GMS 6440 Fundamentals Final
to measure total body H2O
"X" must cross the cell membrane freely (and behave just like H2O). we use titrated H2O and heavy water D20
to measure volume of ECFV
"X" must not enter cell but must equilibrate throughout plasma and interstitial space. we use insulin - a sugar which is foreign to the body (also radio labeled sodium or chloride)
T/F: CRISPR only allows us to target one site in the genome
FALSE ability to target many site in the genome simultaneously
T/F: catalytic receptors is a small group of receptors
FALSE it is a large group of receptors
T/F: Acetylcholine acts on alpha and beta receptors.
False
T/F: Afferent nerves transmit information from the central nervous sytem to the peripheral nervous system.
False
T/F: All transport through membrane channels is classified as "Active" transport.
False
T/F: Dimerization is important for some catalytic receptors, but never for steroid hormone receptors.
False
T/F: Gaq proteins couple to adenylyl cyclase.
False
T/F: Glia are only present in the central nervous system.
False
T/F: Inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system inhibits urination primarily by inhibiting the detrusor muscle.
False
T/F: Ionotropic receptors signal via G proteins.
False
T/F: Receptors for Thyroid Hormone and steroids are always on the surface (plasma membrane) of target cells.
False
T/F: Receptors for peptide hormones are always on the inside (cytoplasm; nucleus) of target cells.
False
T/F: Referred pain is caused by convergence of somatic and autonomic information within the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract.
False
T/F: Regarding secondary active transport of glucose, the movement of glucose is from a compartment of high concentration to a compartment of low concentration.
False
T/F: The cell bodies of postganglionic neurons are in the central nervous system.
False
T/F: The nervous system is usually divided into 3 anatomical components.
False
T/F: The parasympathetic nervous system innervates the external sphincter of the bladder.
False
T/F: There is only one type of channel in cell membranes.
False
T/F: Normally, humans have 2 lobes in the right lung and 3 lobes in the left lung.
False 3 lobes in the right lung and 2 lobes in the left lung
T/F: Water and small solutes move across the capillary wall by active transport.
False All movement across the capillary wall is passive, driven by hydrostatic and colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressures.
T/F: Filtered wastes from the glomerulus will move in the following order: Bowman's capsule-proximal tubule-distal tubule-loop of Henle-collecting duct.
False Bowman's Capsule - proximal tubule - loop of Henle - distal tubule - collecting duct
T/F: Using Cre recombinase, we can control DNA recombination and delete specific genomic areas flanked by FLP sequences.
False Cre recognizes LoxP sites
T/F: Most of the sodium in the body is inside the cells.
False It is extracellular
T/F: Cardiac muscle contraction is considered to be voluntary movement.
False It moves involuntarily.
T/F: CRISPR has a broad application
TRUE
At what point in time does the electrochemical equilibrium potential exist?
at equilibrium
example of the receptor gyanylyl cyclase
atrial natriuretic peptide receptor
when stretch receptors in the bladder are activated it increases activity in the ________ that synapse in _________
autonomic afferents; spinal cord
autonomic reflexes can require _____________ to carry the information from the ___________ to the ________ and autonomic _________
autonomic reflexes can require afferent neurons to carry the information from the receptors to the CNS and autonomic efferents
T/F: We cannot control copy number of inserted DNA as well as insertion site (position) using the conventional transgenic approach. Insertion of DNA construct into ROSA26 locus can be a solution to overcome these insertional effects.
True
T/F: To measure the volume of the entire extracellular fluid compartment, we use a substance that moves freely across the capillary but cannot enter the cell.
True An example is insulin
T/F: All water movement in and out of cell is passive.
True Water movement is drive by solute (osmotic) gradients across the cell wall
T/F: Sodium (Na) is effectively impermeable at the cell wall.
True Any Na that does enter the cell will be immediately removed by the Sodium potassium ATPase in the cell wall.
how to measure an unknown volume when something is added
V = (added-lost)/concentration at equilibrium
what is homologous recombination
a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA
in a bending arm the bicep ______ and the tricep ______
bicep contracts and tricep extends
in a stretching arm the bicep ______ and the tricep _____
bicep extends and the tricep contracts
Skeletal system major organs
bones cartilage bone marrow
THR is located ____________
bound to the DNA in the nucleus
filtration of the urinary space flow
bowman's capsule, proixmal tubules, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct
PNS cell bodies of the pre ganglionic neurons are in the ______ and ________
brain and sacral spinal cord
major organs of the nervous system
brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
why cant we hold our breath long
brains respiratory control center senses blood's CO2 levels and moves diaphragm and rib muscles, overriding voluntary controle
what is digestion
breakdown of food substances into simpler forms
Easy movement across membrane ----> no movement
hydrophobic molecules: O2, CO2, N2 small uncharged polar molecules: glycerol large uncharged polar molecules: glucose, sucrose (NO MOVEMENT) Ions: H+, Na+, HCO-, K+, Ca++, Cl-, Mg++ (NO MOVEMENT)
metabolic acidosis can result in
hyperkalemia
function of the automatic nervous system
involuntary/visceral funtions maintain optimal internal environment sensory and motor
types of channel pathways
ion and water channels
types of facilitated transport
ion and water channels and solute carriers
Na ions are major cations in _____ so directional changes in Na concentration indicate ____________
plasma, osmotic changes
the PNS preganglion neurons are ________. the post ganglionic neurons are
pre --> long post --> short
the SNS preganglionic neurons are ________. the post ganglionic neurons are ___________
preganglionic --> short postganglionic --> long
describe neurotransmitters/receptors of the ANS for CNS (2 ways)
preganglionic neural cell bodies in the thoracic and lumbar spine short pre ganglionic neurons project to the ganglia near the spinal cord preganglionic release of AcH which acts on post ganglionic neurons both ganglionic neurons are long project to effector organs release norepi pre ganglionic neurons in spinal cord project to the adrenal medulla release AcH post ganglionic neuron cell bodies dont project and release the NT into the blood stream which circulates to the effector organs adrenal medulla releases NE and epi
what are the 3 primary forces involved in physiological functions
pressure, electrical, and chemical
describe nephrogenic diabetes insipidus and where there is a problem
problem at the receptor level ADH normally acts via its V2 receptors in the kidney collecting duct to increase water reabsorption to blood. however, in this disease the V2 receptors may be defective, so vasopressin cannot work, water is not reabsorbed and the patient produces large volumes of dilute urine
the spinal cord can _______ and ______ information
process and integrate
Functions of the digestive system
processes and digests food, absorbs and conserves water and the breakdown products of dietary sugars, proteins, and fats, stores energy reserves, generates heat that maintains body temperature
thalamus responsibilities
processes much of the information reaching the cerebral cortex from the rest of the CNS
To generate conventional transgenic mice, DNA will be injected into: - embryonic stem (ES) cells - fertilized mouse eggs
fertilized mouse eggs
sympathetic nervous system characteristics
fight or flight activity increase in response to stressful stimuli (physical or psychological) readies the body for physical activity diffuse stimulation of organ systems
how to use CRISPR for knock out mouse
have the cas9 nuclease, sgRNA 1 and 2, inject into the single cell embryo, embryo transfer into pseduopregnant, knockout mouse (with sgRNA 1 and 2 we have double knockout)
major organs of the cardiovascular system
heart, blood, blood vessels
describe hypertonic contraction
heavy sweating loss of excess water without equivalent loss of NaCl ECF and ICF volume decreases dehydration increase in osm
high [___] outside of the cell causes a lower [___] such as _____ inside the cell
high [Cl-]; lower [A-]; proteins
channels move from areas of ________ concentration to _________ concentration
high concentration to low concentration
passive transport goes from _____ concentration to ____ concentration
high concentration to low concentration
what is the foundation of all physiology
homeostasis
receptors occur in different locations depending on the type of _____________
hormone
hormones are like a ___________ signal; the nervous system is like a __________ signal.
hormones - wireless phone signal nervous system - land based telephone signal
hormones are made from _____ or ______. secreted into the ____________ and then are carried to _________
hormones are made from endocrine glands or nerve cells. secreted into the blood and then are carried to target cells
hormones elicit ________ changes by binding onto __________ at __________ and _______
hormones elicit physiological changes by binding onto specific receptors at target cells and tissues
general characteristics of g coupled receptors
huge class of receptors contain a domain at the 5,6 cytoplasmic loop that binds G proteins (GTP binding proteins) the c terminal region binds intracellular proteins
example of an organism
human
describe the primary active transport pump
hydrolysis of ATP causes 3 Na+ ions to move from inside to outside of the cell. occurs in exchange for two K+ ions from outside the cell to inside the cell. then returns to the initial state
functions fo the female reproductive system
produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones supports developing embryo from conception to delivery provides milk to nourish newborn infant
example of a macromolecule
protein molecule, DNA molecule
changes in plasma volume (or ECF volume) causes changes in plasma ______ and _______
protein; hematocrit
what are impermeant anions
proteins, DNA, molecules that are negatively charged but not permeable to the cell membrane
what is PAM
protospacer adjactent motif target DNA muscle immediately precede a PAM codon (5'-NGG-3')
plasma volume is about ____% of body weight
4-5%
intracellular fluid is about ___% of body weight
40%
the weight of the plasma membrane is made of about ____% proteins
40%
when moving a muscle __% of energy is used to move and __% of energy is used to generate heat
40% used to move 60% used to generate heat
what to administer IV when dehydrated?
5% glucose solution because it is iso osmotic and distributes throughout the ECF glucose enters the cell and takes water with it the glucose is metabolized and disappears as a free particle because it gets incorporated into other larger molecules so it no longer exerts an osmotic effect
lipids compose ___% of the mass of the plasma membrane
60%
in non obese humans: _____% of body weight is water _____% of body weight is proteins ____% of body weight is minerals ____% of body weight is fat
60% water 18% proteins 7% minerals 15% fat
how many skeletal muscles are there
650
over _____% of the most genome is similar to humans
95%
________ continually creates the gradients for Na+ and K+
Na+/K+ ATPase
what kind of pump in the primary active transport pump
Na+/K+_ATPase
T/F: The hypothalamus can directly control preganglionic sympathetic neurons.
True
T/F: The hypothalamus regulates both autonomic and endocrine function.
True
T/F: There are specific receptors for each hormone.
True
GR and MR intracellular receptors are mostly....
cytoplasmic
intracellular receptors may be located in the
cytosol or nucleus
what are the orientation results of the loxP sites
inversion deletion translocation
type II CRISPR consists of
1. Cas9 nuclease 2. the crRNA array that encodes the guide RNAs 3. PAM codon 4. auxiliary transactivating crRNA
steps of metabolic acidosis
1. H+ gradient factors H+ inward movement in acidosis 2. electrically "silent" exchange of 1H+ with 1K+ 3. excessive extracellular plasma H+ results in extrusion of extra K+ into extracellular space (plasma) 4. K+ uptake is therapeutically acutely enhance by insulin injection which stimulates muscle cells membrane Na/K ATPase
what are loxP sites
34 base pair sequence that is the target of cre recombinase
3 steps of the CRISPR
1. adaptation - short pieces of viral DNA integrat3ed into the CRISPR locus 2. crRNA biogenesis - crRNA are transcribed from the CRISPR locus 3. interference - crRNA are incorporated into complexes that target invading nucleic acids. the crRNA guides the complex to these invading sequences and then Cas proteins degrade the invading DNA
steps of GCPR activation and signal transduction
1. ligand binds to receptor and activates it. receptor interacts with the G protein and get a conformational change. exchange GDP with GTP (occurs due to GEF) 2. ligand unbinds and the G protein (still attached to the GTP) dissociated from the receptor 3. alpha GTP and beta gamma subunits dissociate 4. both alpha GTP and beta gamma can now interact with their appropriate effectors (E1 and E2) 5. alpha catalyzed hydrolysis of GTP to GDP inactivates alpha and promotes reassembly of the trimer 6. members of the RGS family of G protein regulators stimulate GTP hydrolysis with some but not all alpha subunits
how is CRSIPR used to edit mouse genome
1. select target area of the genome (20 base pair target sequence followed by the PAM NGG codon) 2. design the sgRNA (guide should match the target) 3. assemble the cas9 sgRNA construct
criteria for measurement of volume of a particular fluid compartment
1. substance x must be freely distributed through entire compartment 2. must be non toxic 3. not metabolized 4. easily measured
steps of gene targeting (homologous recombination)
1. targeting vector design 2. gene targeted to embryonic stem cells through homologous recombination 3. targeted ES cells selected, expanded and cryopreserved 4. determination of homologous recombinants (see if it is inserted in the right place) 5. targeted ES cells injected into an early mouse embryo 6. embryo implanted into a pseudopregnant foster mother; birth of chimeras 7. breeding of chimeras for germline transmission
urine production/day
1.5L/day/70kg
carbs compose ___% if the mass of the plasma membrane
10%
Na+ concentration gradient
10:1 outside to inside
filtration rate of blood/day
170L/day/70kg
anatomy of the motor efferents of the autonomic nervous system
2 neuron chain pre ganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the CNS post ganglionic neurons have cell bodies in the peripheral ganglia
the crRNA unit contains a ____ nucleotide guide sequence and a partial direct repeat
20
extracellular fluid is about ____% of body weight
20%
how many bones are in the body
206
K+ concentration gradient
25:1 inside to outside
action of the atrial natriuretic peptide receptor
ANP binds to the receptor --> change in conformation of receptors --> dimerise --> activation fo guanylyl cyclase --> converts to GTP --> the cGMP can activate various downstream messengers (protein kinase G, cGMP dependent phosphodiesterase, or ion channels) to modulate cell function
specificity of GPCR
AT1 AT2 receptor (specific for Angiotensin II) muscarinic receptors (specific for AcH) PTH receptor (specific for parathyroid hormone)
What molecule is the source of energy for primary active transport to occur?
ATP
describe ATP in the primary active transport pump
ATP --> ADP w/ phosphate --> phosphate is released
primary active transport is the site of ________
ATP hydrolysis
small amount of hormone (can/cannot) elicit a large response on a cell
CAN
the somatic and automatic nervous system both have _________ and _________ components
CNS and PNS
CRISPR/Cas9 system allows for _______ stranded breaking in the _______ in precisely controlled locations. allows for gene _________ or _______ of gene in the region
CRISPR/Cas9 system allows for DOUBLE stranded breaking in the GENOME in precisely controlled locations. allows for gene SILENCING or EDITING of gene in the region
What is a major factor that regulates an electrolyte's electrochemical equilibrium potential across a cell membrane?
Concentration (chemical) gradient
what is a transgenic mouse
DNA is randomly inserted into the genome by injecting the male pronucleus shortly after fertilization
how to diagnose a heart attack
ECG
the adrenal medulla releases _____ and _____ directly into the ________
Epi and NorEpi bloodstream
T/F: The area of nerve axon not wrapped by myelin sheath (non-myelinated area) is called nodes of Ranvier where action potential is insulated.
False Myelin sheath insulates action potential. Action potential propagates faster by skipping myelinated axon, and jumping from nodes of Ranvier to another node.
T/F: Normal movement of blood flow in the heart is: left atrium-left ventricle-lung-right atrium-right ventricle.
False Right atrium - right ventricle - lung - left atrium- left ventricle
T/F: To determine success of homologous recombination of targeting vector in ES cells, Northern blotting will be utilized.
False Southern Blotting
T/F: The capillary is the main barrier between the intracellular and extracellular fluids
False The cell wall (plasma membrane separates intracellular and extracellular fluid. The capillary separates the interstitium and the plasma, both sub- compartments of the extracellular fluid.
T/F: In the CRISPR/Cas9 system, a double-stranded break in the DNA is induced by the enzyme, CRISPR.
False The enzyme is Cas9
T/F: The osmolality of the body fluids is greater when all the solutes are large.
False The total number of particles, irrespective of size, determines osmolality.
T/F: Eating a meal high in salt, without drinking any water will lead to an increase in both intracellular and extracellular fluid volume.
False This is a Hypertonic expansion: Ingest NaCl stays extracellular, increases the ECF osmolality, H2O moves OUT of cells to restore osmotic equilibrium. Decrease in ICFV, increase in ECFV.
T/F: The urinary system is normally composed of two kidneys, two ureters and two bladders.
False Two kidneys, two ureters, and ONE bladder
T/F: A pure water solution can safely be infused intravenously to a dehydrated person.
False Water will enter the surrounding cells causing swelling and lysis. The potassium released in to the extracellular fluid by cell lysis can be fatal. A 5% glucose solution is iso-osmotic to body fluids, so safe to infuse. After metabolism of the glucose this is equivalent to giving pure water.
T/F: A normal lean person consists of ~ 95% water.
False ~60% water
add pure water what happens with ICFV and ECFV
H2O into the gut --> absorbed into the blood --> passes capillary wall into interstitum --> crosses into the cell --> distributes throughout body fluid compartment till osm of ICF and ECF are equal ICFV expands ECFV expands osmolality falls
Hypertonic expansion: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
Hypertonic expansion: ECF volume: increase Plasma [Na+]:incr3ease ICF Volume: decrease Hematocrit: decrease [Plasma Protein]: decrease
type ______ CRISPR is the basis for current genome engineering applications and comes from _________
II; streptococcus pyogenes
Na+ channel is a ____ conductor in the "resting" cell membrane. Na+ channel contributes ________ to resting potential
Na+ channel is a very poor conductor in the "resting" cell membrane. Na+ channel contributes very little to resting potential
Where is the concentration of [K+] greater: - in the cytoplasm - in the extracellular fluid
In the cytoplasm
Where is the concentration of [Na+] greater: - in the cytoplasm - in the extracellular fluid
In the extracellular fluid
Which of these ion choices is primarily responsible for establishing a typical cell membrane's "resting" potential? - Mg++ - Na+ - K+
K+
K+ permeability of resting membrane is very _______ due to _______. Na permeability is ____________
K+ permeability of resting membrane is very large, due to the open K+ channels in membrane. Na+ permeability is much less
What chemical component of the plasma membrane prevents ions from readily and freely moving across the membrane?
Lipids (phospholipids)
Distribution of major electrolytes in the cytoplasm vs extracellular: - Na+ - K+ - Cl- - HCO3- - Ca++ - Impermeant Anions
Na+: cytoplasm < extracellular K+: cytoplasm > extracelluar Cl-: cytoplasm < extracellular HCO3-: cytoplasm < extracellular Ca++: cytoplasm < extracellular Impermeant Anions: cytoplasm > extracellular
ion distribution: large chemical gradients for K+ and Na_ are maintained by __________
Na/K ATPase active transport pumps
the ECF primary solute is ____. It is the major determinant of ________. Determines the ECF _______.
NaCl Osmalality Volume
NaCl is _________ Reflection coeffecient = _______ Generates a ________ osmotic effect Net movement of H2O is _______
NaCl is "impermeable" Reflection coeffecient = 1.0 Generates a sustained osmotic effect Net movement of H2O is 0 - no net movement
add isotonic NaCl effect on ECFV and ICFV
NaCl stays in the ECF iso-osmotic (no movement of H2O across the cell) increase ECFV no change in osm because infused NaCl is iso-osmotic
SNS usually release _____ which acts on either _______________
NorEpi alpha or beta adrenergic receptors
PNS causes ______ of the bladder wall and ________ of the internal sphincter muscle
PNS causes contraction of the bladder wall and relaxation of the internal sphincter muscle
what are the functions of the muscular system
Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature
which skeletal muscle proteins is ropelike and which is ladder like
Ropelike - myosin ladder like - actin
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: intestinal motility
SNS decrease PNS increase
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: nasal secretions
SNS decrease PNS increase
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: saliva production
SNS decrease PNS increase
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: urination
SNS decrease PNS increase
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: glucose release
SNS increase PNS decrease
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: heart rate
SNS increase PNS decrease
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: relaxes/dilates airways
SNS increase PNS decrease
effect of stimulation on PNS and CNS with jaguar encounter and thanksgiving: blood pressure
SNS increase PNS slight decrease
SNS stimulation causes __________ of the bladder wall and ________ of the internal sphincter
SNS stimulation causes relaxation of the bladder wall and contraction of the internal sphincter
(trasngenic/targeted) modification lead to random insertion of the recombinant DNA into the host genome, while (transgenic/targeted) modifications are directed to a specific site in the genome
TRANSGENIC modification lead to random insertion of the recombinant DNA into the host genome, while TARGETED modifications are directed to a specific site in the genome
T/F: knock ins and out are typically germline
TRUE
T/F: because of the structural similarities between some hormones, some receptors can bind other hormones
TRUE Mineralcorticoid receptors can also bind to glucocorticoid receptors alpha adrenergic receptors, originally described as preferentially binding NE can bind Epi beta adrenergic receptors, originally describes as preferentially binding Epi can Also bind NE
T/F: insertion of the transgene into the host genome is random
TRUE both in terms of location and in terms of the number of transgene copies that are inserted
T/F: Activation of ionotropic receptors results in an ion (Ca2+; Na+) moving into the target cell through a channel in the receptor.
True
T/F: Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system constricts the airways.
True
T/F: Both endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in controlling the activities of many different organ systems to maintain homeostasis.
True
T/F: Cell Membrane Potential is controlled by the relative degree of ion permeability as well as ion concentration gradients existing across a cell's plasma membrane.
True
T/F: Cre-loxP system also can be used to eliminate floxed-stop codon and induce expression of a transgene.
True
T/F: Electrolytes are pumped and leak across cell membranes simultaneously but independently.
True
T/F: Excessive extracellular acid (i.e., [H+] ) will raise the concentration of extracellular potassium ion concentration.
True
T/F: GPCR are also known as seven trans-membrane (7TM) receptors.
True
T/F: Hormones produce physiological actions by binding to receptors at their target cells/tissues.
True
T/F: In our body, approximately 8 liters of intestinal juices are secreted into the GI tract daily, but only 100 ml of water is secreted into the feces.
True
T/F: In the CRISPR/Cas9 system, guide RNA directs the enzyme to cut the DNA at a specific site in the genome.
True
T/F: In the gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle is the major muscle type.
True
T/F: In the lung, gas exchange occurs mostly at the alveoli.
True
T/F: Movement of a charged electrolyte is determined by the major forces of voltage plus chemical concentration gradients
True
T/F: Negative feedback in the autonomic nervous system requires an afferent signal.
True
T/F: Receptor Guanylyl Cyclases are one type of Catalytic Receptor.
True
T/F: Regarding primary active transport, solutes move from a compartment of low concentration to a compartment of high concentration.
True
T/F: Rhabdomyolysis can lead to cardiac muscle cell pathology as the result of creating a condition of hyperkalemia (excessive K+ concentration in the plasma).
True
T/F: Specificity of hormone action in the target cells is determined by receptors.
True
T/F: Tamoxifen, an estrogen antagonist (homologue), will bind to the mutated estrogen receptor fused to the Cre-recombinase, and translocate Cre-recombinase into nucleus.
True
T/F: The Nucleus of the Solitary Tract is in the medulla oblongata.
True
T/F: The adrenal medulla releases norepinephrine and epinephrine directly into the blood stream.
True
T/F: The autonomic nervous system has 3 divisions.
True
T/F: The electrochemical equilibrium potential for a single highly permeant ion species is controlled by the concentration gradient.
True
filtration and absorption rates are _____
about equal
what are the two proteins in skeletal muscle
actin and myosin
neuron communication is by
action potential and neurotransmitter release
what are the types of active transport and what are they powered by
active transport of molecules can be either primarily or indirectly (secondarily) powered by ATP
GPCR signaling cascades - adenylyl cyclase - PLC - PLA2
adenylyl cyclase --> cAMP --> PKA --> enzyme P; ion/water channel, secretory protein, gene transcription PLC --> IP3/DAG --> Ca++/PKC --> enzyme P; ion/water channel, secretory protein, gene transcription PLA2 --> arachidonic acid --> leukotriene, prostaglandin; HETE --> ion channel, secretion gene, transcription
diversity of the GCPR
adrenergic receptors (epi and norepi) muscuarinic receptors (AcH) peptide/glycoprotein receptors (VPN; PTH, Angiotensin II, Somatostation; TSH, FSH) calcium receptor
all water movement is ______. driven by ______ and ____ gradients across the capillary between _______ and _______
all water movement is passive. driven by hydrostatic and osmotic gradients across the capillary between interstitium and plasma
list the adrenergic receptors and subtypes
alpha receptors: - alpha 1 beta receptors: - beta 1 - beta 2
alveoli are surrounded by _______ and exchange ___ and ___ between ____ and ______
alveoli are surrounded by capillaries and exchange o2 and co2 between alveoli and bronchioles
what is a cerebral infraction
an aneurysm in the carotid artery presages a hemorrhagic stroke
what is cre recombinase
an enzyme derived from the P1 bacteriophage that catalyzes site specific recombination of DNA between two loxP sites
subtypes of GPCR
andrenergic receptors alpha and beta (a1, a2, b1, b2) vasopressin (V1 and V2)
the hydrostatic pressure at the ______ end of the capillary is _______ than the colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure in the capillary. so water and solute is __________
arterial; higher; is forced out into the interstitium
arteries contain (oxygen/deoxygenated) blood while veins contain (oxygen/deoxygenated) blood
arteries --> oxygenated blood veins --> deoxygenated blood
circulating hormones bind to _______
circulating hormones bind to the receptors on the targeted cells
secondary active transport is also called
co-transporter or symporter
how to measure ICFV
calculate from total body water - ECFV = ICFV
where is urine collected
calyx, renal pelvis, ureter
enteric nervous system characteristics
can autonomously regulate primary and accessory digestive organs "the brain of the gut" influenced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems but these outside systems are not necessary
cell surface receptors: fast or slow
can be either
what is the CAS proteins
capable of cleaving segments of DNA that are then guided into place by the protospacer. bacteria can now insert foreign DNA
_________ is where exchange occurs between blood and body tissues. _________ and ________ are passed into the __________ and where __________ and ____ of the cells are taken up by the blood and travels till _________.
capillaries is where exchange occurs between blood and body tissues. nutrients and oxygen are passed into the interstitial fluid and where waste and products of the cells are taken up by the blood and travels till excreted
hyperkalemia can cause
cardiac arrhythmias
describe neurotransmitters/receptors of the ANS for PNS
cell bodies of the pre ganglionic cells are in the CNS (brain and sacrospinal cord) long preganglionic neurons synapse in ganglia close to innervated organs in the ganglia the pre ganglionic neuron releases AcH post ganglionic neuron projects to effector organ and also releases AcH
receptors for water soluble, lipid insoluble hormones are located on the _______
cell surface
receptor classifications
cell surface (plasma membrane) receptors intracellular (cytosolic, nuclear) receptors
the nervous system can be divided into two anatomical components:
central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
certain steroid hormones (ER and PR) have well described _____________ signaling actions via interaction with other signaling mechanisms (Src tyrosine kinase)
certain steroid hormones (ER and PR) have well described non-genomic (rapid) signaling actions via interaction with other signaling mechanisms (Src tyrosine kinase)
spinal cord divided into ....
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal divisions
changes in any ion channel's permeability or ion concentration gradient will _________ the membrane potential and can be either _______ or __________
changes in any ion channel's permeability or ion concentration gradient will modify the membrane potential and can be normal or pathological conditions
what is a knock in or knock out mouse
changes introduced into an endogenous gene via homologous recombination with manipulated DNA from a gene
what is assimilation
changing of absorbed substances into chemically different forms
ionotropic receptors signal via ....
channel opening and ca++ and na+ entry into the cell
types of membrane transport proteins
channels and transporters
explain transgenesis
college fertilized eggs (male and female pronucleus) college the transgene transgene is injected into the male pronucleus of the fertilized modified fertilized egg is implanted into psuedopregnant female transgenic mouse
ICF volume response to changes in ECF osmotic _________
concentration (NOT VOLUME)
electrochemical equilibrium potential for a single highly permeable ion species is controlled by the _____________
concentration gradient
concentration gradient (decreases/increases) and electrical gradient (decreases/increases) as ________
concentration gradient decreases and electrical gradient increases as more ions flow through leak channels
general characteristics of ionotropic receptors
consist of membrane spanning subunits that associate to form an ion channel ligand binding to the extracellular domain results in channel opening and allows cation (Na+, Ca++) entry into the target cell
leak channels are ________
continuously open
describe skeletal muscle
contractile proteins form an alternating pattern of light and dark bands called striations
stimulation of somatic motor neurons causes __________ of the external sphincter
contraction
control of urination: urine is made in the _______ continuously it is stored in the ________ until it is _________ from the body there is a ________ phase and _________ phase of bladder function there is ________________ control of bladder function ______ is the controlled elimination of urine the ability to keep urine in the bladder is called _______ ___________ is leaking urine
control of urination: urine is made in the kidneys continuously it is stored in the bladder until it is excreted from the body there is a filling phase and emptying phase of bladder function there PNS, SNS, and somatic control of bladder function micturition is the controlled elimination of urine the ability to keep urine in the bladder is called continence incontinence is leaking urine
midbrain responsibilies
controls many sensory and motor functions, including eye movement and the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes
referred pain is the result of
convergence of visceral and somatic afferents at the level of the spinal cord
pons responsibilities
conveys information about movement between the cerebellum and cerebrum involved in the control of urination, respiration, and blood pressure
movements of the skeletal system require a ____________ of ______________
coordinated pairing of two nearby muscle groups
in secondary active transport movement is _______
coupled
cas9 is directed by
crRNA
genetic modifications to the mouse genome - conditional gene manipulation
cre/lox system
cre/lox system of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: - level of expression: - utility in other applications:
cre/lox system of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: higher possibility for false posititves - level of expression: not proportional - utility in other applications: has flexibility, in that the mice can be used for numerous applications
the conditional knockout will express both the ____ and the _____ gene
cre; loxP flanked
cas9 nuclease is responsible for
cutting the DNA and causes double stranded break in DNA
T/F: channels do not have carrier specificity
false; channels DO have carrier specificity
when someone has renal failure they have an (increase/decrease) in RBCs
decrease
when cre is turned on it can lead to
deletion of the gene of interest early in development leading to developmental effects
functions of the respiratory system
delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) provides oxygen to blood stream removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream produces sounds for communication
insulin deficiency causes
diabetes
organization of smooth muscle fibers
different directions
Although composition of ICF and ECF are__________, the total osmolality is ______________
different; equal (~ 290-300 mosm/Kg H2O).
catalytic receptor singling often requires _______ with subsequent activation of ___________________ that are either a part of the ______ or _________
dimerization; intracellular enzymes; receptor; closely associated
the steroid hormone receptors bind to the DNA as _______
dimers
the nervous system is (directly/indiretly) connected which makes the signal _________
directly connected; makes the signal more direct and rapid
functions of the endocrine system
directs long term changes in the activities of other organ systems adjusts metabolic activities and energy use by the body controls many structural and functional changes during development
when the body does not function within its normal range, organ system malfunction, resulting in ....
disease
Parkinson's occurs when there is ________________-
disregulation in the Basal ganglia
functions of the cardiovascular system
distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials, including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
describe hypotonic expansion
drinking water ECF and ICF expand, fall is osmolality increase in total body water cell swells
during pregnancy a mothers blood volume increases _____% to ________ to a developing baby
during pregnancy a mother's blood volume increases 25-40% to carry nutrients to developing baby
Add pure NaCl (salty meal) effect on ECFV and ICVF
eats salty food with no water take in excess NaCl absorbed from gut into plasma distributes throughout ECF cannot enter cell increase in ECF osm oulls H2O out of cell incresae ECFV and decrease ICFV increase osm everywhere
concentration gradient is caused by ________ gradient
electrical
___________________ sense the change in voltage or electrical potential across the membrane
electrical field sensors
what are examples of hormone rapid effects
enzyme activation, ion channel modulation
kidneys produce _______ which is required for red blood cell production
erythropoietin
examples of smooth muscle
esophagus and stomach
K+ leak channel is an ____________ conductor in the resting cell membrane
excellent
functions of the renal and urinary systems
excretes waste products from the blood controls water balance by regulating volume of urine production stores urine until voluntary elimination regulation blood ion concentrations and pH
solute carriers are ________ transport
facilitated
T/F: loxP sites are coding regions
false LoxP sites are in non coding regions and should not interfere with expression of gene X in cells that do not express Cre
major function of the kidney
filter blood and excretion of waste
shape of the esophagus at rest
folded
for each species of electrolytes, their electrochemical equilibrium potential is controlled by the ________ and ______
for each species of electrolytes, their electrochemical equilibrium potential is controlled by concentration gradients and degree of permeability of the membrane to that ion species
osmotic equilibrium is possible because the cell membrane is __________ to water
freely permeable to water
For a neutrally charged molecule, "Active" transport means that the molecules move across a membrane:
from a low concentration to a high concentration
physiology is the study of
function
cell surface GPCR signal via ____________ to ultimately elicit change in the level/activity of .......
g proteins; intracellular calcium, protein kinases, or phospholipases
glia and neurons are both present in
ganglia
major cell types of the PNS are
ganglia and nerves
gene fragment transgene: - time: - vector construction - off target effects - spatial expression - level of expression - success rate
gene fragment transgene: - time: ~6 months - vector construction: less involved - off target effects: < 10% - spatial expression: similar to endogenous - level of expression: 1-5x endogenous levels - success rate: ~100%
rationale for development of reporter mouse strains
gene of interest cannot be easily identified using other approaches ability to visualize specific cell types without postmortem processing
gene targeting - time: - vector construction - off target effects - spatial expression - level of expression - success rate
gene targeting - time: ~12 months - vector construction: more involved - off target effects: rare - spatial expression: endogenous - level of expression: endogenous - success rate: ~80%
gene targeting of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: - level of expression: - utility in other applications:
gene targeting of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: endogenous - level of expression: endogenous - utility in other applications: no other applications
genomic fragment transgene of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: - level of expression: - utility in other applications:
genomic fragment transgene of generating reporter mice: - spatial expression: similar to endogenous - level of expression: 1-5x endogenous levels - utility in other applications: no other applications
tracts or pathways are
groups of axons traveling together in the CNS
nerves are
groups of axons traveling together in the PNS
nuclei are
groups of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS with a central nucleus
ganglia are
groups of neuronal cell bodies ion the PNS
how do we control for litter effects in conditional knockout
groups should be counterbalances with littermates
tyrosine kinase associated receptor examples and general characteristics
growth hormone and interleukin-6 R consist of a single membrane molecule with extracellular, trans membrane and intracellular portions (domains) that may exist in slightly different forms (alpha and beta) ligand binding to the extracellular domain can lead to the formation of homodimers (alpha, alpha), heterodimers (alpha, beta) or heterotetramers (a, b, a, b) and activation of the receptor unit the activated receptor has no intrinsic kinase activity but can itself activate closely associated tyrosine kinases such as JAK or Src that subsequently phosphorylate various cytosolic proteins
receptor guanylyl cyclase characteristics
have an extracellular domain upon ligand binding to this domain, receptors dimerize and the intracellular guanylyl cyclase domains are activated the activated guanylyl cyclase converts GTP to cyclic GMP the cGMP can activate various downstream messengers (protein kinase G, cGMP dependent phosphodiesterase, or ion channels) to modulate cell function
general characteristics of the catalytic receptors
have an extracellular domain or domains ligand binding to the domains may result in receptor dimerization (binding of 2 receptors together to make a functional unit) ligand binding to the extracellular domains results in the activation of an intracellular catalytic domain
the lipid component of plasma membranes form a barrier separating __________ from __________
intracellular space from extracellular space
hypertonic contraction: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
hypertonic contraction: ECF volume: decreases Plasma [Na+]:increases ICF Volume: decreases Hematocrit: increases or no change [Plasma Protein]: increases
the __________ is important for the coordinated regulation of visceral function by the ANS and endocrine system
hypothalamus
hypotonic contraction: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
hypotonic contraction: ECF volume: decrease Plasma [Na+]: decrease ICF Volume: increase Hematocrit: increase [Plasma Protein]: increase
hypotonic expansion: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
hypotonic expansion: ECF volume: increase Plasma [Na+]: decrease ICF Volume: increase Hematocrit: decrease or no change [Plasma Protein]: decrease
cerebellum responsibilities
important for coordination of movement and for posture and balance
in a hypertonic solution the solute concentration ______ and the cells ______
in a hypertonic solution the solute concentration increases and the cells shrink
in a hypotonic solution the solute concentration ______ and the cells _______
in a hypotonic solution the solute concentration decreases (more dilute) and the cells expand and burst (hemolysis)
in channel transport the molecule acts like a ______ and comes in contact with the ______ receptor binding site that acts like a _______ and will "______________"
in channel transport the molecule acts like a key and comes in contact with the ligand receptor binding site that acts like a lock and will "unlock" or "lock" the gate
in the case of GR, it is maintained in the __________ in an ________ state, bound to ___________. at this time there is no ________________ binding of _____________ to the GR results in ____________, translocation of the ____________ complex to the _________, ________ with another activated GR, DNA binding and _____________ initiation
in the case of GR, it is maintained in the cytosol in an inactive state, bound to hsp90 (heat shock protein). at this time there is no GR mediated transcription binding of glucocorticoid (cortisol) to the GR results in dissociation from hsp90, translocation of the hormone GR complex to the nucleus, dimerization with another activated GR, DNA binding and transcription initiation
in the case of THR, it is already present in the ____________. in the absence of ____, it is bound to the __________ and acts as ___________. _______ enters the target cell, enters the _______, and bind to the ______. after this ___________________
in the case of THR, it is already present in the nucleus. in the absence of T3, it is bound to the DNA and acts as transcription repressor T3 enters the target cell, enters the nucleus, and bind to the THR. after this transcription is initiated
the autonomic afferents of the medulla oblongata synapse ......
in the nucleus of the solitary tract
purpose of the villi and microvilli
increase surface area to efficiently digest and reabsorb proteins carbs and fats
Describe membrane permeability to glucose
infused iso osmotic glucose glucose taken up by the cells, water follows glucose is incorporated into other molecues (glucose particles disappear) equivalent to infusing pure water
describe isotonic expansion
infusion of 0.9% NaCl only ECF expansion and no change in osmolality increase in total body water edema
describe hypertonic expansion
ingest NaCl without water increase in ECF osmolality H2O moves out of cells to restore osmotic equilibrium decrease in ICFV increase in ECFV increase in osmolality no change in total body water cell shrinkage
hyperkalemia can be therapeutically corrected by
injecting insulin into cells
negative voltage flow
inside of the cell to outside of the cell
receptors for lipid soluble steroids, thyroid hormones, or vitamin d metabolite are
inside the target cell, in the cytosol or the nucleus
insulin is produced by the ______ in the _____
insulin is produced in the beta cells in the pancreas
the spinal cord transmits information from and sends information to
internal organs, muscle, skin, brain
interstitial fluid is about ___ of the _____
interstitial fluid is about ¾ of the extracellular fluid
receptors for lipid soluble, water insoluble hormones are located on the _______
intracellular compartment
catalytic subunits are an intrinsic part of the ______________
intracellular domain
nicotinic AcH receptor is an example of _______ and its action....
ionotropic receptor nerve cell --> paracrine --> AcH --> Ca++ influx into the nicotinic receptor on the adrenal chromaffin cell --> epi secretion
ions are ______ polarized and don't interact with _________
ions are highly polarized and don't interact with lipids
isotonic contraction: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
isotonic contraction: ECF volume: decrease Plasma [Na+]: no change ICF Volume: no change Hematocrit: increase [Plasma Protein]: increase
isotonic expansion: ECF volume: Plasma [Na+]: ICF Volume: Hematocrit: [Plasma Protein]:
isotonic expansion: ECF volume: increase Plasma [Na+]: no change ICF Volume: no change Hematocrit: decrease [Plasma Protein]: decrease
In the ling term, it is the _______that maintain fluid volume
kidney
major organs of the renal and kidney system
kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder
genetic modifications to the mouse genome - what is gain of function mutations
knock in over expression of genes of interest, expression of reporter genes
genetic modifications to the mouse genome - what is loss of function mutation
knock out mice - delete specific gene
order of blood vessels
left ventricle --> aorta --> artery --> arteriole --> capillary where O2 is supplied and nutrients to the tissues --> venule --> vein --> vena cava --> right atrium
another name for inotropic receptors
ligand gated ion channels
ion channel types
ligand gated, voltage gated, leak, stretch activated
the plasma membrane has a ____________
lipid bilayer
components of the plasma membrane
lipids (phospholipids), proteins, carbohydrates
describe PNS innervation of blood vessels
little innervation. decreases in blood pressure are mediated mostly by sympathetic withdrawal
describe isotonic contraction
loss of salt and water in equivalent amounts examples: diarrhea, vomiting decrease ECF ONLY cardiovascular collapse
describer hypotonic contraction
loss of salt without an equivalent loss of water adrenal insufficiency fall in ECF increase in ICF cell swelling kidneys cant retain enough sodium ECF osm decreases, H2O leaves ECF into ICF, cell swells, decrease osm everywhere
active transport goes from ______ concentration to _____ concentration
low concentration to high concentration
water moves from a ____ to ____ solute concentration
low to high
someone who is obese will have a (higher/lower) % of total body water because there is more fat which __________
lower %; doesn't have a lot of water
top 2 types of cancer
lung is 1, colon is 2
brainstem is composed of
medula, pons, and midbrain
membranes resting potential of _______ mV is due primarily to the _______. ___ channel and other ion channels have much ________ effect on resting potential
membranes resting potential of -90 mV is due primarily to the K+ electrochemical equilibrium potential. Na+ channel and other ion channels have much less effect on resting potential
what are the ideal controls for the conditional knockout
mice that contain neither the loxP allele or the Cre mice expressing only the Cre recombinase mice expressing only the loxP flanked gene
example of an organelle
mitochondrion, golgi apparatus, nucleus
levels of organization in the body
molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
efferent is .....
motor and autonomic CNS --> PNS information comes from the CNS to alter the function of skeletal, smooth, or cardiac muscle, or organs and glands
direction of digestive system
mouth --> esophagus --> stomach --> small intestine --> large intestine
there is no voltage difference without _________
movement
what is circulation
movement of substances in body fluids
what is simple passive diffusion
movement path across a membrane lipids does not involve a protein
components of the esophagus
mucosa, connective tissues, mucous glands, smooth muscle
what does gastric juice include
mucous, digestive enzyme, HCl
PNS release Ach which acts on _______ receptors on the ____________
musarinic target organ
example of a cell
muscle cell, nerve cell
major organs of the respiratory system
nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli
what is the basic structure and functional unit of the kidneys
nephron
receptor tyrosine kinases example and characteristics
nerve growth factor NGF binds to its receptor causes dimerization and activation of the intrinsic tyrosine kinase the insulin receptor is a tetramer with 2 alpha and 2 beta chains the insulin binds to the alpha chain causing a change in confirmation of the receptor leading to interaction fo the alpha and beta chains and activation (by autophosphorylation) of the intrinsic tyrosine kinase in both cases the activated tyrosine kinase directs the tyrosine phosphorylation of various cytosolic proteins
the major cell types in the CNS are
neurons and glia cells
the enteric nervous system is a network of ______________________
neurons innervating the gut
neurotransmitters are stored in the _______ and released into the ________ and bind to ________ on ________
neurotransmitters are stored in the vesicles and released into the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the post synaptic cells
both SNS and PNS use AcH acting on _______ receptors in ganglia
nicotinic
what is a iso-osmotic solution
no net H2O movement
someone is dehydrated, can you administer pure water IV? why?
no; the cells at the infusion site will swell and then burst. that releases K+ into the plasma which can be fatal (ECF osm is so low H2O enters cells and causes lysis) because the cell membrane potential is mainly determined by outward diffusion of K+. if plasma K+ goes up (hyperkalemia) this reduces the outward diffusion of K+ which depolarizes nerve and muscle and leads to spastic paralysis (respiratory/cardiac muscle)
ER and PR intracellular receptors are mostly....
nuclear
glia cells consist of
nuclei and tracts or pathways
what is respiration
obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide, releasing energy from foods
describe hypothyroidism
once cause is antibodies that inhibit TSH receptors on thyroid cells. thus TSH cannot stimulate thyroid hormone production and secretion by the thyroid gland and people with this disease have low blood levels of thyroid hormones
electrochemical driving forces in a membrane are permeable to _______
only one ion species
activation of the SNS and PNS system effect
opposing effects (often)
usually the PNS and SNS perform _____ functions except in ________
opposite male sexual arousal
leptin: organ, target, effect
organ: adipose tissue target: brain effect: suppresses appetite
cortisol: organ, target, effect
organ: adrenal gland target: body cells effect: assists body in resisting stress; mobilizes fats for energy; depresses inflammatory response
erythropoietin: organ, target, effect
organ: kidney target: bone marrow effect: stimulates production of blood cells
insulin: organ, target, effect
organ: pancreas target: body cells effect: lowers blood sugar
growth hormone: organ, target, effect
organ: pituitary gland target: liver, muscle, bone, cartilage effect: stimulates growth
gastrin: organ, target, effect
organ: stomach target: stomach effect: secreted in response to food; stimulates production of hydrochloric acid to break down food
thyroid hormone: organ, target, effect
organ: thyroid gland target: body cells effect: maintains metabolism, regulates blood pressure, promoted normal development of the nervous system, muscles, and skeleton; regulates hydration of skin
hormone production and secretion is highly _______
organized
positive voltage flow
outside of the cell to the inside of the cell
major organs of the female reproductive system
ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
what is absorption
passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids
channels are (passive/active)
passive
Across a cell's plasma membrane, movement of water is _______________.
passive through a channel
movement of water and small solutes across capillary walls are always _______ and determined by two sets of pressures, _________ and _______.
passive; hydrostatic and oncotic
describe urea permeability
permeable; diffuses into the cell down a concentration gradient slowly. takes water with it no change in cell osmolality; cell swells
endocrine system major organs
pituitary gland, thyroid glans, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads (testes and ovaries, endocrine tissues in other organ systems
plasma is about ____ of the _____
plasma is about ¼ of the extracellular fluid
functions of the nervous system
provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions (input) coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems (integrate) directs immediate responses to stimuli (response)
what are the functions of the skeletal system
provides support and protection for other tissues, stores calcium and other minerals, forms blood cells
oncotic pressure ....
pulls fluid and small solutes back in (absorption)
functions of primary active transporters (ATPases)
pump electrolytes (ions) out of one compartment into another solute gradients for osmotic stability ion gradients for bioelectricity ion gradients for "secondary active transport"
hydrostatic pressure ....
pushes out water and solutes (filtration)
describe the autonomic nervous system
receives sensory information from and controls the function of glands, vasculature (blood vessels) and internal organs. regulates breathing, blood pressure, feeding, elimination, metabolism, etc.
describe the somatic nervous system
receives sensory information from and controls the function of skeletal muscles of the body. it also has other sensory functions that monitor the eternal environment (taste, temperature, etc.) and sense pain
major classes of catalytic receptors
receptor guanylyl cyclases receptor serine/threonin kinases receptor tyrosine kinases tyrosin kinase associated receptors receptor tyrosine phsophatases
this catalytic receptor is very prevalent
receptor tyrosine kinases
reflexes require ______ that can detect changes in the parameter that is being controlled
receptors
describe cell surface receptors and its divisions
receptors for small proteins, peptides, amino acids and other small molecules G protein couples receptors, inotropic receptors, catalytic receptors
describe intracellular receptors
receptors for steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and vitamin d metabolites
how do you get a transgenic mouse
recombinant DNA --> inject DNA into the male pronucleus of the fertilized egg --> --> transgenic mouse that now expresses the exogenous DNA in its cells
causes of heart attack
reduced coronary artery blood flow which causes angina pectoris or myocardial infarction
hypothalamus responsibilities
regulates autonomic, endocrine (hormone), and visceral functions
brainstem responsibilities
regulates breathing, blood pressure, digestion, elimination coordinates muscle movement by communicating with the cerebellum and other brain regions and with the spinal cord regulates levels of arousal
role of beta 2 adrenergic receptors
relaxing effects (epi > norepi) GI tract urogential system airway some blood vessels
what is excretion
removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions
What are the characteristics of life?
respiration, digestion, absorption, assimilation, circulation, excretion
role of alpha 1 adrenergic receptor
responsible for the contractile effects of norepi/epi (blood vessels, urogenital, sphincters)
parasympathetic nervous system characteristics
rest and digest coordinated processes needed for basic survival in a hospitable environment fine control over individual organ systems (no diffuse stimulation)
describe cardiac muscle
rich with capillaries, connective tissue supplies blood to the elongated muscle cell
order of blood flow with valves
right atrium --> tricuspid valve --> right ventricle --> pulmonary aorta --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> left atrium --> bicuspid valve --> left ventricle
lobes of the lungs
right lung: 3 left lung: 2
what is the organization of skeletal muscle fibers
same direction
active types of transport
secondary active transport and primary active transport
what does the stomach's inner layer do
secretion of gastric juice
medula oblongata responsibilities
sensing and controlling vital autonomic functions such as breathing, digestion, and blood pressure bidirectional communication with the spinal cord, periphery, and other brain regions receives sensory (afferent) information for regulation of balance, movement, blood pressure, etc.
afferent is ______
sensory information foes into the CNS PNS --> CNS sensory receptors detect changes in the internal or external environment and translate the information into electrical signals. the afferent neurons convey this information to the CNS
parasympathetic nerve activity to each tissue is usually under _____________________
separate control
what does the plasma membrane do
separates the internal environment (cytoplasm) from the extracellular fluid
the heart and lungs are ______ connected and occupy the _________ and protected by the ________
serially thoracic cavity ribs
in gene targeting the genome and vector are very (different/similar)
similar
types of membrane transport pathways
simple diffusion facilitated diffusion secondary active transport primary active transport
passive types of transport
simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
example of a tissue
simple squamous epithelium, loose connective tissue
the pump/leak model has ________ and ______ transport events
simultaneous and independent
sympathetic nerve activity to multiple muscle tissues can be increased
simultaneously
the crRNA and tracrRNA can be fused together to create a chimeric, ____________-
single guide RNA
major organs of the muscular system
skeletal muscle and associated tendons
what are the 3 muscle types
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle
example of an organ system
skeletal system, digestive system
example of an organ
skin, heart, kidney, brain, stomach
hormones binding to cell surface receptors also elicit _________. they activate _________
slow genomic signaling; intracellular pathways which can lead to gene transcription or repression
intracellular receptors: fast or slow
slow, but some can become faster by binding with proteins in cell membranes
what kind of muscle is the large intestine
smooth muscle
visceral effectors of the efferent motor neurons of the ANS
smooth muscle including blood vessels glands cardiac muscle
types of transport pathways
solute carriers and pumps
the presence of ______ creates the osmolality of the body fluid
solutes
the nervous system can be divided into 2 functional components:
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system
what is homeostasis
something staying the same, maintaining a stable environment
there are _________ for each hormone on at the target site
specific receptors
specificity of the GPCR is governed by _________ and allow _______
specificity of the GPCR is governed by the structure of the hormone or transmitter and allows a particular hormone to exert a precise action on a target cell
SNS cell bodies of the post ganglionic neurons are near the _____________
spinal cord
the CNS can be divided into what 7 parts
spinal cord and brain that consist of medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon, cerebral hemispheres
role of beta 1 adrenergic receptors
stimulatory effects of epi and norepi on the heart
Anatomy is the study of
structure
cerebral hemisphere responsibilities
subcortical nuclei including the basal ganglia basal ganglia are important for control of movement and posture and some aspects of complex behavior cerebral cortex important for generation of skilled movements, reasoning, learning, and memory. large surface area in humans can also influence autonomic function
hormone actions at target cells can be amplified by
successive generation of large numbers of intracellular signaling molecules
glia cells are
support cells
divisions of the ANS
sympathetic parasympathetic enteric
what are examples of hormone slow developing or longer genomic actions
synthesis of new proteins: enzymes (x), channel proteins, regulatory proteins
extra H2O in the interstitial space is
taken up by the lymphatic vessles
hormone/receptor interactions can alter ___________ by a variety of mechanisms
target cell function
PNS cell bodies of the post ganglionic neurons are in or near _____________
target tissue
major organs of the digestive system
teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
parts of the diencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
CNS consists of
the brain and spinal cord
receptors for lipid insoluble peptide or catecholamines are on
the cell surface plasma membrane
the concentration gradient is ________________ to the electrical gradient
the concentration gradient is equal and opposite to the electrical gradient
the hypothalamus secretes an ______ or _____ hormone and controls the ___________
the hypothalamus secretes an inducing or repressing hormone and controls the production of another hormone in the pituitary gland
the major forces governing electrolyte movement in cells are ________ and __________
the major forces governing electrolyte movement in cells are electrical forces (voltage=potential) and chemical concentration gradients
the majority of ECF osmolality is determined by ________ which _________ to produce a molecules and ___________ in solution
the majority of ECF osmolality is determined by electrolytes (ions) which associate to produce a molecules and dissociate in solution
the nervous system uses _________ which are produced in the _______ and travel through ________ to _________
the nervous system uses neurotransmitters which are produced in the nave cell body and travel through axons to the axon terminals
osmolality is
the number (NOT SIZE) of free, dissociated, particles in solution
what is the electrochemical driving force
the sum of electrical and chemical forces. can be in the same or opposite directions
the ________ is the potential that arises at equilibrium at a time where there is __________ when the electrical and chemical forces are ____________
the voltage is the potential that arises at equilibrium at a time when there is no further change when the electrical and chemical forces are equal and opposite
metabolic acidosis means
there is a certain condition that cause excessive pH drop in extracellular fluid that results in excessive K+ in the blood plasma
describe pseudohypoparathyroidism and where there is a problem
there is a problem at the G protein level PTH normally acts at kidney and bone and exerts effects to increase blood calcium levels. in patients with this disease it cannot do so because the G alpha proteins that the PTH receptor normally signals through is defective cannot regulate calcium properly, are hypocalcemic
describe smooth muscle
these spindle shaped cells, each containing a dark nucleus are grouped in irregular bundles
SNS cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons are in the __________ and ___________ of the ___________
thoracic; lumbar; spinal cord
why is the intestine rich in blood vessels
to generate juice and reabsorb digested molecules into the blood
why do we littermate
to reduce variability. especially when mice are on mixed background strains
in intracellular receptors hormone binding converts the receptor into a _______________, which associates with specific parts of the DNA called ____________ and elicits _________________
transcription factor; hormone response elements (HRE), gene transcription (can be increased or decreased)
intracellular receptor signaling results in
transcriptional activation or repression
activation of steroid hormone/THR/VDR may elicit _______________ as opposed to activation of transcription
transcriptional repression
_____ is the gene of interest that is preceded by a promoter or cell type specific promoter
transgene
T/F: The cellular K+ Electrochemical Equilibrium Potential is regulated by concentration differences across plasma membranes, assuming that the membrane's relative permeability to K+ is very high.
true
T/F: structure is always related to function
true
T/F: a solute can fall into two transport categories
true; some passive some active depending on the carriers
what are alleles
two forms of a gene obtained from each parent
what is heterozygous
two forms of the gene that are differnet
what is homozygous
two forms of the gene that are the same
what is a genotype
two types of genes that are inherited
what are the three types of CRISPR systems
type I, II, and III
active transport results in the _______ distribution of molecules in/out of cells
uneven
electrolyte concentrations are ______ distributes between cells and extracellular fluids
unevenly
the female reproductive system has a close connection to the _________ system
urinary
to measure volumes plasma volume
use 131 iodine labelled albumin or Evans blue dye which binds to plasma proteins and stays in the plasma
how do you get a chimeric/targeted mouse
use a targeting vector (gene of interest with two homology arms and the gene we are trying to change and replace) --> modified gene targeted in Embryonic Stem cells through homologous recombination ---> ---> ---> ---> gene targeted mouse
the ANS has many reflexes that control .....
visceral functions
dilution principle
volume (v) = quantity of sub added (x)/concentration at equilibrium (c)
example of a molecule
water molecule, glucose molecule
components of urine
water, amino acids, hippuric acid, urea, others
when a solution is dilute, it moves to the _______ concentration. the cell then ______ and _____ till concentration of solutes are _______
when a solution is dilute, it moves to the higher concentration. the cell then expands and dilutes till concentration of solutes are equal
how does the CRISPR/Cas9 work
when a virus infects a cell bits of viral DNA get inserted into CRISPR sites. allows bacteria to record the viruses they were exposed to and keep record of viral infection. the sequences act as guides to attack invading viruses by disrupting their genetic code
when oncotic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure the direction of fluid ____ and fluid is taken up from the ________
when oncotic pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure the direction of fluid is reversed and fluid is taken up from the interstitium (reabsorption)
what is gastric bypass surgery
when the upper stomach is cut and reconnected
what is a reporter gene
where specific genes would be localized with specific cell types
with forward flow of blood, hydrostatic pressure ________ and because fluid ______ the capillary the impermeable plasma proteins become ______ and oncotic pressure _______
with forward flow of blood, hydrostatic pressure falls and because fluid leaves the capillary the impermeable plasma proteins become concentrated and oncotic pressure increases
Is there potential for eventual CRISPR application in humans?
yes
what happened with gene targeted mice
you get a chimeric mouse which is a single mouse that is composed of cells with distinct genotypes cells from the donor and the host
