is cooler and less intense, this is known as the uneven heating of the Earth.

Espace Mont Blanc initiative

Initiative called "Espace Mont-Blanc", cooperation France, Italy, Switzerland covers 2800 square km. Work on issues such as international transport, nature conservation, forests, water resources. Mt Blanc has symbolic force due to size and unique biodiversity, natural richness of surrounding area. Land use varied, depending on altitude. 20% land used for housing, agriculture, artisanal, tourist activities. It is a laboratory for actions involving protection and development requirements.

Key elements of synoptic chart

Isobars Fronts Depressions (LP) Anticyclones (HP)

Define Labrador current

Labrador current is cold current that flows south from Arctic Ocean. Passes, coasts of Greenland, Canada and north-east USA. Lowers temperature of oceans and many ports in Canada or USA are frozen over several months in the year. Brings icebergs into shipping lanes of Atlantic. Mixes with Gulf Stream produces coastal fog.

Factors that influence world climate types

Latitude Distance from sea and altitude Prevailing winds and air masses Jet stream Ocean currents

Define European Alps

Longest mountain range in Europe that stretches 1200km across 7 European Europe (Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Switzerland). Highest peak at 4810m, Mt Blanc on Italian-French border. Lots of very high mountains, steep and rocky slopes. Snow and glaciers. Aletsch Glacier in Switzerland is longest at 26km in highest areas and lakes in valleys between mountains. "Young" mountains. Two small streams are source of River Rhine, longest in Europe. Three largest rivers of Europe, Rhine, Rhône and Po originate in Alps, along with major southern tributaries of Danube. Hundreds of small, swift, streams, spectacular waterfalls.

Environment of alps

Lower mountainsides have forests of oak, chestnut, beech. Above is belt of evergreens, spruce fir. 1500-1800m, forests thin out, meadows and pastures, alpine flowers like Edelweiss and primrose. 2400-3000m above snow line, only snow, ice, bare rock. Chamois and Ibex are native to Alps, hunting regulated.

Formation of wind

Moving air in lower layer known as wind. Faster air moves, more wind there is. They transfer heat as they move around globe. They form because sun heats different part of Earth unequally, equator hotter than poles. In LP, air is heated, expands and becomes lighter, it rises. In HP, air is cooled, heavier and descends, presses down on Earth's surface.

Layers of the atmosphere

Multiple layers: • Troposphere: most important, closest to Earth, about 12km thick, contains 75% of Earth's gases and 99% of atmosphere's water vapour. It is the layer where weather forms. • Stratosphere: Above troposphere, about 50km high. • Ozone layer: part of stratosphere, absorbs sun's harmful UV rays, prevents them from reaching ground.

Chamonix 2

Natural materials used for construction, slates, metamorphic rock, triangular roofs to support weight of snow and protect from precipitation. Trees are receding up from valley, polished rock evidence of glaciation. Renewable electricity in area. In summer visitors can take railway to go to Mer de Glace (see scale of glacier and its effect). Ice cave enables visitors to go inside it. 350km marked hiking trails, 40km mountain bike tracks, rock climbing, live music, outdoor cafes.

Define North Atlantic Drift

North Atlantic Drift is continuation of Gulf Stream, flows in north-easterly direction past coast of western Europe. Raises the temperatures of waters of coast of Ireland, Scotland and Norway by 8°C. Keeps them ice three all year round. Warm water transfers heat in air, prevailing southerly winds blow over Ireland and Scotland are warmer than they should be. It can hold moisture, brings lots of rainfall. Without it Europe would have long, freezing winters.

Explain ocean currents

Oceans cover 71% of the Earth's surface, so they receive 71% of Sun's energy that reaches Earth. It holds onto heat for longer than land does, and ocean currents move this heat around, from tropics to higher latitudes. • The currents set up circular loops or gyres. Gyres = spiral oceanic surface currents, found in Northern and Southern Hemispheres. • The pattern of current flow is clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in Southern Hemisphere.

Occluded fronts on synoptic chart

On a synoptic chart, occluded fronts are represented by semicircles and triangles positioned next to each other. The triangles are in blue and the semicircles are in red, or both are purple (mixing both red and blue colours together).

Environmental plans for the Chamonix area

Plans include hiding electricity lines underground, keeping monuments intact, minimizing impact of skiing on landscape by planting trees and using local building materials. Maintaining and marking footpaths and cleaning rivers, provides seasonal employment. Supporting local traditional employment sectors (farming). Exploit fast-flowing rivers for hydroelectric power, electricity used for industry or settlements.

Settlements and human activities in Alps.

Population sparse in mountains, occupations include cattle raising and dairying. Crops (wine grapes, fruit, grains, hay) are cultivated in valleys, foothills, mild southern slopes. Making of cheese and handicraft is traditional. Valley floor ideal for farming, sheltered, flat land and fertile soil, good access. Rapid Alpine streams used for hydroelectric power for industrial purposes in valley. Soil is poor, trees planted to prevent avalanches. Timber industry for building, fuel, small craft industries. Production of heavy machinery, small precision items, chemicals, aluminium refining. Some areas, tourist business provides largest source of income. 100mil every year, for skiing or walking. New village and facilities (cable cars, restaurants, ski lifts) to accommodate huge numbers. Mining brought jobs to locals but no so much now due to cheaper foreign resources.

Define relief rainfall

Prevailing winds bring warm, moist air to western British Isles. Air is forced to rise over high areas. Air cools and condenses. Clouds form and it rains. Air descends on other side of mountains. It warms up and becomes drier.

Tourism in Chamonix

Resident population of 10 000 goes up to 100 000 with tourists. Huge range of options for winter sports (skiing, cross country skiing, snowboarding, ice climbing, paragliding, walking). Many hotels, restaurants, spas, museums, shops, historical buildings. Few people live there year-round, most work in tourism sector, rent is expensive. A lot of flats and apartments, clusters of settlements.

Define weather

State of atmosphere over a short period of time. Temperature, precipitation, humidity and atmospheric pressure

European climate averages

Summer average: 15°C Winter average: 5°C Temperature range: 10°C

Sustainable tourism plans

Sustainable tourism, balancing demands and preserving the environment. Chamonix local authority provides environmentally friendly transport service with clean energy buses and free public transport. "Espace Mont-Blanc" "Tomorrow's Valley" local community plan sustainable management.

Aletsch Glacier

Switzerland, longest glacier in Europe, UNESCO world heritage site (important and unique). Stretches 23km, brings visitors. 86 square km in surface area, maximum thickness of 900m. Has shaped landscape around it, during last ice age, it covered the aretes, only peaks emerged. Experiencing dramatic ablation because of global warming, shrinks up to 50m in length/year, retreating at edges. Stores a huge amount of water.

Tourism in the alps

The Abondance ski resort had to close definitely following years of unreliable snowfall. They developed summer tourism programmes. There is pressure from developers to use the wilderness areas in the High Alps. Construction disrupts natural ecosystems and habitat, trees are cut down but have an important role of binding slopes to prevent avalanches. Overuse of slopes for skiing can strip away natural vegetation. Increased levels of pollution make alps lose appeal and reduce attractiveness.

Define atmospheric pressure

The weight of air resting on the Earth's surface.

Explain influence of prevailing winds and air masses

The wind direction that occurs most often throughout the year, or occurs most often at this time of year, in a certain geographical region. Air moves constantly in atmosphere, wind is caused by the unequal heating of the atmosphere.

Process of atmospheric pressure cells

There are 3 huge atmospheric pressure cells in Northern hemisphere. Within these, winds circulate in North-South circle. Blow from HP to LP and are deflected to rights because of Coriolis effect. 1. Near Equator, air is heated, rises, creates belt of LP. 2. Warm air moves in polar direction, beings to cool. 3. It is now cooler and heavier, starts to sink, producing area of HP at about 30°N. 4. Cool air blows along surface of Earth, away from HP, to replace rising air at equator. First wind belt has developed. 5. At North Pole, cold polar air sinks, area of HP. 6. Cold air moves away from pole as wind, begins to heat up. 7. At 60°N the air is warmer, rises and creates area of LP. 8. Warm air moves back towards North Pole, second wind belt has developed. 9. Third wind belt develops between HP belt at 30°N and LP belt at 60°N 10. Similar patter develops in southern hemisphere.

Define cold fronts

Transition zone where a cold air mass is replacing the warmer air mass, usually associated with depressions. Cold air is following warm air and gradually moves underneath warmer air. When warm air is pushed upwards it brings heavy rain. Often more rain will fall in the few minutes the cold front passes than it will during the whole passage of warm front. As cold front passes, the clouds roll by and the air temperature is cooler.

Explain influence of jet stream

band of strong winds that blows continuously in the same direction. Polar jet stream from west to east, 10-15km high, speed of 200km/h. Blows along line where cold polar air mass from Arctic meets warmer air mass from tropics. In summer jet stream pushes the cooler air and low pressure away, allowing areas of high pressure to move up from south.

Define atmosphere

blanket of air, made up of various gases (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide).

Define front

boundary zone between two air masses, three types.

Define Foehn (Föhn)

dry, warm southerly wind that quickens melting of snow in spring.

Define abrasion

eroding of rocks using embedded material like sandpaper.

Define North European Plain

flat region geologically uplifted by Alpine folding, raised land out of shallow sea. One of most prosperous and densely populated parts of Europe. Lowland topography (landscape) has enabled great transport networks (rivers, canals, railways, roads).

Define warm fronts

formed when warm air rises over mass of cold air. As air lifts into regions of lower pressure, it expands, cools and condenses the water vapour as wide, flat sheets of cloud. Warm fronts shown on synoptic charts by solid line with semicircles pointing towards the colder air and in the direction of movement. On coloured weather maps, warm front drawn with solid red line with red semicircles.

Define fjord

ideal natural coastal harbour, shaped by glacier during last ice age. Shaped into U-shaped valley. When ice retreated, sea water rushed in and drowned valley.

Define weather chart

illustrates meteorological conditions over specific region over specific time. Constructed by putting together different weather reports from various locations. Weather conditions represented on chart by coloured lines and symbols.

Define isobars

line on weather map that connects points of equal atmospheric pressure. Unit of measure for atmospheric pressure is millibar (mb) or hectopascals (hp). The closer the isobars are together, the windier it is. If the lowest number is in the middle circle, this is a low pressure or depression. Often low pressures mean wet and windy weather. If the highest number is in the middle circle, this is a high pressure or anticyclone. Often high pressures mean dry, sunny weather. Air pressure tends to range from 890 mb (a hurricane) to 1060 mb (an anticyclone).

Heating mid-latitudes

moderate average temperature, not very hot or cold.

Define trade winds

movements of air towards equator, from north-east in Northern Hemisphere. They are deflected and blow towards West, so are Easterlies. Are used by sailors because they are steady. Deflection caused by Coriolis effect gives us easterly and westerly trade winds.

Define ocean currents

movements of surface water.

Occluded fronts

occur at the point where cold front takes over warm front or the other way around. If cold front undercuts a warm front it is known as a cold occlusion and if the cold front rises over the warm front it is called a warm occlusion. Occluded fronts bring changeable weather conditions.

Define maritime climate

plentiful rainfall throughout year. Covers Atlantic fringe of Europe, low pressure weather systems move over this region and bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, mild temperatures.

Define plucking

removal of rock material when it becomes embedded in ice as a result of freeze-thaw action.

Define glacier

river of compacted ice that originates high up in mountains when ice builds up in a cirque. They carve and shape landscape through erosion and deposition, very slow moving.

Explain influence of distance from sea and altitude

sea takes longer to heat and cool than land. During summer, sea is cooler than land and warmer during winter. Influences areas close to it and gives them cooler summers, milder winters than inland areas. e.g. Maritime Climate in Britain and Ireland, 15°C in summer and 5°C in winter. Areas further from sea have warmer summers and colder winters than coastal areas. Warsaw has winter average of -2°C although it's at same latitude as Dublin.

Define niche tourism

specific tourism product can be tailored to meet the needs of particular audience/market.

Heating at equator

sun is at high angle in sky. Shines straight downwards so rays have less ground to cover, ground warms up rapidly and becomes very hot.

Heating at poles

sun is at low angle in sky, rays have to spread heat over large area due to curve of Earth's surface. These places get much less heat than the equator because rays pass through greater depth of atmosphere and lose more heat.