geology

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The best estimate of when the Universe formed is

13.8 Ga

o this theory, the universe evolved

13.8 billion years ago

when did Pangea break apart?

200 million years ago

The image below shows a series of graded beds. How many full sets of graded beds are shown?

3 beds

The Solar System (and the Earth) formed

4.5 billion years ago

This image shows the basic elements of a shallow groundwater system. Label the components of this system using the terms in the table below. Please note that not all of the terms listed in the table are shown in the picture.

A - water table B - unconfined aquifer C - aquitard D - confined aquifer

Which of the following statements best describes the rock cycle?

Any rock can change into another rock based on the conditions to which the rock is subjected.

The principle of lateral continuity

Beds originate as continuous layers that extend in all directions until they eventually thin out or grade into a different sediment type

What type of weathering dominates during soil formation?

Chemical weathering

The Moon was formed during what Eon?_________

Hadean

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the extrusive igneous rock obsidian?

It likely cooled very slowly.

Based on the figure, what is the age of layer 7 relative to layer 3?

Layer 7 is younger than layer 3.

effusive eruption

Low viscosity, basaltic magma and low gas content eruption.

Dinosaurs first appeared during the ________ Era.

Mesozoic

What is the difference between a rock that is cemented and a rock that is crystalline?

Minerals are held together as interlocking pieces in a crystalline rock, whereas in a cemented rock the grains do not fit together like puzzle pieces and instead are held together by cement.

faster body waves

P wave

The supercontinent Pangaea was assembled during the______Era

Paleozoic

Paleozoic

Pangea formed

surface waves

Rayleigh waves and Love waves

You have a choice to drill your water well into a shallow, unconfined aquifer or a deeper artesian aquifer. Drilling deeper will cost more money; however, you chose to drill into the artesian aquifer. Why?

The artesian aquifer will flow on its own, without a pump.

focus

The point of initial slip during an earthquake

Compared with the continental lithosphere, the oceanic lithosphere is ________.

Thinner and denser

zone of leaching

Zone in soil from which soluble nutrients are removed by water

What circumstance is likely to produce depositional landforms?

a river entering a large body of water

Competence

ability to carry sediment, depends on flow velocity, when it decreases, sediment settles out

stream discharge

amount of water that passes through a cross section of a stream in a given time, depends on watershed area and climate

A continental margin that coincides with a plate boundary is called_________.

an active margin

Mafic minerals

are first to crystalize and last to melt

igneous rocks

are formed by solidification from molten state. They are composed of crystals interlocked together (example: granite, basalt), or , rarely, of glass (example: obsidian)

Sedimentary rocks

are formed from clasts (or grains) of pre-exisiting rocks and are held together by cement, or formed by mineral precipitation the solution (such as rock salt)

Metamorphic rocks

are formed in a very high heat and pressure, resulting in a transformation of a pre-existing rock (examples: marble, slate, gneiss, schist).

angular unconformities

are found between horizontal layers of sedimentary rock and layers of rock that have been tilted or folded

flash floods

are sudden and short lived

Beach sediments travel ________ the ocean during a transgression and ________ the ocean during a regression

away from; toward

Why do meandering rivers meander (move) across their floodplain?

because they are curved, which causes erosion on one side of the curve and deposition on the other side of the curve, thus moving the river in the direction of erosion

Porphyritic

both small and large crystals

streams choked with sediment become

braided

This Google Earth image shows the Platte River in central Nebraska. Which of the following terms best describes the morphology of this stream?

braided river

alluvial fans

build out at the mouth of canyons in deserts

deltas

build out into standing water

organic

carbon rich remains of once-living organisms

Calcite (CaCO3)

carbonate

Dolomite (CaMgCO3)

carbonate

drainage networks

carry water from a watershed to the sea

earthquake

caused by a rapid release of energy, most of which is due to tectonic forces.

deformation

caused by force acting on a rock

cone of depression

caused when pumping groundwater

biochemical

cemented shells of organisms

strain

change in shape caused by deformation, measure of shape change

Minerals are grouped into mineral classes primarily on a basis of ________

chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula

3 types of stress

compression, tension, shear

The image below shows an outcrop of coarse-grained sedimentary rock. Note the rock hammer for scale. What is the name of this rock type?

conglomerate

The presence of vesicles in an igneous rock is evidence that the source melt ________.

contained dissolved volatiles

Which of the following is FALSE?

contains more angular grains

Which kind of lithosphere is oldest on Earth: oceanic or continental?

continental because oceanic always subducts

what term is this

continental rifting

what term is this

continental suture

Refer to the diagram below that shows the cross-sections of the ocean at the different stages of its life cycle, from pre-ocean to post-ocean. The dotted crust is oceanic crust and the solid white crust is continental crust. The dashed line indicates the ocean surface (sea level). What happened first?

continental suture happens after subduction

deep earthquakes occur at

convergent boundaries

As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, fine-grained igneous rocks ________.

cool and solidify more quickly

study of the origin and evolution of the Universe

cosmology

granite

course, felsic

Consult the figure below. Here, distinct internal laminations are inclined at an angle to the boundary of the main sedimentary layers. This is termed ________.

cross beds

From left to right, correctly label each section of this slice of Earth. Note that 1 starts at the surface of Earth and 6 ends at the center of Earth.

crust, upper mantle, asthenosphere, lower mantle, outer core, liquid, inner core, solid

minerals

crystalline structure, solid, inorganic, defined chemical formula, naturally occurring

Felsic minerals

crystallize last and are first to melt

The density of seawater increases with ________ temperature and ________ salinity.

decreasing; increasing

Where would you expect to find metamorphic rocks forming?

deep inside a mountain range

Describe how oceanic lithosphere differs from continental lithosphere

denser but thinner

geysers

develop under special circumstances when sudden boiling of groundwater ejects

Regional metamorphism

develops beneath mountain ranges

The process of formation of Earth's layers is called

differentiation

Mesozoic

dinosaurs roamed until KT event, end of era caused extinction of dinosaurs

shallow earthquakes occur at

divergent and transform boundaries

p wave

doesn't travel in fluid

anti-clines

dome like folds, archs

physical weathering

dominates in deserts

Hadean

earth and moon formed, liquid water

Unconformities represent ________ in the rock record.

erosion or nondeposition

rhyollite

fine, felsic

Archean

first continental crust, first bacteria in fossil record

When the sea level rises, causing the ocean to fill a glacially carved valley, a __________ results.

fjord

permanent streams

flow all year

ephemeral streams

flow intermittently

Stress

force applied across a unit area

beaches

form from wave-washed sediment

hot springs

form in geothermal regions headed by magma

glaciers

form when buried snow lasts all year and turns to ice

playas

form where water temporarily collects in basins

disconformities

formed as an erosion surface between parallel layers of sedimentary rock

vesicles

gas bubbles

recharge to discharge areas

gravity and pressure cause groundwater to flow from one to the other

Darcy's Law

groundwater flow is based on

soil liquidification

happens when saturated soil substantially loses strength and stiffness in response to seismic wave, causing it to behave like a liquid.

This image shows a close-up view of a piece of pumice that was washed up onto a beach in Italy. Which of the following sets of properties allow this volcanic rock to float on water?

high porosity, low permeability

felsic lava

higher viscosity, slow moving

The competence of a mountain river is ________ than that of a river on a floodplain because ________.

higher; the gradient is greater

The principle of cross-cutting relations

holds that younger features truncate (cut across) older features.

ocean surfaces and ground water

hydrosphere

nonconformities

igneous or metamorphic rocks are capped by sedimentary rock

The deepest segments of the ocean floor are found ________

in trenches associated with subduction zones

permeability

indicates the degree to which pores connect

Alfred Wegener

invented theory of plate tectonics

At a subduction zone, the down-going (subducting) plate ________.

is always composed of oceanic lithosphere

A piece of concrete from a driveway is NOT considered a rock because it ________.

is man-made

The discharge of a river will increase if ________.

it rains in the drainage basin area

brittle structures

joints, veins, faults

Sinkholes are a concern primarily for residents whose dwellings are constructed atop ________.

limestone

outermost rigid layer composed of crust and upper rigid mantle

lithosphere

This NASA satellite image shows the Cape Cod peninsula in southeastern Massachusetts. Which of the following processes is responsible for the cuspate shape of this coastal area?

longshore drift

clastic

loose rock fragments (clasts) cemented together

mafic lava

lower viscosity, faster moving

Rates of groundwater flow are ________ than stream flow because the water ________.

lower; must make its way through tiny pore spaces

This GoogleEarth image shows the Mississippis River in the southern part of the U.S. Which of the following terms best describes the morphology of this stream?

meandering

streams with snake-like patterns

meandering

Metamorphic grade

measure of the intensity of temperature and pressure conditions that lead to alteration.

Decompression melting occurs at both ________ and ________.

mid-ocean ridges; rifts

chemical

minerals that crystallize directly from water

Igneous rocks form from ________.

molten rock cooling and forming crystals

Felsic magma is

more viscous than mafic

Cenozoic

mountain belts rose, modern plate boundaries form

Proterozoic

multicellular organisms appeared, atmosphere accumulates oxygen

felsic rocks (fastest to slowest cooling)

obsidian, rhyolite, granite

active margin

occur where continental edges coincide with plate boundaries.

hot spots

occur within the plate and track the plate's motion.

Flux melting

occurs above subducting plates.

Contact metamorphism

occurs around igneous intrusions.

Decompression melting

occurs at mid-ocean ridges and rifts.

karst topography

occurs mostly in limestone bedrock

Wave refraction

occurs when waves approach the shore at an oblique angle, generating the longshore drift

passive margin

occurs where the edge of a continent is not the edge of a plate.

what term is this

oceanic spreading

Halite (NaCl)

other

Pyrite (FeS2)

other

abyssal plains

overlie old oceanic lithosphere

continental shelves

overlie passive-margin basins.

The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?

oxygen

intermediate grade metamorphism of slate result in

phyllite

Diagenesis refers to ________.

physical and chemical alterations, including compaction and cementation, that occur as sediment is transformed into rock

Tsunamis result from

placement of the sea floor by an earthquake, submarine landslide, or volcanic explosion that displaces the entire volume of overlying water.

The process of differentiation results in all of the following EXCEPT

planets forming atmospheres

epicenter.

point at the surface directly above the focus

When two different minerals have the same chemical formula but different crystal structures, they are said to be ________.

polymorphs

Low-grade metamorphism of sandstone

produces metasandstone, then quartize, then schist and gneiss

Extrusive rock cools

rapidly

ductile deformation

results in folds

ductile deformation

rocks bend and distort without breaking

brittle deformation

rocks break by fracture

body waves

s and p waves

slower body wave

s wave

rest of metamorphic grade

schist then gneiss

mafic rocks (fastest to slowest cooling)

scoria, basalt, gabbro

The dissolution of rock produces_________

secondary porosity.

Identify the FALSE statement. The rock cycle indicates that ___

sedimentary rock cannot form from other sedimentary rocks because the pathway is always from one rock type to a different rock type.

Weathering of rocks produces ________, which can then be incorporated into ________ rocks.

sediments; sedimentary

Potassium feldspar (KAlSi3O8)

silicate

Quartz (SiO2)

silicate

The most common minerals within Earth are ________.

silicates

In the figure on the right, what type of igneous intrusion is the horizontal rock unit shown by letter A?

sill

Low-grade metamorphism of clay produces

slate

Intrusive rock cools

slowly

Any place where groundwater naturally flows out of Earth's surface is termed a(n) _______

spring

The Principle of Uniformitarianism

states that the processes observed today were the same in the past —the present is the key to the past.

The principle of superposition

states that younger strata are on top; older strata are below.

what term is this

subduction

seasonal floods

submerge floodpains and delta plains

fjords

submerged glacial valleys, u shaped

esturaries

submerged glacial valleys, v shaped

Overpumping can lead to ________ of the ground surface.

subsidence

synclines

sunken in, trough like

In an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, younger layers overlie older layers, according to the principle of ________.

superposition

most destructive wave

surface waves, slower than body and arrive last

Metamorphism

takes place in response to changes in temperature, pressure, application of compression and shear, and/or interaction with hydrothermal fluids.

artesian wells

tap confined tilted aquifers

longshore drift

that moves sand along the shoreline in a zigzag path.

Volcanoes

the conduits through which rising magma makes its way to the surface.

Waves are created by ________.

the wind

unconformity

time gap in rock record, from nondeposition or erosion

porosity

total open space within a material

Grains become rounded primarily during ________.

transportation

The total sediment load of a stream consists of all of the following EXCEPT the ________ load

turbulent

too much pumping causes

water table lowering, land subsidence and saltwater intrusion

If a beach is in an east-west orientation and the waves are approaching the shore from a southeasterly direction, in which direction will the longshore drift be?

western

zone of accumulation

where they precipitate

A huge meteorite impact marks the K-T boundary event that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. When was that?

~65 Ma


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