Government 20: Final Exam Preparation

Foco strategy

With the Foco strategy, a small group of committed revolutionaries establishes a "focus" in a remote area where they educate peasants until the point when they can revolt in guerrilla warfare. This was inspired by Che Guevara, a Marxist revolutionary, who ruled in Argentina. There were many focos but they did not work. This just goes to show that revolutions are rare and need more than just a good leader. Skocpol offers a more comprehensive definition of social revolutions that is structuralist and discounts leadership.

concurrent elections

You can read about the significance of concurrent elections and how they shape the dynamics of presidential/parliamentary regimes in Juan Linz on the perils of presidentialism.

cross-cutting cleavages

cross cutting cleavages (something that Lipset talks about) are when interests and identities overlap This decreases likelihood of ethnic violence. An example of a cross-cutting cleavage would be if some African Americans are wealthy (let's say they are bourgeois) and some are poor (let's say they are workers) and the same is true for white Americans then race and class are said to be cross-cutting clevages. They are different axes of divisons that divide each group (black/white) within itself (rich/poor).

Third wave of democratization

. The "Third Wave" of Democratization in the 1980s and 1990s A. Widespread Democratization and the Challenge to Structural Theories (mid 1970s in Portugal, Spain, and Greece - where it began) • emerging in pure rural societies that did not line up with Modernization Theory • What changed in the 1980s and 90s? The End of the Cold War Collapse of Soviet and U.S.-backed dictatorships • Stopped intervening Led to western liberal hegemony: democracy as the "only game in town" • Question of power and resources (which lay in the West) - others had to adopt western style political institutions • US was more concerned with fighting Communism (and therefore backed people like Joseph Mobuto) 1970s: Western democracy promotion • US began to withdraw support from dictatorships 1990s: a) Military intervention (Haiti, Panama) b) Conditionality - linking western aid to democracy and human rights 1. Positive: European Union - membership conditionality 2. Negative: Sanctions, withdrawal of aid to dictators End of the Cold War created a geo-political environment that was much more favorable to democracy Number of human rights organizations quadrupled in the 70s "Globalization" effects: Impact magnified by new media and communications technologies - the world would know about governmental abuses • 1968: Mexican army massacred hundreds of students - no one blinked • 1994: Southern Mexican rebellion - became an international sensation However, human rights abuses have not disappeared even though life for dictators is harder now. More hostile to authoritarian rule. TALK ABOUT THE CASE OF SOUTH AFRICA

Kosovo

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civil community

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hutu

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tutsi

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Slobodan Milosevic

A Serb extremist leader who stirred ethnic unrest to help gain control of former Yugoslavia CASE OF SERBIA

Developmental State

A developmental state is a nation-state in which the government carries out policies that effectively promote national economic growth (STATE-LED INDUSTRIALIZATION). Chalmers Johnson discusses this in reference to industrialization in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. This is a clear challenge to dependency theory which is the idea that countries in the periphery are stuck in the periphery. In Dependency theory, Andre Gunder Frank believes that countries will only continue to do badly if they remain tied to countries that are more well-off than they are.

government

A government is defined as the group of people who occupy top positions in the state.

regime

A regime is a system of government, or, in other words, the rules by which power is allocated. A regime changes more frequently that a state but less frequently than a government. A coup leads to a change in regime. So, for example, Morsi was declared "unseated" in Egypt in the summer of 2013 by a military coup along with a council. This group instituted a new administration headed by the chief justice. WHAT AUTHOR

sultanistic regime

A sultanistic regime is tyrannical, arbitrary rule by individual/close followers, power monopoly (concentrated, lack of accountability, secure), no ideology, no organized citizen participation, pursues private goals of ruler (often with power/violence). A sultanistic regime often looks like a weak state - TALK ABOUT IRANIAN REVOLUTION

Social Revolution

According to Skocpol a social revolution is a rapid basic transformation of socio-economic and political institutions that are in part effectuated by class upheavals from below. It involves the collapse of the state and a peasant insurrection.

Ethnic group

An ethnic group is a group whose members share a subjective belief in a common ancestor (often fictitious), based on ascriptive (born into or born with) traits (e.g., race, language, religion, region). CASES

Augusto Pinochet

Augusto Pinochet was a Chilean militar leader who in a coup deposed Salvador Allende - a communist and the elected leader - and created a one party dictatorship. He ruled with an iron fist and is known for his human rights abuses. -He worked along with the Chicago Boys to do these things: Scaled back public bureaucracy Wages fell No worker protection Reduced tariff levels to lower than those of the U.S. Chile DE-industrialized Became leading exporter of fruits and wine Extended ideas into other sectors Education - market-like voucher system Privatized social security Since 1990, Chile's economy has grown at a rate of about 6% a year ; by some measures, now the richest country in Latin America Though countries tried to mimic Chile's model, growth has been mediocre. The significance of this case is that successful economies require strong states (another case for this is the East Asian NICs which Chalmers Johnson discusses in reference to Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.)

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was an Iranian religious leader and politician, and leader of the Iranian Revolution which saw the overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Following the revolution and a national referendum, Khomeini became the country's Supreme Leader—a position created in the constitution as the highest ranking political and religious authority of the nation—until his death. He created a government that was religious.

Constructivism

Bates is a constructivist! Constructivism rejects that ethnicity is fixed or inherent in society, but rather constructed and subject to change. According to constructivists, ethnicity is a product of social, political, and institutional context The implications of this theory are that: ethnic identity is malleable and shaped by context. There are two variants of Constructivism: Instrumentalism: ethnicity as an individual strategic choice—a means to other (political or economic) ends - ethnic mobilization is a means of obtaining power or material well-being (it's a choice) - it's USEFUL for people For Elites it is an efficient way to win votes Easier to solve if the problem is about power and money rather than about blood. Implications: ethnicity is similar to other group memberships; ethnic conflict "really" about power/money but dressed in ethnic clothing However, ethnic identities are more stable than instrumentalist theories predict. Nagel: The other facet is Social constructivism which argues that ethnicity is not a strategic choice but rather socially constructed (and often institutionalized) This implies that ethnicity is "sticky" - it changes, but slowly Problem: limited predictive power Less fixed but less fluid Families, communities, and organizations (have a lot of staying power and give the illusion of always being there)

Universalistic social policies

Certain kinds of policy generate broad coalitions of support for welfare states Universal benefits creates support (middle-class benefits and gets a stake in the system) Social Democratic (examples: Sweden, Norway, Denmark) social policies are universal; everyone gets the same benefits Benefits are generous Most benefits are delivered directly by the state Gender egalitarian Christian democratic (Germany, Austria, France, Switzerland, Italy) What you find in most of continental Europe Less generous than Scandinavian states Not as egalitarian as Scandinavian states State doesn't always directly deliver the benefits (Often state insurance (and private provision), rather than state provision) Tend to be more conservative when it comes to women and families

civil society

Civil society can be defined as a complex network of voluntary associations, economic groups, religious organizations, and many other kinds of groups that exist independently from the government. The Iranian Case - Islamic Revolution • First shah tried to create a modern secular state. • National front - promised to nationalize oil A. The Rise of the Pahlavi Dynasty Shah Reza (1925-41) 2. The 1953 Coup and the Dictatorship of Shah Mohammad Reza - he built a police state (intense fear and repression) opposition: Khomeini (he was arrested and killed) 3. 1960s-70s: relative stability and prosperity • oil boom of early 1970s • government spending increased seven-fold (1970-1978) gave the Shah the resources to buy off his opponents generated higher expectations among Iranians B. Why the Iranian Regime was Vulnerable to Revolution 1. External Dependence on U.S. 2. Sultanistic Regime • institutions dependent on the Shah himself • army became Shah's private security force vulnerable to collapse after his departure • control of oil resources he did not have to depend on anyone treasury his bank account Khomeini: warns the Shah in 1963 that no one will be his friend 3. Sources of Opposition Strength - CIVIL SOCIETY a) Bazaars - vast open air markets that were populated by small-scale merchants. Had resources and were fairly autonomous b) Clerics (85k)/Networks of Mosques (9k) - Shi'a Muslim - penetrated every aspect of life • financed by wealthy merchants in the bazaars c) Culture (Shia Islam)? • Martyrdom • Provided an identity that helped to unite a very diverse group of people d) Leadership (Khomeini)? • Saavy and charismatic opponent • Framed opposition in religion.

The collective action/free rider problem

Collective action problem is where an act that would be beneficial for everyone, but requires the participation of large numbers of people, does not take place because for each individual the costs outweigh the benefits. Free rider problem is where some people do not participate in the provision of a good or service that is beneficial to everyone because where large numbers of other people participate, they can always reap the benefits without undertaking the costs. If many people think the same way, these goods are under-provided. Collective action problem and the free rider problem are closely connected. Collective action problems (people failing to act together on things that are beneficial) occur partly because each individual thinks they can be a free rider if enough other people participate. They are not that clearly distinct. The Nazi case - where too many people participate to do something bad - is not an example of a collective action problem. It might be considered an example of how collective action can sometimes be in the name of bad ideologies.

competitive authoritarianism

Competitive authoritarianism is when governments do not shoot their opponents. They try to buy off opponents or use tax audits. Also, incumbents use money from the state treasury to campaign. They also pack the courts and mobilize civil servants (teachers for example) This concept proliferated in the 90s. The case of Russia: • 20 years ago, people viewed Russia as a new democracy (though it wasn't) • Boris Yeltsin - bombed Parliament into submission • Vladimir Putin: cracked down on media (took over) o Lible suits to bully independent journalists into self-censorship o Undermined oppositional efforts to organize Why competitive authoritarianism over democratization? • External pull toward democracy (e.g., EU in Central Europe) o Rarely sufficient in the rest of the world • Domestic push via strong civil society (Spain, South Africa, S. Korea) • Economic power has stunted the growth of civil society Gazprom (electricity) - Russian govt has power over this •SIGNIFICANCE: society's resistance to government is weak Dmitry Medvedev (???) Check out Levitsky's writing.

state capacity

Consequences of weak states I. Two Dimensions of Stateness • Size (which is different from strength): degree of state intervention/involvement in economy and society Biggest states found in Soviet Union and North Korea • Capacity (what strength has to do with): ability of state to actually carry out tasks *Some states are small but effective (United States is an example) Big and effective: East Asian Tigers (Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) • Another example: Scandinavian welfare state (Swedish healthcare and childcare among best in the world) Big but ineffective: inefficiency and corruption (Latin America in 1970s-80s) • Venezuela - two public employees operating each elevator (in the 70s) Small and weak - bureaucrats poorly trained and poorly paid, few social programs (sub-Saharan African states) • Collapsed state: infrastructure disintegrates (Liberia and Sudan and Somalia) II. Two Indicators of State Capacity • Tax Capacity - ability to extract taxes from society o Weak states generally do a poor job of collecting taxes (especially income taxes) o 38% GDP in rich countries; 18% GDP in developing countries (Egypt and Lebanon: 14%) Latin American countries: 11-13% GDP - and some African and Asian countries. o Limits government's ability to provide infrastructure etc. • Violent Crime - law and order is a basic function of any state - indicates that police are not doing their job very well III. Why State Strength Matters Free-market economics: state is not involved "invisible hand" - natural forces of markets will be unleashed • Property rights protected • Contracts have to be enforced • Markets regulated to prevent monopoly • Stock markets require laws so that companies don't rip off their shareholders • Regulation needed to ensure competition *This sort of regulation is hard to do. • the legal-institutional underpinnings of capitalism (and the case of Albania) Albania: two decades from communism to capitalism • Built without an institutional foundation; virtually no legal system • Thoroughly unregulated • Spread of pyramid schemes (companies that promised huge returns to investors but never actually did anything) • 1.2 billion invested (pyramids built on thin air) o but no regulation to protect when they collapsed in 1997 o massive riots brought down the government and plunged the government into anarchy Milton Friedman: helped train the Chicago boys • Privatize, privatize, and privatize • Admits being wrong in 2001: says law is more important To be effective (For redistribution): • Tax capacity: Collect taxes • Effective bureaucracy (exists in Scandinavia but does not exist in Venezuela) For democracy (means that the states stops arresting and killing people): means that citizens have civil rights (equality of the law) • For these rights to be protected, law needs to be effective o (Ex: Segregation in the South: federal government sent in troops to enforce laws) Africa, Asia, and Latin America: • Police are not present or bought off by drug lords or the Mafia • Judges are in the back pocket of people with money • No one is there to implement the rule of law • Brown areas - corruption, unequal treatment, and violence • Democracy cannot function See cases of Liberia and the Congo State weakness is a problem in much of the developing world. ALSO SEE TABLE IN TAB 20 OF NOTES

consociationalism

Consociationalism is defined as when ethnic groups share power and resources. Lijphart talks about the consociational model (which exists in Belgium, Switzerland, Nigeria, Lebanon). Starting Point: Deeply divided society (ethnic difference taken as given) - ethnically divided societies are likely to remain ethnically divided The question is how do we get these groups to co-exist peacefully? Why Majoritarianism is Problematic in Divided Societies (who ever gets the most votes, gets the power and relegates minority group to permanently opposition status - then the opposition may try to overthrow the government Elements of the Consociational Model Parliamentary system (coalitions) with PR (allows smaller parties representation in the government) Grand Coalition - governments include representatives of all of the ethnic groups - necessary in deeply divided societies Proportionality - use of quotas to guarantee that each group gets a "share of the pie" Mutual Veto - gives each group veto power in all policies that directly affect their vital interests (aim: enhance each group's sense of security) Segmental Autonomy - in key areas of life, ethnic groups are allowed to govern themselves (to some extent) *built in guarantees and power-sharing methods* - Idea is that ethnic groups will have less reason to be in conflict Conditions under Which Consociationalism is Most Likely to Succeed Tradition of elite accommodation/compromise Groups well organized and subject to elite control All groups are minorities and physically separate from each other (no single majority group) If groups are physically separated from one another (like they are in Switzerland) Consociational Cases: Postwar Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, Lebanon Contemporary Northern Ireland, Bosnia II. Problems with Consociationalism Non-democratic Limit democracy by reducing the power of the vote - "ethnocracy" - ruled by ethnic groups rather than the people Inefficient; prone to immobilism (gridlock) But Lijphart argues that deeply-divided societies have little choice Is not claiming that it is ideal - simply the lesser of 2 evils with the greater evil being civil war Consociationalism is also overly rigid; often unable to adapt to changes in society - take the ethnic map and freezes it - people may stop caring, or size of group could change - undermined consociationalism in Lebanon People responsible for changing rules are the people in power •Reinforces ethnic difference (the constructivist critique) Socially and politically constructed (ethnic identities) Institutionalizes ethnic differences - of course people will organize along ethnic lines Close off the possibility of actually overcoming ethnic differences Creates incentives for people to hold onto their ethnic identities TALK ABOUT THE CASE OF INDIA AND SAY WHICH AUTHOR IT IS

corporatism

Corporatism is a method of co-optation whereby authoritarian systems create or sanction a limited number of organizations to represent the interests of the public and restrict those not set up or approved by the state.

De-Baathification

De-Baathification refers to a Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) policy outlined in CPA Order 1 which entered into force on 16 May 2003. The policy's goal was to remove the Ba'ath Party's influence in the new Iraqi political system. To accomplish its goal, the policy declared that all public sector employees affiliated with the Ba'ath Party were to be removed from their positions and to be banned from any future employment in the public sector. The policy was highly controversial among US academics, institutions, government, military, and international media and debate outlets Proponents of the policy contend that the policy effectively cleansed Iraqi society of Ba'athist influence, facilitating the creation of a democratic Iraqi government. But... the CPA essentially took away Iraq's entire governmental infrastructure; critics argue that the policy was not only undemocratic, but also a significant factor in the deteriorating security situation throughout Iraq.

district magnitude

District Magnitude is the number of elected representatives from a district. If there is one representative from a district, the district as a district magnitude of 1. This tends to favor a plurality system, because who ever gets the most votes, wins. Duverger's Law also says that this type of system may induce the party or parties to be more moderate in order to win the greatest amount of votes that they can in the district.

Duverger's law

Duverger's Law is the idea that plurality rule elections structured within single-member districts (those with a district magnitude of one) tend to favor a two-party system. He also proposes that the double ballot majority system and PR tend toward multipartism. *The only parties that have a chance are the big ones, and that plurality systems lead to the marginalization of small parties. In other words, with plurality at play, parties will become more moderate. Examples of the PR system are in Britain, Canada, Jamaica, and Australia.

semi-presidentialism

Elgi: semi presidentialism exacerbates some of the problems with presidentialism (two separate executives) [dual legitimacy takes on two forms and winner-take-all is a bigger issue) Semi-presidentialism is a political system in which executive power is divided between a directly elected president and a prime minister elected by a parliament; addresses the issues of who rules, who's accountable, and what are the checks on executive power.

ethnic entrepreneur

Ethnic entrepreneurs are people who use ethnicity to their advantage, often marginal politicians or leaders about to lose power who need find a source of support. Instrumentalists argue that these ethnic entrepreneurs are able to motivate their followers and ignite or catalyze ethnic hatred where it might have previously existed. EXAMPLES: Tudjman and Milosevic

Franjo Tudjman

Franjo Tudjman was the leader of Croatia during its move for independence and sought to eliminate the Serbian minority from Croatia. The Tudjman discriminated against Serbs by firing them from their jobs and firebombing their houses and began honoring their genocidal Ustashi past. Fearful of ethnic cleaning by the Croats, the Serbs in Croatia began arming themselves, creating paramilitary groups and leading to a cycle of violence that became civil war. Tudjman, like Milosevic, was a textbook example of an ethnic entrepreneur, mobilizing his support along ethnic lines.

Import-substituting industrialization vs. Export-oriented industrialization

ISI and EOI are two forms of state-led development. Both approaches sought to expedite development by substituting developing countries' imports from the developed world. They tried to accomplish this by protecting domestic industries through tariffs, subsidies and other mechanisms. EOI is distinct from ISI because it involved the export of protected domestically-produced manufactures, whereas ISI focused more on the domestic market. The East Asian NICS' use of EOI facilitated their tremendous growth and was a crucial part of the "developmental state" described by Chalmers Johnson. The success of the developmental state under EOI questions dependency theorists' assertion that development requires that the periphery break from the core.

multiparty presidentialism

In multiparty presidentialism, the executive's party rarely ever enjoys a majority in the legislature. Mainwaring critiques this idea, calling this method of governing ineffective. First of all, multiparty presidentialism is especially likely to produce immobilizing executive/legislative DEADLOCK. Second, multipartism is more likely than bipartism to produce IDEOLOGICAL POLARIZATION. Finally, the combination of presidentialism and multipartism is complicated by the DIFFICULTIES OF INTERPARTY COALITION BUILDING in presidential democracies, with deleterious consequences for democratic stability.

inchoate party system

Inchoate party systems are in place in the Philippines, Russia, and Peru. They are weakly institutionalized party systems; NOT fixtures; not well-organized nor do they have deep roots; personalistic vehicles for a single leader; created for a single election. They are also known as "flash parties" people don't have a stable identity electoral volatility (high levels) win elections one year and disappear the next; are re-created at each election Political scientists believe that this type of party system is not good for democracy. Some examples lie in Peru and Bolivia.

Indian Congress Party

Indian National Congress was a political movement, primarily Hindu, founded in 1885 to increase Indian participation in government. It later led the drive for complete independence and became the major political party in independent India. Gandhi was the leader of this party

institutionalized party system

Institutionalized party systems have political parties that are well-organized with deep roots in society - "relative fixtures." In this system, politicians spend their entire careers in a single party, and voters strongly identify with these parties. These party systems have a stable electoral basis (party won't win one year and disappear the next). Some examples of this exist in the US, Britain, Germany, Mexico, Taiwan, Chile, and South Africa.

Iraq

Iraq: • Underdeveloped • Illiterate • Weak civil society • Balance of power between state and society favored state Major oil producer (more than 90% of country's revenue) • Gov had much economic power • Country had no prior experience with democracy 1979: particularly brutal dictatorship under Hussein (massacres) • Iraq lacked a democratic culture (according to some) According to a survey: • 81% called for a strong leader • 53% wanted a government of religious leaders *THEREFORE PROSPECTS FOR DEMOCRACY WERE NOT GREAT High Risk of Ethnic Violence: • 60% Shia Muslim, 20% Sunni, others were non Arab-speaking Muslims (Kurds) • British favored Sunni minority during colonialism Top diplomatic posts were hold by Sunni Shia were excluded and repressed • 1991: failed Shia uprising → Hussein government then massacred 300k Shia • Kurds also suffered repression *necessary but not sufficient for ethnic violence. Also need collapse of the state which came with the US invasion* Voluntarists: hoped to find a Washington or Mandela • Ahmed Chalabi • Adnan Pachachi • Ayad Allawi III. A Consociational Solution? The Role of Institutional Design • Institutionalists: with the right institutions they could induce politicians to act peacefully and share power Called for federalism Problem: If centralized state was captured by single group, though, they could repress people • Federalism would have to be accompanied by some way to share oil revenue *Linz and Liphart recommend a parliamentary system IV. The Point of Departure Structural conditions were unfavorable • There was very little US officials could do, but they COULD write the rules After the US toppled Hussein in 2003, they stayed. They created the CPA Shia had the most to gain from the transition - liked the destruction of the Baathist Regime (elections as means to power) • Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI) • Muqtada al Sadr (strong base among urban poor) and Mahdi Army • Dawa Party • Ayatollah Ali Al-Sistani: eminent Shia figure Demanded immediate elections Kurds: also had a lot to gain The Kurd minority: seek independence The Sunni minority: much to lose, little to gain • Seriously threatened by elections and federalism Opposed changes by the CPA Joined insurgency against US occupation (ex-Baathist and fundamentalist groups) U.S.-backed secular politicians (Chalabi, Pachachi, Allawi) US officials looked to construct effective constitution • Yet didn't really plan for if that state collapsed • State that is heavily dependent on a single leader is still vulnerable to collapse after the leader leaves • 1991: Persian Gulf War devastated Iraq's military capacity and other things public spending on health and education fell by 90% • When the US invaded, the state collapsed. Bureaucracy disintegrated. CPA issued two orders that contributed to the destruction: • Dissolved the Iraqi army (no security forces) • Launched a massive de-Baathification program 50k of Iraq's best public officials were dismissed • Effects: Gutted the state of human resources Purges created a new enemy of the CPA (vitually the entire Sunni Elite) - Sunni Insurgency V. The Institutional Game: Elections, Constitutions, and the Search for a Consociational Solution A. 2004: Interim Government of Ayad Allawi (led transition) B. The January 2005 Election: Ethnic Voting and a Shia Majority • Shia and Kurds were strong on the ground • The more secular and liberal politicans that were backed by the US were weak on the ground Lacked an organized following/lived outside Iraq • Voting was along ethnic lines: Shia provinces = Shia parties and same with Kurdish parties • Sunni parties boycotted the elections • Results: Sunnis won the least amount of seats (17 out of 275) C. The 2005 Constitution: the Sunni Problem • It was federalist: autonomy to Shias and Kurds • Created a powerful prime minister that would likely be Shia • Kurd became the official language • Two most Sunni-dominated provinces voted against the constitution (3 were needed to block it) D. The December 2005 Elections: Ethnic Voting and the Formation of a Grand Coalition • Sunnis participated • US pushed for grand coalition • Clear effort to include all major ethnic groups in the government Dec 2005: Iraq was a consociational democracy (on paper...) • But this was not what happened on the ground... Iraq had no state. VI. The War on the Ground: State Collapse, Insecurity, and the Descent into Violent Conflict March 2003: invasion triggers a collapse of the state • Army shrinks (34/1k to 3/1k) State Collapse and the Security Dilemma • There was no security force to protect people and their families • 86% feared going out of Bagdad at night for safety reasons • 94% thought Bagdad was more dangerous (2003) The Spread of Militias (ethnic security dilemma) • All parties had militias • By 2005 there were 9 major militias in Iraq • Militias outnumbered the army by at least two to one • Southern Iraq: Shia militias were the law De-Baathification and the Sunni Insurgency The Shia in power: militias colonize the state • Shia militiamen were donning police uniforms • Paramilitary death squads were operating • Sunni were executed (enforced disappearances) • Shia army; not a neutral state party 2006: al-quada operatives blew up a sacred shrine • Shia attacked Sunni mosques across the country • 184 mosques destroyed, 29 Sunnis killed over the next few days • violence was worse in integrated neighborhoods 2006: more than 30k people killed because of sectarian violence at the end, at a rate of 100k, people fled the country The Descent into Civil War, 2005-2007 The US occupation did not bring democracy. • Iraq became less free than countries like Kuwait, Jordan, Burma, and Russia. WHAT AUTHOR

structuralism

Is the idea of economic and cultural factors in the formation of government. This theory minimizes the role of individuals and stresses overall factors. Max Weber in The Protest Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism emphasizes the role that religion played in implementing capitalism into society. He argues that Protestant values such as individualism, austerity, saving, and investment encouraged people to be capitalist.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru was an Indian statesman. He succeeded Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress and negotiated the end of British colonial rule in India. He became India's first prime minister (1947-1964). WHAT AUTHOR

Josip Tito

Josip Tito was a Marxist Leninist communist who hated stalin. Soviet forces never allowed to come in and liberate Yugoslavia. He creates his own communist authoritarian regime. Not under stalin's control. He was called the "benevolent dictator."

plurality electoral system

Lardeyret believes that PR systems give disproportionate power to extremist parties

informal institution

Levitsky and Helmke: informal institutions - rules and expectations that are not written down or coded in law why should we care? -they affect the quality of democracy for good or for ill Brazil - can overcome the governance problems of presidentialism like in Brazil - they form coalitions which overcome some problems can erode representation (with clientelism where vote is passed on payoff, not representation) KEY: Institutional design matters for governance - unless you agree with Lipset

Liberalism

Liberalism is a political ideology that advocates individual freedom, egalitarianism, and equality. Why might have England democratized? Because it was founded in British Liberalism and therefore compatible with democracy. Alexander Gerschenkron touches on this idea.

Charles Taylor

Liberia was founded in the nineteenth century by former US slaves. It was dominated by 5% US population and excluded the majority of the population. In 1980: 14 military officers stormed and Samuel Doe became president. In 1988, the US cut off aid to the country. In 1989, Charles Taylor launched an armed rebellion with 250 men called Taylor's insurgency. Because Doe's army did not have the funds to fight back, it fell apart, and Doe was captured in 1990. But From 1990-1997, no one replaced Doe, and an interim government only existed on paper. Taylor's army, however, grew to 10k. West African peacekeepers, however, prevented him from seizing capital. But Taylor set up shop in the territory that he now controlled, establishing, in effect, a shadow state. He controlled everything from the natural resources to the media. It was called Taylorland. Basically the economy was one huge black market. But it was also an export economy that exported goods like gold, rubber, and timber. Taylor allowed foreign companies to continue their operations and provided them with security with the requirement that they paid taxes to him and not the state of Liberia. So, Taylor was bringing in about 6x as much revenue as the government which allowed him to raise a stronger government. He then got elected president in 1997 (and ruled until 2003) but continued to govern as a warlord. He was eventually executed for crimes against humanity. The significance, here, is that state weakness is a problem in much of the developing world.

proportional representation electoral system

Lijphart: Parlimentary PR systems are more representative and may be as effective as majoritarian system (presidential plurality). Examples of a PR system may exist in Argentina, Israel, and Sweden. This type of party system is used in districts with larger district magnitude (can range from 2-30) Seats are allocated based on the percentage of vote that the party wins. But the idea is that all parties will be represented in congress. The barriers legislative entry are lower, and this type of party is often found throughout Latin America, Europe, and Israel (where PR is combined with parliamentary system)

means-tested social policies

Means tested benefits undermine support for welfare state - Social welfare programs have a stigma attached to them (United States is a good example of this) - There are high levels of poverty and inequality - US has a poverty rate twice that of most European countries and three times those of Sweden and Denmark (product of social policy) - The US is the only industrialized democracy without universal health care. The US is a liberal welfare state along with the UK, Canada, and New Zealand.

modernization theory

Modernization Theory is the idea that not only economic development but social changes, spread of education, cultural changes like secularization, and political changes will allow a country to become democratic. Lerner argues that a model of western modernization is a base-line. According to his view, increased urbanization leads to literacy. Lipset, another modernization theorist, argues that democracy happens as a by-product of economic growth in a country. Modernization theory, however, implies that there is only a single path to development. It is conflated with westernization and just assumes that all good things will come together. It downplays historical timing however: England had no competition when it industrialized, but a country like Mali is trying to industrialize in the Computer Age. Therefore, people have expectations. Gerschenkron believes that all countries are entangled in an international system and that the International Demonstration Effect is why third-world countries have trouble developing today.

nationalism

Nationalism is a movement that seeks to attach a particular group to a state (provide a common ancestor). CASE

Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela was the leader of the African National Congress. In early 1990 South African govt retreated from traditional policies and legalized chief black party in the nation (ANC), which had been banned for decades. The government also finally released Mandela from prison, and he became the first black president of South Africa. He died this week and will be missed. He is a good model for the voluntarist theory that states that good leadership can give way to democracy. WHAT AUTHOR

Newly Industrialized Countries

Newly Industrialized countries are countries that are undergoing or have recently undergone rapid industrialization and economic growth. In this class, we have referred to them in as the East Asian NICs which underwent rapid industrialization in the latter part of the 20th century. Chalmers Johnson counters Gunder Frank's Dependency Theory in using the examples of Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea, periphery states that moved into the core with authoritarian governments that focused in industrialization.

Park Chung Hee

Park Chung Hee was the leader of South Korea from 1961-1979. He seized power in 1961 in a military coup. He then ignored advice of world leaders to industrialize slowly and jumped straight into heavy industry steel. He kept the industries private but protected them against foreign invasion with state power. Authoritarian leadership led to rapid industrialization here. WHAT AUTHOR

unequal exchange/declining terms of trade

People who discuss unequal exchange and declining terms of trade view the inability of countries in the periphery to develop as the fault of countries in the west, and say that there's always been an unequal relationship. The west has exploited the periphery for ages, and imperialism keeps unequal exchange in place. These political scientists discount the idea that if countries focused on their comparative advantages, they will be okay, is false. The value of western goods would rise overtime more than the raw materials leading to declining terms of trade. Gunder Frank's Dependency Theory deals with this idea.

pluralism

Pluralism is a theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.

political pact

Political pacts are agreements between political groups that guarantee some share of power and ensure that core values are not endangered. Marxist and Modernization theorists agree that democracy is unlikely to take root outside of the West Voluntarists reject approaches citing the cases of India, Mongolia, Costa Rica. They also argue that structuralists underestimate the role of human agency. Reject on normative grounds (how can you tell a state to just give up based on structural grounds?) • Crafting - farsighted leadership and institutional design o Negotiating rules of the game that give political leaders a stake in democracy (political pacts and institutional design) • Implications: with the right crafting, democracy can be established anywhere (make sure no one wants to "knock over the board") Guarantee the leaders a share of power or guarantee that their vital interests will be protected (incentive even if they leave). • Protecting the vital interests of your enemies is hard However POLITICAL PACTS are necessary to prevent players from knocking over the board Ex: parliamentary system are more likely to give a stake in the system Ex: ethnically divided societies - consociationilism Powerful leaders can help it take root Founding leaders are crucial; use prestige to concentrate power or legitimize new democratic institutions (requires that they underutilize their power) >>The South African regime in crisis (1984-1990): mass insurrection, international pressure and the vicious circle of repression, isolation, and economic crisis Mandela, however, negotiated transition to democracy (1990-94) through leadership and political pacts

Primordialism

Primordialism is the idea that ethnicity as fixed: either inherent or deeply rooted in human societies (basic human need for group identity) - groups that fulfill that need are based on blood ties. This is what gives ethnic identities their power; ethnic identities trump other identities when push comes to shove There is the idea that ethnic identities are fixed / historically given. These bonds are powerful and will win out over class and beliefs Implications: ethnic identities always there lurking beneath the surface. The problem with this theory: many seemingly "deeply rooted" ethnic identities are fluid, changing, and even newly created Another Problem: people have many potential primordial attachments (why is language the indentifier in Nigeria but religion the identifier in India?) This is what Geertz talked about: ethnicity is innate and we're born with it and conflict is going to be consistent Problem: overpredicts ethnic conflict Also, people have a lot of identities (religion, race, etc) Geertz doesn't say which of our identities is most important

amoral familism

Putnam talks about this: Southern Italy has this - everyone is for themselves and that is it.) •Everyone has an incentive NOT to cooperate. People don't think that others around them are playing by the rules. This results in a world without participation *Civil society is the key to fixing this!!

relative backwardness

Relative backwardness is the idea that people industrialized in different ways in relation to their countries' levels of relative backwardness. In other words, how you fared in relation to your neighbors puts pressure on one to industrialize. If one cannot keep up with their neighbors, they will get destroyed. So, compared to Germany, Russia was "backward" and therefore got invaded by Nazi Germany during WWII. Russia was still a feudal agrarian society, and needed to industrialize quickly; they did in 50 years, what England did in much more than that. This concept was discussed by Alexander Gerschenkron. His idea was that there are multiple paths to development. The path depends on historical timing. This concept turns Weber's argument around that ideology is rooted in particular cultural circumstances circumstances, because the concept believes that everyone can industrialize, it just has to do with timing.

collapsed state

SEE THE CASES OF LIBERIA, THE CONGO, AND IRAQ State Collapse in the Post-Cold War Era (Afghanistan, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Sudan etc): many of the world's weakest states were propped up by the Soviet Union - when it collapsed, it lost interest in propping up states in the third world - when countries ran out of money, govts stopped paying public employees and building things, thus, states withered away. Bureaucrats and Teachers walked away from their jobs. Also many army units would go off and set up "fiefdoms" where natural resources were abundant - ordered people to turn over a percentage of their resources for protection

Shia Muslims

See Lebanon definition

Sunni Muslims

See Lebanon definition

Shari'a

Sharia is the moral code and religious law of Islam. It is a body of law governing the lives of Muslims.

social capital

Social capital is the product of healthy civil society, and improves social efficiency mostly through coordination. His first work in the area of social capital was Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, a comparative study of regional governments in Italy which drew great scholarly attention for its argument that the success of democracies depends in large part on the horizontal bonds that make up social capital. Putnam talks about the importance of bonding and bridging.

Soviets

Soviet was a name used for several Russian political organizations. Examples include the Czar's Council of Ministers, which was called the "Soviet of Ministers"; a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia; and the Supreme Soviet, the bicameral parliament of the Soviet Union. Soviets are self-governing workers' councils established in the late years of the reign of Tsar Nicholas. The Bolsheviks later built on the various soviets in the process of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat.

State autonomy

State autonomy is the idea that economic staff is politically independent. This is necessary to achieve long-term goals and policies that produce envisioned results. WHAT AUTHOR / EXAMPLE

Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would later become the chief constituent of the Soviet Union in 1922. The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Leo Trotsky, were by 1905 a mass organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. 1904: Russia lost a revolution to Japan which triggered protests (J-curve effect / people are frustrated) • Tsar Nicholas II agreed to another set of reforms Had the reforms taken root, Russia might have become a western-style democracy 1905: "liberal revolution" The Failed 1905 Revolution - Police shut down the Soviet World War I and the Failure of the February 1917 Revolution • All rallied behind Russian government except for the Bolsheviks They openly rooted for Russia to lose the war Criticized for being unpatriotic Lenin viewed military defeat to chew up the old regime 5mil casualties from 1914 to 1917 Revolts in 1917 Tsar Nicholas forced to abdicate the thrown (1917 revolution) Workers' council (Soviet) emerges • Mensheviks played a major role but still believed that the bourgeoisie had to play a role If the provisional government had succeeded it might have brought democracy but... (led by Alexander Kerensky) It decided to stay in World War I No real effort to redistribute land to peasants • Never gave much peasant support (estates were seized) • The land-owning class lost control and public support Bolshevik party membership went from 24k to 350k • Radicalized the opposition • Brought the Mensheviks and Soviets into the government • Alexander Kerensky comes into power • The army fell apart and the state into anarchy • Mass protests continued This led to the October 1917 Bolshevik Takeover - the provisional government melted away • Russia in a state of full-scale revolution • Had no intention of sharing power with any other group By 1919: all land was in the hands of small farmers The White Army came up against the Bolsheviks The Red Army also developed - Bolsheviks (would grow to 5 mil)

Chicago Boys

The Chicago Boys were implemented by the Pinochet regime in 1973. They radically changed economy, moved towards realistic exchange rates, returned land holdings, banned liberties, unions, outlawed some parties, and purged the universities. Approximately 1000 to 3000 people were killed (thus they were known for brutal repression, even though they tried to privatize everything). - they were trained by Milton Friedman who now says law is more important.

International Demonstration Effect

The International Demonstration Effect has to do with expectations for industrialization. Expectations in 18th century England were pretty low; they had no idea what people in Spain and France were doing. The absence of this in the past meant that people did not demand very much. So England could develop slowly. On the other hand, people in Bolivia have access to television; they know about minimum wage laws and other things. Therefore, they will not be willing to be patient and work all day for low wages. This country does not have 300 years to change like England did, the government is under pressure to deliver goods and pensions. This is what Gershenkron is saying because he believes that the states aren't really independent units but rather, integrated into an international system. For Gershenkron, historical timing matters!

The Kuomintang

The Kuomintang (KMT) was a nationalist party that took over Taiwan after the Chinese Civil War. They were models of the state-centered approach and the developmental state because of their intervention in the mining and textile industries and destruction of the landed elite which enhanced the autonomy of the state. WHAT AUTHOR

Mensheviks

The Mensheviks were a faction of the Russian socialist movement that emerged in 1904 after a dispute in the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, leading to the party splitting into two factions, one being the Mensheviks and the other being the Bolsheviks. The Mensheviks believed that socialism could not be achieved in Russia due to its backwards economic conditions, and that Russia would first have to experience a bourgeoisie revolution and go through a capitalist stage of development before socialism was technically possible and before the working class was able to develop the necessary consciousness for a socialist revolution. While both factions believed that a "bourgeois democratic" revolution was necessary, the Mensheviks generally tended to be more moderate than the Bolsheviks and were more positive towards the liberal opposition and the dominant peasant-based Socialist Revolutionary party.

Relative Deprivation Theory

The Relative Deprivation Theory is the idea that oppressed groups will act when seeking rights or opportunities already enjoyed by others in society. This theory was voiced by Gurr and Davies. The key thing is that frustrated expectations are relative rather than absolute. People expect more. The idea is that a revolutions occur where steady growth leads to rising expectations, and then economic downturn frustrates those expectations. An example of this is Russia. The first two decades of the 20th century were a disaster for Russia which led to the Russian Revolution. The problem with this theory though is that there are many cases of frustrated expectations NOT leading to rebellion (ex. Latin America) From 1950-1980: incomes rose, but in 1990, Latin America was poorer than it was in 1980, so this should have been prime time for revolutions in Latin America. Another example where the Relative Deprivation Theory might be relevant is when discussing the International Demonstration Effect: citizens of countries won't sit and take governmental abuses so that the country can modernize; they expect benefits like pensions and healthcare.

veto players

The US has a constitutional structure (states in which power is concentrated vs. states in which power is dispersed). Most European states are unitary as opposed to federalist (parliamentary governments concentrate a lot of power) The US system disperses power and is federalist. It also has a large number of VETO PLAYERS

The Ustashi

The Ustashi is a nationalistic terrorist organization of right-wing Yugoslav exiles dedicated to the overthrow of Communism in their homeland. The movement emphasized the need for a racially "pure" Croatia and promoted persecution and genocide against Serbs, Jews and Romani people. Serbs were provoked because Croatians still celebrated the Ustashi state which was fascist. It was active before and during WW II.

Vote of No Confidence

The Vote of No Confidence is something that exists in Parliamentary systems (which are used in most of Europe, Australia, Canada, Japan, Malaysia, Israel, and India. In this type of system the Executive and legislature are fused together. The prime minister is elected by Parliament, and the Parliament is directly elected by voters. In a Parliament, no single party has the majority, so the parties must form coalitions. There are also no fixed terms so the prime minister can be removed at any time by the VOTE OF NO CONFIDENCE. Basically, the prime minister depends on the parliament for his or her term. With a PR system, there is no divided government. Linz is in favor of a PR system, and one of his reasons is that in a presidential system with divided government, nothing will get done!

Lebanon

The case of Lebanon: Pre-1943: a deeply divided society among religion • Christians: Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Catholics • Muslims: Sunni, Shia o Maronite Christians were the majority group - wealthiest, best connected group in society Sunni - wealthier and better-educated Shia - poor The 1943 National Pact (Lebanese Elite) • Muslims agreed to forgo the idea to unify with Syria • Christians agreed that it would be an independent Arab State • Created power sharing Grand coalition: Maronite President; Sunni Prime Minister; Shia Speaker of Parliament Proportionality Cabinet seats divided among religious groups, with overall 50-50 division between Muslims and Christians Parliamentary seats divided among religious groups, with Christians given 6 to 5 advantage - competitive seats but only within the party Public jobs divided among groups, but Maronites gain most top posts, including army leadership (2/3rds Maronite) Worked well for about 30 years (40s, 50s, and 60s) - Beirut thrived Mutual veto and segmental autonomy Challenges to Consociationalism in the 1960s and 1970s Domestic challenges • Demographic change: growth of Muslim (esp Shia) population leads to demands for parity (by 1970s, Muslims became majority) - Shia were the poorest most marginalized group. Became frustrated with old system where they only had a small share of pie o Wanted a 50-50 split o Constitutional reform to weaken Christian presidential position, and strengthen Muslim prime minister position Maronites opposed constitutional reform Lebanese elite loses control over rank-and-file groups • Muslim camp: radicalization of Shia groups Christian camp: rise of rightist Phalange Party armed militias ii. Regional challenges 1. Arab Israeli conflict (1967, 1973 wars) - Muslims sided with the Arab states and Christians backed Israel 2. Influx of Palestinians, PLO after 1967 • Christians viewed them as a threat • Maronites demanded that the Lebanese government crack down on Palestinians (Phalange Party starts arming) 1975: militias better-armed than army in Lebanon itself Maronite presidential assassination attempt kills three Christians The failure to adapt and the collapse into civil war (1975-1990) The 1989 Ta'if Accords • Restructured the consocialist system among Muslim lines • Muslims given 50-50 parity in Parliament • Weaker presidency, stronger parliament and prime Minister • But Shia arguably still get the short stick (Sunnis still retain now strengthened prime minister position) Cedar Revolution - realignment and through out Sunni and pro-western forces An uneasy peace after 1990 Syrian domination, 1990-2005 The 2005 Cedar Revolution and growing political instability The rise of Hezbollah - successfully fended of Israeli attack in 2006 - led opposition backed by Syria and Iran 2007-2008 (18 months where Lebanon can't choose president) Over last few years, Lebanon peace has been threatened by Syrian Civil War The Syrian civil war and its consequences Sunni and Shia groups have had a lot of tension The Shia question remains unresolved in Lebanon SIGNIFICANCE: Consociationalism is also overly rigid; often unable to adapt to changes in society - take the ethnic map and freezes it - people may stop caring, or size of group could change - undermined consociationalism in Lebanon Horowitz talks about what happened in Lebanon

Joseph Mobutu

The case of the Congo: It was a Belgian colony: built by and for Belgians - did not provide for the majority of the people living there. Basically, the Congo had a total of 16 university graduates when the Belgians left State broke up 5 days after independence The US backed Joseph Mobutu who got rid of the first democratically elected leader, Lamumba, in a coup. They backed him because of his anti-communist stance. Mobutu changed the Congo's name to Zaire (rich in mineral resources) and netted more than a billion dollars in revenue (which went to his pocket) - so he had a sultanistic regime (Created a personalistic regime): Western aid fell from 873m to 178m 1988-1995: economic decline of 40% 1994: spent 0 dollars on health and education state collapsed - army fell apart Basically, the country had no money. In 1991: soldier mutiny demolished the capital 50k soldiers deserted (three-fourths of the army...) The country was decomposed into local fiefdoms where there were local mineral deposits Mobuto lived on a yacht in the Zaire river He was finally toppled by Kabila, who, after seizing power, renamed the country the Republic of the Congo. But in 2001, he was assassinated by one of his own bodyguards His son took after him but does not control a huge chunk of the Congo Number of deaths to date in the crisis is in the millions (exceeds Rwanda and Bosnia combined) The significance is that the Congo has low capacity and a limited state.

core

The core is basically an agglomeration of the rich and powerful countries such as the US, Britain, and France. The practice of colonialism was essentially the core stealing resources from the Periphery such as gold, silver, sugar, and cotton. The core keeps unequal exchange in place as it is able to convince poorer countries to opt out of the international industry through military might or imperialism. This is relevant to Dependency Theory which Gunder Frank talks about

neoclassical development theory

The neoclassical development theory dictates that states leave the periphery by developing comparative advantage based on natural resources and minimal state involvement. But the East Asian NICs challenge this. They embraced exports, but didn't stick to comparative advantage. South Korea, for example jumped into the heavy steel industry. Also, the state played a central role. It picked industries that it deemed critical, then built those industries up. WHAT AUTHOR

periphery

The periphery are known as the non-industrialized countries and are subjective to the power of countries in the core. In Dependency Theory, Gunder Frank argues that resources flow from countries in the periphery to countries in the core at the expense of the former.

Labor repressive agriculture

The point about labor repressive agriculture is that it is a method of industrialization: the state and the landed elites collaborate to repress peasants in order to develop industry/manufacturing. Barrington Moore talks about it. Some examples would be Germany and Japan in the 20th century. While most people got the part about peasants being repressed, I think there was a general confusion between feudalism, which is an old mode of production where peasants work the land for lords vs. labor repressive agriculture, which is a modern form of production that is done in order to develop industry and modernize. Labor repressive countries are less likely to see revolutions because the peasants are not autonomous and also less likely to democratize, according to Moore.

Indira Gandhi

The prime minister of India and daughter of Nehru, she ordered the Indian army to oust Sikh terrorists from the Golden Temple. She suspended the constitution, ruled under emergency laws, and allowed free elections in 1977 which resulted in her and her Congress party being thrown out of office. She was assassinated in 1984, and her son Rajiv Gandhi took over and negotiated an accord with moderate Sikh leaders that included greater autonomy for Punjab and other concessions. WHAT AUTHOR

state

The state is defined as a set of permanent administrated legal and coercive systems with a monopoly over the legitimate use of force. The state can put people in prison, collect people's taxes, or send one to war. Things like anarchy and civil war cause its collapse. The US's invasion in Iraq caused a collapse of the state. WHAT AUTHOR

voluntarism

The theory of voluntarism stresses that the choices of individuals shape history, or in other words, political leadership explains political outcomes. A voluntarist might say that even the most underdeveloped countries can become Democratic with good leadership. So a voluntarist would attribute South Africa's democratization to Nelson Mandela. WHAT AUTHOR

J-curve

When people's expectations rise, rise, rise and then some unexpected crisis occurs and they crash. According to Davies, misery DOES breed revolt but it's not absolute poverty; it's relative misery or a case of frustrated expectations. One could argue that this happened in the Russian and Iranian cases. The Russian Revolution of 1905: There were many industrial strikes for better wages and working conditions, protests and riots among peasants, university demonstrations, and the assassination of government officials, often done by Socialist Revolutionaries. Western money markets contracted in 1899-1900, Russian industry plunged into a crisis deeper and more prolonged than that which concurrently struck western European industry. The nobility was in financial trouble. The peasants had become emaciated from serfdom. They did not have the money to pay the government what it wanted for their land, so they revolted.