Global Issues Exam 3

Actors on the World Stage

- states (countries),-International Governmental Organizations (IGOs),-Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs),-Multinational Corporations (MNCs, also sometimes referred to as Transnational Corporations or TNCs)- individuals

At the Conference of the Parties (COP) Berlin Conference,

AOSIS proposed that industrial nations reduce their carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent. This proposal was endorsed by seventy-seven non-AOSIS nations that participated in the conference, but was resisted by the majority of oil-producing states, like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and by larger carbon-emitting countries, like the United States and Australia --Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) --The primary objective of the Berlin Conference was to design measures that would reduce global emissions and to create a series of trial projects aimed at exchanging alternative low-carbon technologies among nations (Flavin 1996; Gupta 2010). Despite the fact that no legally binding carbon reduction targets were established, the Berlin Conference did provide a sense of renewed hope in formulating a global policy for mitigating climate change. The agreement reached at Berlin, known as the Berlin Mandate, instructs governments "to promote legally binding reduction commitments with regard to time horizons such as 2005, 2010, and 2020 to be adopted at COP-3 in 1997 at Kyoto"

Climate change—general dynamics

Climate change will disproportionately affect those living in poorer societies at all scales—local, national, and international—as certain societies have the resources to adapt to climate change while others who do not suffer. A popular solution for addressing climate change is to reduce population growth, but this raises issues concerning the freedom of choice regarding fertility.

Climate guilt

Climate guilt is a common feeling. We've all benefited from fossil fuels, and most of the stuff we do in life depends on them. But we also know that we can't continue down this path if we want to live in a stable world. --guilt that we have contributed to the very problem that we are trying to solve -- feeling powerless in the face of the system behaviors conflict with values when values say that climate change is wrong - people are more able to get climate change when they view themselves as members of a society rather than an individual

disadvantages of cultural globalization

Cultural imperialism

disadvantages of economic globalization

Exploitative; only benefits a few; gap between rich and poor

GATT/WTO

Finally, to keep the Bretton Woods negotiations an ongoing part of international financial stability, the Allied countries resolved to keep meeting to make adjustments to the Bretton Woods agreements as needed. This resolution became known as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Twenty-three countries signed the first GATT treaty in 1947, and eventually 125 countries participated in the 1986-1994 GATT rounds of negotiations. These negotiations eventually ended with the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, whose mission is to eliminate any current barriers to trade.

Castles, de Haas, and Miller (2013) identify six "general tendencies" of contemporary international population movements that they expect to continue well into the twenty-first century.

First, international population movements will involve an increasingly large number of countries, both as sending and as receiving regions, hence resulting in the globalization of migration. Second, the directions of international migrations can be expected to continue to change with Europe becoming a major region of in-migration. Third, international migration will continue to become differentiated by including a wider variety of migrants—for example, seasonal migrants as well as migrants seeking permanent resettlement. Fourth, the number of countries historically characterized by emigration that will shift to countries of immigration will increase, thus expanding the geographic reach of the migration transition. Fifth, as women throughout the world become increasingly involved in the global work force, international migration will become more feminized. Women face unique situations in their migration experience. They play a particular role in labor markets and social contexts and migrate under different conditions than do men. Women often experience discrimination and work long hours with little time off, making their migration situations particularly challenging. And sixth, without a doubt, international migration will become a more significant political issue, both on the international stage as well as in the politics of individual nations.

Tragedy of the Commons

In Garret Hardin's 1968 article "The Tragedy of the Commons," he argued that common property will be destroyed by human greed and exploitation. Hardin used the hypothetical example of cattle herders on a pasture (not owned by any particular individual). He argued that if an unsustainable number of cattle were added in an effort to maximize profits, then the pasture would eventually be overgrazed and thus destroyed. The problem is that as the herders individually attempt to maximize their profits and add more cattle, collectively they end up working against one another in their ability to maximize profit. Individual restraint is unlikely, because each herder knows that if he or she does not increase the number of cattle grazing, they will lose potential profits, at least in the short term, while other herders will continue to make profits from unsustainable grazing practices. The end result is the "tragedy of the commons." This example is what makes promulgating an international policy on reducing climate changing gases so difficult. --The two major approaches to addressing the destruction of the commons by pursuit of profit maximization are complete privatization and government regulation. In the former, a private actor controls the pasture that has been privatized. So, for example, in the case of a pasture that has been transformed from a commons to private property owned by a single herder family with the intention of owning the land forever, the owner would want to ensure that he or she could continue to graze cattle on the land. Therefore, theoretically, the family would use it sustainably. Conversely, if the government took control of the previously community-controlled pasture and regulated the land, then it would need to establish laws to regulate its use and to ensure that it is developed sustainably. --Hardin's concept of the commons, however, has been seriously criticized for mistaking what were actually community-regulated public lands for "open access regimes in which anything goes" --Historically, socially regulated commons have been maintained by subsistence-based economics guided by cultural practices and a spiritual sense of belonging to the land that "stabilize[s] people's relationship with their ecosystems" (Cronon 1983: 12). Many people feel that the only way to preserve the atmospheric commons is "to convert it from an open-access resource into a commons, a limited socially regulated global commons in which access is appointed to us each in equal measure, by virtue of . . . our common humanity" (Athanasiou and Baer 2002: 145). Maintaining atmospheric stability as an essential component to all life on this planet is an example of a socially regulated commons that affirms our relationship with our biosphere. Conversely, some support the idea of converting the atmospheric commons into private property. Treating air as private property assumes that rationing air through markets is superior to cultural practices that ensure quality air for all. An example of the privatization approach is the creation of carbon dioxide trading regimes (discussed later in this chapter).

advantages of economic globalization

Jobs, capital, more choices for consumers

Non-state actors (MNCs/NGOs/etc.)

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) working on global issues are part of what is called civil society. For instance, in recent decades there has been a dramatic increase in the number of NGOs seeking to make the world a better place (NGOs are sometimes referred to as international nongovernmental organizations [INGOs]). NGOs, as their name implies, work outside the government and comprise individual citizens working together on one or more problems. There are many well-known NGOs working on global issues: the Red Cross, Greenpeace, Amnesty International, World Vision, and Doctors Without Borders are just a few of the thousands that exist. Because these NGOs are often made up of highly motivated people in the middle of a war or refugee camp, they can often achieve results that countries cannot.----Other nongovernmental actors include businesses, often referred to as transnational corporations (TNCs). Nike, Apple, Toyota, and many other TNCs have gained increasing power in recent years to affect global issues. Many critics complain that, due to their economic strength and global networks, TNCs exercise too much power.

advantages of cultural globalization

Offers exposure to other cultures

"Brain Drain"

Second, the policy gives priority to persons with occupations, skills, and capital that will benefit the US economy. This dimension of US immigration policy may contribute to the loss of highly skilled and professionally trained persons from developing countries (referred to as "brain drain"). However, many scholars today are arguing that brain drain may not be entirely negative, because it also results from emigrants who return to their home countries after gaining valuable education, skills, and experience abroad.i

Deforestation

The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves.

prior to Kyoto, the Byrd-Hagel Resolution in 1997.

The resolution forbid the United States from accepting any "future binding quantitative targets until and unless the key developing countries also participated meaningfully, especially because of the increased costs associated with taking action for the United States"

Developed v. developing countries positions on sustainable development

developed countries had identified a particular set of issues to be addressed—such as pollution, population explosion, conservation of resources, and limits to growth. But the developing countries wanted to enlarge the agenda to include issues such as shelter, food, and water. They were able to use their voting power in the UN General Assembly to press developed countries to adopt a more inclusive agenda

Civic Nationalism

is associated with the Western experience and is based on citizenship rather than on ethnic linkages. The nation-state is seen as the core of civic nationalism. Its main role is to promote the principle that a society is united by territoriality, citizenship, and civic rights and legal codes transmitted to all members of the group. All members of this society, regardless of their ethnicity or race, are ideally equal citizens and equal before the law.----Civic nationalism is more inclusive than ethnic nationalism because anyone can potentially become a member of the nation. For example, Americans primarily experience civic nationalism, while Kurds are primarily ethnic nationalists.---Civic nationalism is typically seen as the "good" form of nationalism.

Demography

is the study of population change and characteristics. A population can change in size and composition as a result of the interplay of three demographic processes: fertility, mortality, and migration. These components of change constitute the following equation for population change (P) between two points in time: P = (+) births (-) deaths (+) in-migration (-) out-migration

Types of power

military economic soft

MDCs v. LDCs

-(the more-developed countries [MDCs])- (the less-developed countries [LDCs]),

Sovereignty

Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its internal affairs by other states. -"exclusive legal authority over a population and territory." However, states must confront many different state and "non-state" actors (MNCs, NGOs, ISIS, etc.) as they seek to exercise their sovereignty. --state sovereignty, which includes territorial integrity, selfdetermination, and nonintervention, was an accepted fact until the UDHR was approved in 1948. It was assumed that countries were self-governing and that external pressures were held at bay.

upside of globalization

"Computer, television, cable, satellite, laser, fiber-optic, and microchip technologies [along with nano- and cyber-technology are] combining to create a vast interactive communications and information network that can potentially give every person on earth access to every other person, and make every datum, every byte, available to every set of eyes" (Barber 1992: 58). Technology has also aided the increase in international trade and international capital flows and has enhanced the spread of Western, primarily US, culture.-Some skeptics caution that while interdependence and technological advancement have increased in some parts of the world, this is not true for the vast majority of third world countries

Anticolonial nationalism

---nationalism offers many people a sense of belonging and meaning. In addition, it has rallied oppressed people to demand freedom. For example, in places like Africa, nationalism led to anticolonization.-----this had a dramatic effect on the world. As colonies rejected their colonizers, countries became independent, sovereign states. As a result, the decolonization of the twentieth century led to a dramatic increase in the number of states.

Globalization

the evolution of a single worldwide network for producing and exchanging money, goods, and services.--which can be defined as "the intensification of economic, political, social, and cultural relations across borders"In sum, globalization offers a multitude of advantages to people throughout the world, from greater wealth to more choices in consumer products. --But globalization has greatly changed the world since then, and many argue that it has eroded state sovereignty, which means that the state is now less able to control its destiny. We have moved away from a state-centric world and this directly impacts human rights --Historically, it was the sovereign state that was to address the issues within its borders, but the weakening of state power due to globalization has created the need for other groups to step in to fill the vacuum

Population growth

the world's population grows as the result of the relative balance between births and deaths, often called natural increase. The US population is currently increasing at about 0.7 percent per year; natural increase accounts for about two-thirds, and net international migration constitutes about one-third, of this relatively low level of population growth. ---Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, population growth appeared to become more sustained as a result of changes in the social and economic environment: improved sanitation, more consistent food distribution, improved personal hygiene and clothing, political stability, and the like. ---It is important to note, however, that despite these large additions to the world's population, the rate of population growth is decreasing. The average annual rate of global population growth reached an all-time high, of about 2.2 percent, between 1962 and 1964. Since that time, the pace of growth of the world's population has decreased to the current rate of approximately 1.2 percent per year (UNPD 2015).. ---Population growth is fueled by levels of fertility, mortality, and net migration. The rapid population growth that occurred in the post-World War II era reflected significant declines in mortality that resulted in large part from public health advances and the transfer of medical technology from more- to less-developed countries.

third phase of globalization:

"Globalization 3.0 is shrinking the world from a size small to a size tiny and flattening the playing field at the same time" (2005: 10). Whereas globalization in the past was characterized by companies becoming more global, this third phase is unique due to "the newfound power for individuals to collaborate and compete globally" (2005: 10). For instance, radiologists in India and Australia interpret CAT-scan images from the United States, telephone operators in India answer calls for major US corporations, and Japanese-speakers at call centers in China serve Japanese customers. Thus the playing field is being leveled and individuals and small companies from all over the world, including poor countries, can now compete in the global economy.

sustainable development, describing it as

"a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspiration"

States

(also referred to as a country) is apolitical unit that has sovereignty over a geographical area. --A State is an independent, sovereign government exercising control over a certain spatially defined and bounded area, whose borders are usually clearly defined and internationally recognized by other states.

down side of globalization

----------There is widespread agreement that communications, trade, and capital are moving at unprecedented speed and volume.------The same technology that connects people throughout the world for good causes, such as the transmission of valuable healthcare products and information, also enables groups like ISIS to recruit via social media

religion and nationalism

----The potential for violence often increases when the causes of nationalism and religion overlap. This is because nationality and religion are the two most powerful forms of identification in the world today.----Nationalism and religion are also the only two forces in the modern world that can legitimate social violence (as opposed to personal violence). A soldier who kills for her country is a hero. A person who dies for their religion is a martyr. Killing or dying in the name of your country or religion is not only accepted but also highly honored in most societies.

Refugees

---The international definition of a refugee is a person who, "owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country" --Refugees seek safety from war and oppression, but can also be a source of political and economic instability in border regions and countries of asylum. For instance, Afghanis seeking refuge following the US military response to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks faced resistance in neighboring Pakistan. ---The majority of the world's refugees are women and children, whose voices are often not heard in discussions about programs to aid and resettle refugees Refugee migration and population displacement are spatial characteristics of political, economic, and environmental change in many regions of Africa. ---At the end of 2014, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) identified nearly 55 million persons throughout the world who were of concern to the organization as refugees, asylees, or internally displaced persons. This level of forced population displacement is 51 percent higher than just five years earlier. Of this extraordinary number, 14 million were recognized as refugees living in asylum in other countries; the remainder were persons who were internally displaced within their own countries for complex political, economic, and environmental reasons, and persons outside their home countries living in refugee-like situations. Table 12.3 shows refugees and other persons of concern to the UNHCR by region or origin. Many refugee settlements or camps have existed for many years. Some refugees have been repatriated to their homelands—for example, Guatemalans who had sought refuge in Mexico and Muslims who had fled Myanmar (formerly Burma); others, including many Vietnamese during the 1970s and 1980s, have been permanently resettled in other countries such as Canada, Australia, and the United States; in total number, the United States accepts the most refugees for permanent resettlement.

"Generations" of human rights

What rights have been identified as human rights? One way to approach this question is to divide the UDHR of 1948 into three generations, or categories. These three generations have different origins and represent different views of human rights. While this way of understanding human rights has many adherents, many others see categorizing human rights as a potentially harmful endeavor.

Nations

--A nation is a group of people who see themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit based on shared cultural or historical criteria. Nations are socially constructed units, not given by nature. Their existence, definition, and members can change dramatically based on circumstances. Nations in some ways can be thought of as "imagined communities" that are bound together by notions of unity that can pivot around religion, ethnic identity, language, cultural practice and so forth. The concept and practice of a nation work to establish who belongs and who does not (insider vs. outsider). Such conceptions often ignore political boundaries such that a single nation may "spill over" into multiple states. Furthermore, states ≠ nations: not every nation has a state (e.g., Kurds; Roma; Palestine). Some states may contain all or parts of multiple nations

LDCs in a disadvantage from particular World Bank policies

--But these particular World Bank policies put the LDCs at a global disadvantage in at least five ways.-- FIRST, land that had formerly been used for domestic food production was placed into highly specialized and more mechanized commodity crop production. In this process, many poor farmers lost their livelihoods as small plots of land were consolidated into large agricultural complexes. These displaced farmers often migrated to overcrowded cities that were unable to absorb this new influx of people into the existing industrial base, infrastructure, or education and healthcare systems. Without jobs or education, these individuals became a permanent underclass plagued by poverty, illiteracy, and disease.--SECOND, this intense industrialized agriculture demanded specialized seed, fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, and machinery that had to be purchased from the MDCs, adding to already ballooning debt.---THIRD, planting the same crop over and over often degraded fragile ecosystems. In some LDCs, land began to lose fertility.--FOURTH, many LDCs became net importers of food with no effective means of national food distribution. Famine claimed more and more lives in the LDCs, not necessarily because there was no food, but because displaced peasants were too poor to buy relatively expensive imported food. Ironically, both food production and hunger grew globally during this time.--FIFTH, the LDCs never fully realized enough profit from their agricultural exports, because although the World Bank required them to drop all tariffs and subsidies, many of the MDCs they wanted to trade with continued to heavily subsidize their own domestic agricultural commodities in order to protect MDC farmers from cheap imports. For example, the United States continued to subsidize its cotton farmers, making US cotton some of the cheapest cotton in the world. Most LDCs, no matter how efficiently they produce any commodity, cannot compete with heavily subsidized commodities from MDCs. And LDCs cannot enact their own subsidies without alienating the World Bank and IMF. Without sufficient foreign exchange from trade to pay their bills, debt in the LDCs kept growing throughout the 1980s and 1990s.

classic liberalism

--Classic liberalism, associated with the writings of Adam Smith and his successors, was an 18th and 19th century response to feudalism, the arbitrary rule of monarchs, and the state-focused colonialist mercantilism seen as the Westphalian state system took hold.--In politics, it centered on establishing the rule of law, constitutional procedures, and individual liberties.--In economics, the focus was on open markets, free trade, and protecting private property.--Smith believed that if individuals were allowed to pursue their own self-interest ("self-love"), then the "invisible hand" that developed through market exchanges would allocate resources much more efficiently than governments ever could, leading to "universal opulence." He rejected the zero-sum (win-lose) rationality of state-centric mercantilism and thought free markets could lead to a natural division of labor and win-win economics.

Comparative advantage

A more important aspect of conditionality was the World Bank's power to decide precisely what projects would receive funding. In doing this, the World Bank employed the principle of comparative advantage, which maintains that if one country has a lower relative cost in producing a certain commodity, then it is to the advantage of all trading partners that the specializing country produces that commodity. Thus LDC economies became tied to rather rigid terms of trade, where they were encouraged to specialize in agricultural products like cotton and peanuts and use the export profits (foreign exchange) to buy whatever else they needed. This made sense because agriculture tends to be laborintensive and LDCs generally have a surplus of labor.

mercantilism

-mercantilism, which originated with the trade policy of European nations, especially England, from the sixteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth.-While mercantilists do not oppose trade, they do hold that governments must regulate it in order for trade to advance various aspects of the national interest. The aspirations of mercantilists go beyond the immediate consumption gains emphasized by liberals, to include long-term growth, national self-sufficiency, the vitality of key industries, and a powerful state in foreign policy.-They are especially wary of trade patterns that offer immediate benefits but constrain long-term growth.--For example, the slow-growing African economies specialize in the export of mining and tropical agriculture products that do not require either skilled labor or high technology. Because neither the products themselves nor their production techniques have changed much in decades, such specializations are developmental dead-ends. Furthermore, many poor countries are dangerously reliant on just a few such products. Two-thirds of African countries generate more than half of their export revenues from just three or fewer products. In six African countries, one product accounts for more than 85 percent of exports.--Mercantilists also observe that the rosy evaluation of trade advanced by Smith and Ricardo was predicated on their expectation that any given nation's imports would more or less balance its exports. However, when a nation's imports are greater than its exports—meaning that it buys more from other nations than it sells to them—mercantilists warn that this trade deficit carries with it potential dangers that may not be readily apparent.

first generation of rights

1) What rights have been identified as human rights? One way to approach this question is to divide the UDHR of 1948 into three generations, or categories. These three generations have different origins and represent different views of human rights. While this way of understanding human rights has many adherents, many others see categorizing human rights as a potentially harmful endeavor. --In 1966 the General Assembly considered an agreement that would expand and clarify this first generation of rights, called the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

second generation of rights

2)Second-generation human rights (see Figure 3) are referred to as social and economic rights, and also known as prescriptive or positive rights. Contained in Articles 22 through 26 of the UDHR, they stem from the Western socialist tradition. To some degree they have developed in response to what is considered to be the excessive individualism of the first generation of rights and the impact of Western capitalism and imperialism. They focus on social equality and the responsibility of one's government to provide for its citizens. In other words, they prescribe or advocate for specific government actions and programs. They require the positive provision of government services. ---Rather than protecting the citizen from the government as the first-generation rights do, the second-generation rights necessitate a proactive government acting on behalf of its citizens. They establish an acceptable standard of living, or minimal level of equality, for all citizens. Like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which elaborated the first generation of rights, an agreement to expand and elaborate this second generation of rights was introduced to the General Assembly in 1955, titled the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The United States has not ratified this covenant and has been reluctant to consider social and economic rights as universal rights. The two international covenants (ICCPR and ICESCR) plus the UDHR are often grouped together and referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights.

Population policies

A population policy may be defined as a deliberately constructed or modified institutional arrangement or specific program through which a government influences demographic change, directly or indirectly --According to a 2013 UN survey of government policies, seventy-two less-developed countries have policies or programs to reduce population growth; in contrast, twenty-four more-developed countries have goals to increase growth. Many more countries have indirect population policies that, while not targeting population growth, have clear implications for mortality, fertility, or migration (UNPD 2014a). The United States, for example, has not yet adopted a formal statement of goals concerning national population growth, but does have a long-standing policy for the permanent resettlement of immigrants and refugees, which in turn results in net additions to the population through international migration.

Responsibility to Protect

A relatively new policy relating to UN direct enforcement of human rights is called the responsibility to protect (R2P). Unanimously adopted at the 2005 World Summit, R2P stresses that states have the responsibility to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. It also maintains that the international community has a responsibility to intervene in these situations when a state fails to do so. Intervention can only be authorized by the US Security Council (UN 2013). R2P was used to authorize North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) combat operations in Libya in 2011 and the French-led military operations in the Central African Republic in 2013.

Power

A simple definition of power is "the ability to get others to do what they would not have otherwise done."

Bretton Woods Institutions: IMF

Bretton Woods agreements was an institution called the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to advise countries and loan them money to help pay their debts and balance their budgets. Before the IMF, when countries owed money to other countries, they were tempted to devalue their currencies (usually by printing more money). This left their creditors holding nearly worthless currency. Through financial subscriptions and quotas from member countries, the IMF amassed a pool of money to be used for loans to help cover these debts and prevent devalued currencies. Though countries then became indebted to the IMF, national currencies remained stable. To aid nations in paying off their debts, the IMF would also make recommendations for cost-cutting measures that would free up money in national budgets for debt repayment. The original ten country members of the IMF were known as the Group of 10 (G-10) and still meet periodically today (now as the Group of 12).-The IMF offers loans when countries face severe downturns and budgetary crises,

The first World Climate Conference was held in

Geneva in February 1979, to discuss global warming and other related climate issues (Gupta 2010). Other political and scientific conferences followed: Villach, Austria, in 1985; Hamburg, Germany, in 1987; and Toronto, Canada, in 1988. Climate change was now in the spotlight and being treated as a global environmental and development problem (Gupta 2010).

Developing countries stance on sustainable development

Developing countries continue to insist that the industrialized countries, because of their historical dominance in the combustion of fossil fuels and production of toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes, are responsible for environmental problems and should bear the responsibility for any solution. More generally, they identify the high levels of consumption in industrialized countries as a key cause of global environmental degradation. --Therefore, many developing countries argue that industrialized countries in the North must adopt more sustainable consumption and production patterns and significantly reduce the use of natural resources and fossil fuels before the South follows suit. --The average British citizen accounts for as much greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change in two months as a person in a least-developed country generates in a year --The average person in an industrialized country, like the United States, accounts for nearly four times the carbon dioxide emissions of someone in China or India, and nearly thirty times that of someone in Kenya.

Pros of free trade

Free trade agreements are designed to increase trade between two or more countries. Increased international trade has the following six main advantages:- 1) Increased Economic Growth: The U.S. International Trade Commission estimated that NAFTA could increase U.S. economic growth by 0.1%-0.5% a year.2- 2) More Dynamic Business Climate: Without free trade agreements, countries often protected their domestic industries and businesses. This protection often made them stagnant and non-competitive on the global market. With the protection removed, they became motivated to become true global competitors.- 3) Lower Government Spending: Many governments subsidize local industries. After the trade agreement removes subsidies, those funds can be put to better use.3- 4) Foreign Direct Investment: Investors will flock to the country. This adds capital to expand local industries and boost domestic businesses. It also brings in U.S. dollars to many formerly isolated countries.4- 5) Expertise: ​Global companies have more expertise than domestic companies to develop local resources. That's especially true in mining, oil drilling, and manufacturing. Free trade agreements allow global firms access to these business opportunities. When the multinationals partner with local firms to develop the resources, they train them on the best practices. That gives local firms access to these new methods.- 6) Technology Transfer: Local companies also receive access to the latest technologies from their multinational partners. As local economies grow, so do job opportunities. Multi-national companies provide job training to local employees.

Key Environmental Conferences and Summits—Stockholm

In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, also known as the Stockholm Conference, was held. This conference brought together 114 governments and was attended by many nongovernmental organizations. It was the first time in history that those nations of the world came together to discuss issues surrounding the destruction of the environment (Switzer 1994; Valente and Valente 1995). The Stockholm Conference did not create any binding obligations, but served more as a catalyst to generate an international discourse on global environmental issues.

Replacement Fertility

In a long-term perspective, however, population scientists usually consider zero population growth by examining a particular form of a zero-growth population: the stationary population, one in which constant patterns of childbearing interact with constant mortality and migration to yield zero population change. In such a case, fertility is considered "replacement" fertility, because one generation of parents is just replacing itself in the next generation. In low-mortality countries, replacement-level fertility can be measured by the total fertility rate, and is approximately 2.1 births per woman to achieve a stationary population over the long term. --The US population is currently increasing at about 0.7 percent per year; natural increase accounts for about two-thirds, and net international migration constitutes about one-third, of this relatively low level of population growth.

Ad Hoc Tribunals to the International Criminal Court

In early 1993 and again in late 1994, two international tribunals were established by the UN Security Council to deal with crimes against humanity, one in the former Yugoslavia and one in Rwanda. In the former Yugoslavia some 200,000 people had been killed in what was called "ethnic cleansing" (the "purifying" of a society ethnically through violent means), and in Rwanda approximately 800,000 had been massacred in tribal violence. The timing of these tribunals was especially important, because they were established before the end of the conflicts and thus constituted a form of early intervention. Also, these tribunals were established based on international law, which supersedes state sovereignty, at least in principle. Though their establishment was an important step in dealing with the impunity so pervasive until recent times, these were ad hoc tribunals—established for specific cases of crimes and for limited time periods.

World pop. trajectory

It is important to note, however, that despite these large additions to the world's population, the rate of population growth is decreasing. The average annual rate of global population growth reached an all-time high, of about 2.2 percent, between 1962 and 1964. Since that time, the pace of growth of the world's population has decreased to the current rate of approximately 1.2 percent per year --the world's population is expected to virtually stop growing by the end of this century, due in large part to falling global fertility rates, --By 2100, the world's population is projected to reach approximately 10.9 billion, with annual growth of less than 0.1% - a steep decline from the current rate. Between 1950 and today, the world's population grew between 1% and 2% each year, with the number of people rising from 2.5 billion to more than 7.7 billion. >Here are 11 key takeaways from the UN's "World Population Prospects 2019": --The global fertility rate is expected to be 1.9 births per woman by 2100, down from 2.5 today. --The world's median age is expected to increase to 42 in 2100, up from the current 31 - and from 24 in 1950. --Africa is the only world region projected to have strong population growth for the rest of this century. --Europe and Latin America are both expected to have declining populations by 2100. --The population of Asia is expected to increase from 4.6 billion in 2020 to 5.3 billion in 2055, then start to decline. --In the Northern America region, migration from the rest of the world is expected to be the primary driver of continued population growth. --Six countries are projected to account for more than half of the world's population growth through the end of this century, and five are in Africa. --India is projected to surpass China as the world's most populous country by 2027. -Between 2020 and 2100, 90 countries are expected to lose population. -Africa is projected to overtake Asia in births by 2060. -The Latin America and Caribbean region is expected to have the oldest population of any world region by 2100, a reversal from the 20th century.

Anti-state nationalism

It is the unifying ideology of a people who oppose what they see as an illegitimate state. This often takes the form of anticolonialism: a group of nationalists unite and organize their people in order to overthrow a foreign, colonial state.

. Keynes (contemporary liberalism)

Keynes argued that governments had a role in softening the volatile booms and busts of unconstrained capitalism by making sure that workers received their fair share of the benefits, so that there was enough "aggregate demand" in the system to buy the products that were produced. He supported the establishment of social safety nets (through public education, health care, etc.) and sensible regulations (such as protecting clean air and water). Importantly, Keynes was a liberal, sometimes called a "contemporary liberal," who was trying to fix capitalism and save it from communism.-When depressions hit and there was downward spiraling unemployment, Keynes believed governments, as the only spender left standing to keep people on the job, should step in and start spending, even if they were already in debt. This step is exactly what occurred during the 1929 Great Depression, during the "Great Recession" which began in 2008-2009, and during the COVID-19 pandemic that emerged in 2020. In essence, Keynes believed governments should "save in good times" when the market was running smoothly, but "spend in bad times" to keep people on the job, maintain enough buying power in the economy, and start an upward spiral. At the international level, Keynes was one of the key architects of the IMF and World Bank after WWII, which he saw as establishing the needed shock absorbers in the international economy. The IMF offers loans when countries face severe downturns and budgetary crises, and the World Bank provides long term loans for development projects.

MDGs/SDGs

MDGs were replaced by the UN's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). --the SDGs, unlike the MDGs, are supposed to ensure that no country or person is left behind. The MDGs did not have to deal with these challenges, since they focused on economic and social issues in developing countries and gave limited attention to the structural causes of poverty and sustainable development, including inequality, pollution, and resource scarcity. The result of this process was a set of 17 goals and 169 targets (see Figure 2 and UN 2014). Some governments and nongovernmental organizations have complained that such a large number of goals is too unwieldy to implement or sell to the public. However, there is a general consensus that it is better to have more goals that include targets on women's empowerment, the environment, good governance, and peace and security, for example, than fewer goals that don't address these issues.

Alternative energy

Many nations are reducing their carbon dioxide output by replacing fossil fuel electric power generation with alternative energy, despite any international binding agreement. Currently, the majority of electricity in the world is generated by fossil fuels, 68 percent, with nuclear fission accounting for another 11 percent. Alternative energy production accounts for just over 20 percent of the total of the world's electricity production (Energies-Renouvelables 2013). The most-used alternative energies for generating electricity, constituting 20 percent of global electricity generation, are hydroelectricity, 78 percent; wind power, 11.4 percent; biomass, 6.9 percent; solar, 2.2 percent; geothermal, 1.5 percent; and marine energies, 0.01 percent (Energies-Renouvelables 2013). --During the first seventy-five days of 2015, Costa Rica ran its entire nation on renewable energy with expectation that energy prices would decrease for consumers. Costa Rica generates most of its power with hydroelectric plants, geothermal, and some wind and solar, and uses fossil fuel only as backup. Costa Rica has set a goal to become carbon-neutral by 2021 --Denmark, the United Kingdom, Germany, Scotland, and Ireland all set records for renewable energy production in 2014, relying mostly on wind and some solar. --The United States is second in the world behind China in renewable energy investment

Migration

Migration plays a large role in the Netherlands' population composition and age structure, with 11.7 percent of the total population composed of foreign-born persons as estimated by the UN for 2013, compared to 0.7 percent for Niger in the same year (UNPD 2013a). These two age pyramids illustrate the history of past levels in fertility and migration as well as the different demands on society to support the young and the old. --Migration from the global South to the global North has been the main driver of international migration trends, but South-North and South-South migrations have reached similar scales (see de Lombaerde, Guo, and Povoa Neto 2014). According to scholars Stephen Castles, Hein de Haas and Mark Miller: "International migration is part of transnational shift that is reshaping societies and politics around the globe. The old dichotomy between migrant-sending and migrant-receiving countries is being eroded—if this dichotomy was ever valid at all. Most countries experienced both emigration and immigration. Today, migration comes in new forms" (2013: 13-14).The consequences of international population movements for both the sending and the receiving nations and communities will have significant implications for emerging global issues.

Remittances

Money migrants send back to family and friends in their home countries, often in cash, forming an important part of the economy in many poorer countries

Liberia and mental illness

More than 20% of Liberia's post-war population has mental health issues including post-traumatic stress disorder, the World Health Organization said in 2016. But the country has just a couple of psychiatrists for a population of nearly 5 million.

Uyghurs in China --The Uyghurs are recognized as native to the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Northwest China. They are considered to be one of China's 55 officially recognized ethnic minorities. The Uyghurs are recognized by the Chinese government only as a regional minority within a multicultural nation.

Mr. Xi made the remarks at a meeting on the region of western China, suggesting that the Communist Party remains committed to drastically changing Uighurs and other Muslim minorities. --Ever since Chinese Communist Party forces took over Xinjiang in 1949, the authorities have struggled to establish lasting control over the region's Uighurs, Kazakhs and other minorities. Their Turkic language and Muslim traditions have set them apart from China's Han majority, and many members of these minorities have resented the expanding presence and power of the Han Chinese majority. --After a string of attacks and protests by Uighurs, Mr. Xi set policy in Xinjiang on a more radical course after 2014, leading to the construction of hundreds of indoctrination camps intended to weaken Uighur and Kazakh adherence to Islam, and to turn them into loyal citizens who disavow separatism. At the same time, the Chinese government has tried to uproot hundreds of thousands of Uighurs from villages and assign them urban and factory jobs, where officials hope they will earn more and cast aside their traditional lifestyles. --In his published remarks, Mr. Xi did not expressly mention the indoctrination camps, which Chinese government officials have defended as a friendly vocational training centers.

International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)

Often, countries get together and form international governmental organizations (IGOs). The logic is that by cooperating through an IGO—like the United Nations, the World Bank, or the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF)— countries are better equipped to achieve a common goal, like preventing war or alleviating poverty, that they could not accomplish on their own. Goldstein (2011) argues that the UN's peacekeeping efforts have been a central factor in reducing war over the past few decades.

Malthus

One of the most influential thinkers in the realm of population growth was Thomas Malthus, who published an essay on the principle of population in 1798 (Malthus 1826), which was significantly expanded over several popular editions. Malthus was a reactionary against the mercantilist philosophy that dominated eighteenth-century Europe and emphasized the value of large and increasing populations for economic growth and prosperity. Malthus instead argued that the inescapable human desire to reproduce would lead to starvation, poverty, and human misery if not halted by the "positive checks" of famine, war, and epidemics. Unlike today's neo-Malthusians, Malthus, a clergyman, was opposed to contraceptives as a means to limit family size and instead endorsed delayed marriage and abstinence.

Aging populations

Population aging presents a challenging set of issues in developed countries and is also emerging as a population issue in developing countries that have experienced rapid fertility decline. With smaller cohorts of young people entering the labor force, support for older age groups is constrained. An aging population requires social policy to support elderly age groups. Costs and geographic distribution of healthcare for the elderly are one clear set of policy concerns deriving from population aging. Less tangible are questions about the relationships among generations who have fewer siblings to care for parents; economic growth, productivity, and innovation fueled by competition; and politics and political participation.

Bretton Woods

Post-WWII development strategies! Bretton Woods Agreements For the first time, the United States took a leadership role in these global negotiations, and in 1944 hosted the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference among the Allied nations in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. These meetings resulted in the Bretton Woods agreements.The organizers of the Bretton Woods agreements believed that liberal economics, freely flowing capital, and open markets held the keys to a more secure andpeaceful world. Instead of secret alliances and trading blocs that resulted in nations fighting over raw materials and markets for finished goods, tariffs and protectionism would be minimized and all nations would have equal access to markets.-There were three basic tasks to be accomplished under the agreements:1)stabilizing all national currencies2), creating institutions and mechanisms for nations to manage their currency valuations, and3) financing the reconstruction of the battered European economies.-In the Bretton Woods agreements, the first order of business was to stabilize currencies by means of fixed exchange rates. Fixed exchange rates facilitate trade by giving all nations the confidence that the currencies they hold today will continue to have a stable value tomorrow. Connecting the value of a currency to an independent commodity like gold could solve the problem.-But currencies naturally tend to fluctuate whenever countries experience severe budget imbalances. So the second creation of the Bretton Woods agreements was an institution called the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to advise countries and loan them money to help pay their debts and balance their budgets-.Third, the Bretton Woods agreements created the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), to aid in the reindustrialization of Europe. The IBRD would eventually become part of a group of institutions known simply as the World Bank Group, or World Bank.-Finally, to keep the Bretton Woods negotiations an ongoing part of international financial stability, the Allied countries resolved to keep meeting to make adjustments to the Bretton Woods agreements as needed. This resolution became known as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Twenty-three countries signed the first GATT treaty in 1947, and eventually 125 countries participated in the 1986-1994 GATT rounds of negotiations. These negotiations eventually ended with the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, whose mission is to eliminate any current barriers to trade.-For those who participated in them, the BRETTON WOODS AGREEMENTS coupled with the ambitious MARSHALL PLAN and other development aid programs, succeeded in rebuilding war-torn economies and sustaining US levels of production.

socialism

Pure socialism is an economic system in which the state owns and controls all the capital used in the production of goods and services. Almost all individuals are employed directly or indirectly by the state, and government assumes the major responsibility for employment, education, healthcare, and living conditions.-In socialism, governments can assume totalitarian powers over the individual that threaten human freedom and stifle individual innovation.

SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to help provide a "concrete approach that delivers means for measuring— in accordance with the contexts and priorities of each country—both advances as well as bottlenecks in efforts to balance sustained socioeconomic growth with the sustainable use of natural resources and the conservation of ecosystem services" --Supporters believed that the SDG approach would generate a series of additional benefits. Internationally agreed objectives could eventually be underpinned by targets, as is the case with the MDGs, which reflect the realities and priorities at the national level and play a useful role in guiding public policies. In the end, the Rio+20 outcome document, titled The Future We Want, agreed to develop "sustainable development goals [that] should be action oriented, concise and easy to communicate, limited in number, aspirational, global in nature and universally applicable to all countries while taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities" --SDGs have been subject to criticism. Some critics argue that this massive list of tasks is a recipe for failure, a set of goals that, although adopted with great fanfare, will be quickly forgotten. --The SDGs, he continues, demand halting the loss of biodiversity, and ending overfishing, deforestation, and desertification. --he criticizes the SDGs because they rely on the old model of endless growth of gross domestic product and higher economic productivity across the board (see SDG 8 in Figure 14.2). Thus, he argues that "the SDGs call for both less and more at the same time" and asks how they can "expect to succeed with such a profound contradiction at their root." He continues: "The SDGs want to reduce inequality by ratcheting the poor up, but while leaving the wealth and power of the global 1 percent intact. They want the best of both worlds. They refuse to accept that mass impoverishment (and ecological crisis) is the product of extreme wealth accumulation and overconsumption." --Another criticism is that while many of the SDGs contain elements of the three dimensions of sustainability, the level of integration is far lower than justified from a science perspective and far lower than discussed in the preparation process

Sustainable development

Sustainable development involves many global actions—from the development of concepts, to the negotiation, monitoring, and financing of action plans. --Yet, while one can argue that reconciling the tension between ecology and economy is the central goal of sustainable development, there is little agreement on what sustainable development actually means. As a result, sustainable development has a multiplicity of definitions. Generally, it implies that it is possible to achieve sound environmental planning without sacrificing economic and social improvement (Redclift 1987). Some definitions emphasize sustainability, and therefore the focus is on the protection and conservation of living and nonliving resources. Other definitions focus on development, targeting changes in technology as a way to enhance growth and development. Still others insist that sustainable development is a contradiction in terms, since development as it is now practiced is essentially unsustainable. ---The Brundtland Commission underlined concern for future generations by asserting that sustainable development is development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" --Definitions of sustainable development tend to focus on the well-being of humans, with little explicit attention to the well-being of nature. However, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, the United Nations Environment Programme, and the World Wide Fund for Nature have proposed a definition that includes nature and highlights the constraints of the biosphere: sustainable development is "improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems" (IUCN, UNEP, and WWF 1991: 10). Although this definition observes the traditional hierarchy that places human beings above the natural world, it does emphasize our dependence on the biospheric envelope in which we live. --It has been recognized that efforts to build a truly sustainable way of life require the integration of action in three key areas: economic growth, conservation of natural resources and the environment, and social development. --All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system that connects space and a system that connects time.

Example of globalization

Technology is perhaps the most visible aspect of globalization and in many ways is its driving force. Communications technology has revolutionized our information systems.

Darien Gap and migration

The Darién Gap is a lawless wilderness on the border of Colombia and Panama, teeming with everything from deadly snakes to antigovernment guerrillas. The region also sees a flow of migrants from Cuba, Africa, and Asia, whose desperation sends them on perilous journeys to the U.S. Jason Motlagh plunged in, risking robbery, kidnapping, and death to document one of the world's most harrowing treks.

Copenhagen 2009

The December 2009 COP-15 Copenhagen Conference was based on ongoing negotiations from the 2007 Bali Action Plan. Hopes were high that President Barack Obama, who campaigned on building a new green energy infrastructure, would bring about change in US policy regarding climate change. President Obama did broker the Copenhagen Accord with a few key developing-nation leaders on the final day of the conference. There were a few governments that objected to the Copenhagen Accord because of its weaknesses. Some of the major provisions of the Copenhagen Accord include limiting the average rise in global temperatures to 2 degree Celsius; creating a process for countries to design specific emission reduction plans; creating criteria for reporting and verifying emission reductions; a commitment on the part of developed nations to generate $30 billion in additional resources in 2010-2012 to aid developing countries in reducing emissions, preserving forests, and adapting to climate change; and setting a goal of generating $100 billion to address the climate change needs of developing countries by 2020 (PCGCC 2009). Parties extended ad hoc working groups formed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol in order to "continue negotiating toward a fuller agreement in late 2010 in Mexico" (PCGCC 2009). --Critics of the Copenhagen Accord note that it is not legally binding, there are no binding emission targets, and the amount of money targeted to help develop nations is far too low. On the upside, however, both China and India agreed to report to an international emission verification system. There were some criticisms of the US emphasis on the voluntary pledge of emission reduction rather than legally binding targets. One very positive aspect of the negotiations was the admission that the world cannot afford an average rise in global temperatures of 2 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels

Paris 2015

The December 2015 Paris meeting (COP-21) came on the heels of a 2014 agreement between the United States and China in which both pledged to future reductions of carbon emissions. The United States agreed to reduce its carbon emission levels by between 26 and 28 percent by 2025 compared to 2005, while China pledged to begin reducing its total emissions by 2030 if not sooner. Building on that momentum, 195 countries agreed in Paris to reduce their future greenhouse gas emissions through a mix of voluntary and mandatory actions. The agreement was made with an eye toward the 2 degree Celsius goal, but increased future cuts will need to be made to achieve that level. The North agreed to financially assist the South's emission reductions, but was not legally bound to do so at the $100 billion per year level the South desired. Other positive measures were new safeguards, including greater transparency, to prevent cheating by countries, and an agreement to reconvene every five years to seek more stringent cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Of course, not all countries were pleased with the results. Countries at low sea levels sought deeper cuts and developing countries sought more commitment by wealthy countries. Others lamented the lack of mandatory cuts in emissions. Yet overall, delegates and observers regarded the COP-21 summit as movement in the right direction.

applying international HR principles

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) went into force when 35 states signed and ratified it in 1976. Some of the rights enshrined in this covenant (very similar to a treaty) deal with rights to life, liberty, and security of person. The rights enumerated in the ICCPR are often compared with what in the U.S. are called civil liberties. For example, the agreement protects the freedoms of movement, thought, conscience, religion, and expression. The treaty not only provides protections of rights but also prohibits specific behaviors such as torture, as well as degrading treatment or punishment. To ensure that states abide by the provisions of this treaty, there is a body of independent experts who monitor state compliance.

Keeling was awarded the National Medal of Science for discovering what is now known as the Keeling curve.

The Keeling curve shows the steady rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since 1958.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on December 11, 1997, and opened for signature on March 16, 1998. The protocol contains legally binding emission targets for key greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. The agreement requires ratification by fifty-five countries; these fifty-five must include developed countries representing 55 percent of the carbon dioxide emissions of the ratifiers. According to the United Nations: "The overall commitment adopted by developed countries in Kyoto was to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by some 5.2 percent below 1990 levels by a budget period of 2008 to 2012. While the percentage did not seem significant, it represented emissions levels that were about 29 percent below what they would have been in the absence of the Protocol" --One of the problems with Kyoto was the vagueness of negotiators in elaborating how countries could achieve reductions through emission trading (an alternative to socially regulated commons). Through emissions trading, a country that reduces its emissions below its allotted level can "trade" its unused emissions to countries that are achieving less success in reducing carbon emissions. Also vaguely elaborated at Kyoto was the degree to which carbon sinks—forests, rangelands, and croplands that absorb carbon—should count toward a country's effort to reduce global warming. --The Kyoto Protocol, the world's only international treaty on global warming, was designed to expire at the end of 2012. --The second phase of the Kyoto Protocol talks was also convened in 2007, in Bali (COP-13), to create a set of mandatory emission goals.

MDGs

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) evolved from the Millennium Declaration. They are eight international development goals that UN member states agreed to achieve by the year 2015. The first seven goals are directed toward eradicating poverty in all its forms: halving extreme poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality, reducing the mortality of children under age five by two-thirds, reducing maternal mortality by three-quarters, reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS, halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water, and ensuring environmental sustainability. The final goal, that of building a global partnership for development, is viewed by some as developing the sort of North-South pact first envisaged in Rio in 1992. --These goals and the commitments of countries to achieve them were affirmed in the launch of the Doha Development Round of international trade negotiations under the World Trade Organization, which commenced in 2001; the Monterrey Consensus, which emerged from the United Nations Financing for Development Conference in March 2002; and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in September 2002. ---the United Nations set forth its Millennium Declaration in 2000 and endorsed Millennium Development Goals in areas of human welfare, development, and the environment, including issues concerning population: reduction of child mortality, improvement of maternal health, and achievement of universal primary education. -The United Nations Development Programme has charted progress toward achievement of each of the eight goals and twenty-one targets --The most recent conference occurred in 2013 in Busan, South Korea, and popular policy topics surrounded that of regulating fertility decline (particularly in China) through family planning and reproductive health, gender discrimination in health access, and strategies for addressing population aging. ---the MDGs have been criticized for being too narrow. The eight MDGs failed to consider the root causes of poverty and gender inequality, many of the underlying environmental issues, and the holistic nature of development. The goals made no mention of human rights, nor specifically addressed economic development. The MDGs were considered goals for developing countries to achieve, with financial assistance from industrialized states

Univ. Dec of human rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948, was the result of the experience of the Second World War. With the end of that war, and the creation of the United Nations, the international community vowed never again to allow atrocities like those of that conflict happen again. World leaders decided to complement the UN Charter with a road map to guarantee the rights of every individual everywhere. The document they considered, and which would later become the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, was taken up at the first session of the General Assembly in 1946.

Cons of Free Trade

The biggest criticism of free trade agreements is that they are responsible for job outsourcing. There are seven total disadvantages:- 1) Increased Job Outsourcing: Why does that happen? Reducing tariffs on imports allows companies to expand to other countries. Without tariffs, imports from countries with a low cost of living cost less. It makes it difficult for U.S. companies in those same industries to compete, so they may reduce their workforce. Many U.S. manufacturing industries did, in fact, lay off workers as a result of NAFTA. ​​One of the biggest criticisms of NAFTA is that it sent jobs to Mexico.7- 2) Theft of Intellectual Property: Many developing countries don't have laws to protect patents, inventions, and new processes. The laws they do have aren't always strictly enforced. As a result, corporations often have their ideas stolen. They must then compete with lower-priced domestic knock-offs.- 3) Crowd out Domestic Industries: Many emerging markets are traditional economies that rely on farming for most employment. These small family farms can't compete with subsidized agri-businesses in the developed countries. As a result, they lose their farms and must look for work in the cities. This aggravates unemployment, crime, and poverty- 4) Poor Working Conditions: Multi-national companies may outsource jobs to emerging market countries without adequate labor protections. As a result, women and children are often subjected to grueling factory jobs in sub-standard conditions- 5) Degradation of Natural Resources: Emerging market countries often don't have many environmental protections. Free trade leads to depletion of timber, minerals, and other natural resources. Deforestationand strip-mining reduce their jungles and fields to wastelands.- 6) Destruction of Native Cultures: As development moves into isolated areas, indigenous cultures can be destroyed. Local peoples are uprooted. Many suffer disease and death when their resources are polluted.- 7) Reduced Tax Revenue: Many smaller countries struggle to replace revenue lost from import tariffs and fees

Urbanization

The criteria for classifying an urban area differ across countries, combining different characteristics of urban areas, such as population density, presence of infrastructure, and presence of education or health services, to identify urban environments --The causes of urban growth have varied among regions and during different historical periods. In Western societies, urbanization has been fueled in large part by technological change in both agricultural and industrial sectors, resulting in both a push from rural communities and a pull to emerging industrial centers --In developing societies, rural-to-urban migration has been driven by many factors, including increasing population density (caused by high fertility rates) in rural areas, environmental degradation from practices such as overgrazing, and the pursuit of gainful employment in urban areas. --The growth of cities (urban growth) as well as increasing proportion of the population living in cities (urbanization) will have a number of effects on population dynamics and standards of living, such as increasing competition in employment, environmental hazards, and reclassification of rural areas as urban places. With the expanding metropolitan areas, governments will need to implement policies that ensure that the benefits of urban growth—greater access to healthcare and education, improvements in water and sanitation within densely populated areas—are shared equitably and sustainably.

Demographic transition

The demographic transition model of population growth relies heavily upon the differences between developed and developing nations; it was initially advanced to describe population growth patterns in Europe and North America in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It predicts that as societies undergo industrialization and urbanization, death rates will fall, followed by a lag of declining fertility, during which population growth continues to occur until norms and values shift from large-family to small-family ideals. Immigration contributes to diversity within society through the mixing of people of religions, cultures, and ethnic origins as well as educational levels and occupations. This transition stage is already apparent among developed countries that began the demographic transitions early. --The demographic transition model has been widely criticized and revised, particularly in recognition of the fact that it depends on the experiences of non-Western societies mirroring or converging with those of Europe and North America. Revisions allow for a clearer understanding of the ways in which family size is influenced by cultural beliefs and gender, particularly educational opportunities for girls and young women. Ron Lesthaeghe (2010) argues for an additional demographic model known as the second demographic transition. Once nations achieve low levels of fertility and mortality in the first demographic transition, they are able to achieve a second transition that involves a change in values that are often characterized by secularization, egalitarianism, and individuality. These changes have led to postponement of marriage and fertility, which influences declines in overall levels of fertility and contributes to the declining rate of population growth. However, it is important to note the differences within particular nations and within particular cultures that would affect socioeconomic status and fertility levels, and there may not be one demographic transition model that is universally applicable.

drivers of globalization

The four main areas of drivers for globalisation are market, government; cost and competition --At the same time, forces of globalization, especially advances in telecommunications, widespread gains in education and literacy, and the spread of a culture of respect for human rights, are working to strengthen human rights around the world.

Universal HR

The idea that everyone possesses these rights as found in the UDHR is referred to as universalism.

third generation of rights

The third generation of rights (see Figure 4) are referred to as solidarity rights, because their realization requires the cooperation of all countries. Contained in Articles 27 and 28 of the UDHR, these rights were articulated for those who came late to the wave of industrialization that swept the Western countries during the past two centuries. These are the peoples of the global South, or the third world, many of whom lived under the burden of colonialism and were not represented at the UN when the UDHR was approved. They constitute 80 percent of the world's population but receive a very small portion of its benefits. Third-generation rights work toward the goal of global redistribution of opportunity and well-being. --The third-generation rights do not have the status of other rights and are still in the process of articulation and implementation -----As an example of the implementation of the third-generation solidarity rights, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Right to Development in December 1986. As Winston Langley notes: "The Declaration confirms the view of the international community that the right to development is an inalienable human right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized" (1996: 361).

Women/Fertility rates

The total fertility rate measures the average number of births per woman of childbearing age and is a strong indicator of overall population growth --the total fertility rate for the world as a whole is estimated at 2.51 births per woman, representing a significant decline from 4.48 in 1970-1975. Fertility in more-developed countries has been below replacement for some time and is estimated at 1.67 births per woman. In less-developed countries, the rate has dropped from 5.42 in 1970-1975 to 2.65 in 2010-2015. Much of this decline is weighted by the aggressive fertility control campaign in China and by significant declines in fertility throughout Southeast Asia and in Latin America. Total fertility in India has also declined, from 5.26 in 1970-1975 to 2.65 for 2010-2015. Fertility in least-developed countries, including many in sub-Saharan Africa, has declined in past decades, yet still remains high, at 4.27 births per woman, well above replacement

disadvantages of political globalization

Unwanted external influence difficult to keep out

advantages of political globalization

Weakens power of authoritarian governments

Ethnic nationalism

arose in the East and the South as a response to the West. It is based on ethnicity. Ethnic nationalism draws its ideological bonds from the people and their native history. It relies on elements that are considered purely unique to a group, such as collective memory, common language and values, and shared religion, myth, and symbolism. It is dependent on blood ties, bonds to the land, and native traditions.---Ethnic nationalism is viewed as having more negative characteristics, such as being more exclusive due to its emphasis on ethnic links between people. In other words, if you don't share the common history, language, and other ethnic ties, you are not part of the nation

The 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, also known as the Rio Conference or Earth Summit,

began serious global efforts to confront the problem of reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The Rio Conference was attended by 178 countries and 110 heads of state (Switzer 1994). One of the five major documents produced at the conference was the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Its purpose was the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at the level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interferences in the climate system" (Flavin 1996: 36). --Although the United States, headed by the George H. W. Bush administration, was a major actor at the Rio Conference, it fought the binding of targeted carbon dioxide reductions to 1990 levels. Despite US reluctance to agree to the targeted carbon dioxide reductions, many industrialized European nations signed "a separate declaration to reaffirm their commitment to reducing their own CO emissions to 1990 levels" (Gore 1992: xiv). In 1993, President Bill Clinton reversed the Bush administration's position, announcing that the United States would reduce carbon dioxide emissions to 1990 levels by 2000. But many of the efficiency initiatives enacted by the US Congress in 1992 (regarding appliance and lighting, for example) were weakened in 1994 and 1995, and remained severely underfunded

Geoengineering strategies tend to be divided into two categories:

carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. ---------Carbon dioxide removal is the process of extracting carbon from our atmosphere and storing it someplace else like in vegetation, the oceans, or underground. -- Solar radiation management entails limiting the amount of sunlight hitting Earth through increasing cloud cover and reflection

hard power

effective when faced with threats -a coercive approach to international political relations, especially one that involves the use of military power

The 1984 International Population Conference in Mexico City

found the United States reducing its support for family planning (which was linked in turn to the Ronald Reagan administration's views on abortion) and identifying population growth as having little hindrance on economic and social development. Many developing countries by this time, however, had instituted family planning programs in an effort to slow the retarding effects of rapid population growth on improving standards of living and educational levels and reducing mortality (Weeks 2012).

Modern slavery

human trafficking --there is general agreement that acts such as genocide (planned killing of an entire people, such as in Rwanda in 1994), modern-day slavery (human trafficking), torture, and summary executions are violations of human rights. Clearly, the UN has taken a universalist position on these. - Free the slaves, an NGO dedicated to eradicating modern slavery --27 million people enslaved in the world today, double the amount of people taken from Africa during the entire trnas-atlantic lave trade - today entire families can be enslaved or generations for $18, in the past a salve would cost $50,000

Present globalization

in the United States, grocery stores and shops at the local mall are stocked with items produced abroad. Likewise, hats and T-shirts adorned with the logo of Nike, Adidas, and the New York yankees, for example, are easily found outside of the United States. In many countries, Taylor Swift, Rhianna, and other US music groups often dominate radio waves, the BBC and CNN dominate television screens, and the avengers and other Hollywood films dominate theaters.-globalization in the past was characterized by companies becoming more global,

A Nation-State

is the idea of a homogenous nation governed by its own sovereign state—where each state contains one nation. This idea is almost never achieved.

types of globalization

political, social (cultural), economic

The 1974 World Population Conference in Bucharest

produced the first formal expression of a global population policy. The World Population Plan of Action, however, embodied a wide range of perspectives on the ways to reduce population growth within developing societies. Some countries, notably the United States, advocated fertility control, specifically family planning programs, to reach population growth targets. Other countries, primarily in the developing world, emphasized the role of development in leading to fertility decline (hence "development as the best contraceptive").

Climate change and the Mississippi Delta

rain and snow across the midwest have swelled the river to record levels. this made it necessary to open the bonnet carre spillway for 123 days to lower water levels in the main channel The arrival of so much fresh water from the Mississippi river into the saltier costal water of the gold threw off the balance of the water killing much of the marine life. loss of seafood has affected local business and could eventually put these local restaurants out of business. salt water moving into fresh water has been an even bigger problem. it would take around 1,000 years to undo humans impact on the Mississippi delta.

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development

recognized the global dimensions of population change. In its action program, the conference identified the connections among population processes, economic and social development, human rights and opportunities, and the environment, thus shifting attention away from targets concerning population growth to goals concerning sustained development, reduction of poverty, and environmental balance. The central role of women in the goals and programs to achieve sustainable development is underscored in the final conference report: "The key to this new approach is empowering women and providing them with more choices through expanded access to education and health services, skill development and employment, and through their full involvement in policy- and decision-making processes at all levels" (UNDESIPA 1995: 1). Twenty years later, the UN General Assembly convened to review the implementation of its action program, creating a new framework for beyond 2014 based on five pillars: dignity and human rights, health, place and mobility, governance and accountability, and sustainability (Yonetani 2014).

Nationalism

shared sense of identity based on important social distinctions that has the purpose of gaining or keeping control of the group's own destiny. it arises from many different sources including Shared ethnicity, language, religion, culture, history, and geographical proximity all generate feelings of comradeship and belonging to a certain group.-----Although the roots of nationalism began before the end of the eighteenth century, most scholars point to the French Revolution as the defining moment for nationalism.---From its origins in Europe, it has spread to every corner of the world. Nationalism is also a complicated concept that encompasses a wide range of expressions. It can be inclusive or exclusive, violent or nonviolent. It depends on the environment in which it develops, on the will of the leaders shaping it, and on how all the people involved imagine it.

Relative HR

some countries and cultures follow traditions that are considered inconsistent with the UDHR, and they claim exception for their traditions. This is termed relativism or cultural relativism. -These governments or ethnic groups, and some scholars, say that the final authority in determining what is right for a citizenry lies with the people themselves or their government (state sovereignty). -Accordingly, appropriate expectations for human rights are judged against, or relative to, local culture. In other words, certain customs that are thought by some to violate human rights are considered legitimate, long-standing cultural or religious practices by others. Customs such as the subordination of women, child marriage, and female circumcision (also known as female genital mutilation or female genital cutting) serve as examples of this. ---In South Asia, young girls are often betrothed by their families to marry at an early age, without consideration of the desires of the child. Those supporting the universalist position generally consider this practice to be a violation of the child's rights, but it is often defended as a cultural (or relativist) tradition. For those who participate in this practice, the determining factor is tradition, not an abstract rule established by foreigners.

Pro-state nationalism

supports the existing state. It tends to originate in, or at least be guided by, the rulers of the state and is often termed official nationalism. It acts as the link between a unified people and their legitimate government.

Bretton Woods Institutions: World Bank

the Bretton Woods agreements created the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), to aid in the reindustrialization of Europe. The IBRD would eventually become part of a group of institutions known simply as the World Bank Group, or World Bank. Initially, however, the IBRD was underfunded, and greater flows of capital were needed to jumpstart the economies of Europe. A plan developed by then-US secretary of state George Marshall, called the Marshall Plan, sent billions of extra dollars ($17 billion between 1948 and 1954) in grants to sixteen Western European countries. The decision to help rebuild even the economies of defeated Germany and Japan shows the degree to which US economic growth in this period depended on these rebounding markets. Without markets, economies simply cannot continue growing.--the World Bank provides long term loans for development projects.

Cornucopia

the Cornucopian perspective emphasizes the role of technological innovations and market forces, which through economics will manage the use of natural resources. This would allow for population growth to actually solve global problems through increased economic productivity and capacity for economic progress.

Soft power

the ability to attract others -- The iPhone: conducts ideas that aids in soft power that aids in soft power of the U.S.-sometimes neglected

Smart Power

the ability to combine hard and soft power truly smart power: diminishes desire of other nations to align against you in coalitions smart power comes from civil society: the wide array of non-governmental and not-for-profit organizations that have a presence n public life

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

was established in 1988 as a result of these conferences, and the first IPCC report was published in 1990. In 1989 the Netherlands held a high-level political meeting with heads of state for the sole purpose deliberating climate change, and the small island states held their first meeting to discuss the issue of climate change due to the fact they will be the first affected by rising water levels. By 1990, it was clear that climate change was an issue on the minds of scientists and nations (Gupta 2010). The IPCC report summarized all the collective science on climate change, suggesting at the time that carbon dioxide levels needed to be stabilized at 1990 levels, which would mean reducing all the greenhouse gas emissions significantly overtime to maintain the 1990 level.