Grammar Exam #6

The verb "feel"

"Feel" is a linking verb; we say, "I feel hot," or "This feels good," or "This shirt feels scratchy," so it must be followed by a PN or a PA.

Tell me what the NRM is functioning as: His kind words bolstering our faltering confidence, Mr. Smith instructs us to sketch the eggs.

"His kind words bolstering our faltering confidence" is an absolute phrase

It would be a miracle for John to win that race

"It" is the GS, and "for John to win that race" is the LS.

Tell me what the NRM is functioning as: The old shed being unusable and rotten, I destroyed it with rocks.

"The old shed being unusable and rotten" is an absolute phrase

In "The men left before the sun rose," what is "before the sun rose" functioning as?

"before the sun rose" is functioning as adverb clause. "before the sunrise" would simply be a prepositional phrase.

Tell me what the NRM is functioning as: I made it, despite your directions.

"despite your directions" is a prepositional phrase

What questions do adverbs answer?

"how?" or "where?" or "when?" or "how often?"

The GPS feature on my new iPad makes finding my way around Florida a breeze

"makes" is the MVP, "finding my way around Florida" is the DO, and "a breeze" is the OCN.

Tell me what the NRM is functioning as: To many, It's A Wonderful Life is a classic Christmas movie.

"to many" is a prepositional phrase

Answer whether the relative clause is restrictive or non-restrictive: A movie whose title I don't recall received the Oscar that year.

"whose title I don't recall" is restrictive. If we remove the relative clause, we're left with "A movie received the Oscar that year," which doesn't tell us anything we didn't already know. A movie receives the Oscar every year. So the relative clause is essential in this case.

As a teenager, she fell for the novels of Ayn Rand

(As a teenager:ADV), (she:NPS) (fell:MVP) (for the novels of Ayn Rand:ADV).

Barefoot and disheveled, my son stood shamefaced before me, as I once stood in front of my father

(Barefoot and disheveled:NRM), (my son:NPS) (stood:MVP) (shamefaced:PA) (before me:ADV), (as I once stood in front of my father:NRM-adverb clause). Remember that there won't be a regular adjective in a sentence. It is likely a predicate adjective. "as" is sometimes a preposition, and at other times a subordinating conjunction

Born in France, Jack grew up first in New York, then at boarding schools in Switzerland, France, and Massachusett

(Born in France: NRM-past participal phrase), (Jack:NPS) (grew up:MVP) (first in New York:ADV), (then at boarding schools in Switzerland, France, and Massachusetts: NRM-prep phrase).

Call me Ishmael

(Call:MVP)(me:DO) (Ishmael:OCN).

Cincinnati public radio's series of African American concerts was called Karamu, the Swahili word for celebration

(Cincinnati public radio's series of African American concerts:GS) (was called:MVP) (Karamu:OCN), (the Swahili word for celebration: NRM-appositive noun). This is a passive sentence where the LS is deleted.

GlennO'Brien, his clothes by themselves guaranteeing his admission to heaven, was the leading boulevardier of a particular subgenerational pocket that thrived in lower Manhattan

(GlennO'Brien:NPS), (his clothes by themselves guaranteeing his admission toheaven:NRM-absolute phrase), (was:MVP) (the leading boulevardier of a particular subgenerational pocket that thrived in lower Manhattan:PN).

Here was once a velveteen rabbit, and in the beginning he was really splendid

(Here:ADV) (was:MVP) (once:ADV) (a velveteen rabbit:NPS), (and:CON) (in the beginning:ADV) (he:NPS) (was:MVP) (really splendid:PA). This first clause is what grammarians call an inverted sentence, because the NPS follows the MVP. You may have been tempted to use the GS/LS labels here, but they aren't appropriate because the word "here" really is an adverb, and not an expletive. If we straighten out the sentence and write, "A velveteen rabbit was here," it' fairly clear that "here" is an ADV. Other common inverted sentence-types begin with prepositional phrases: "In a hole in the ground lived a hobbit"

I write this sitting in the kitchen sink

(I:NPS) (write:MVP) (this:DO) (sitting in the kitchen sink:ADV).

In her opinion, John thinks of himself as a genius

(In her opinion, :NRM) (John:NPS) (thinks: MVP) (of himself:ADV) (as a genius:ADV). The prepositional phrase "in her opinion" is not modifying any single word or phrase in that sentence; instead, it's a "sentence modifier," or a NRM.

Into the face of the young man who sat on the terrace of the Hotel Magnifique at Cannes there had crept a look of furtive shame

(Into the face of the young man who sat on the terrace of the Hotel Magnifique at Cannes: ADV) there:GS) (had crept:MVP) (a look of furtive shame:LS)

It is hard to believe that Michael Jackson who had a heavenly voice and revolutionary dance moves came to such an unfortunate end overdosing on a mix of medications.

(It: GS) (is: MVP) (hard: PA) (to believe that Michael Jackson: LS), (who had a heavenly voice and revolutionary dance moves: NRM), (came to such an unfortunate end: LS) - (overdosing on a mix of medications: NRM).

It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. [This is from Pride and Prejudice; don't let it intimidate you. If "It" is the GS, what would be the LS? If "is" is the MVP, what kind of NP follows the verb "is"?]

(It:GS) (is:MVP)(a truth universally acknowledged:LS) (that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife:PN).

It began as a mistake

(It:NPS) (began:MVP) (as a mistake:ADV). Here, "It" is a pronoun, not an expletive. "It" replaces a NP like "The whole affair" or "The incident."

James can make break-dancing look easy

(James:NPS) (can make:MVP) (break-dancing:DO) (look easy:OCN).

Jane's sister Emily is the author of that article.

(Jane's sister Emily:NPS) (is:MVP) (the author of that article:PN). Assuming that Jane has more than one sister, the word "Emily" is essential to our knowing which sister is meant, so "Emily" is a RESTRICTIVE appositive noun and is not set off with commas.

John Adams, the second president of the United States, was born in Quincy, Massachusetts.

(John Adams, :NPS) (the second president of the United States, :NRM) (was born:MVP) (in Quincy, Massachusetts:ADV). "the second president of the United States" is a non-restrictive appositive.

Keeshawna's birthday cake was like those baked by my Southern grandmother--moist, rich, and sticky

(Keeshawna's birthday cake:NPS) (was:MVP) (like those baked by my Southern grandmother:ADV) (--moist, rich, and sticky:NRM-appositive adjective). The word "like" is never part of an MVP. Here it's a preposition, but the prep phrase it forms is simply an ADV, not a NRM (it's not set off by punctuation, and it can't be moved).

Later in the same book, Sanders quotes one of his own Senate speeches on immigration.

(Later in the same book:NRM-prep phrase), (Sanders:NPS) (quotes:MVP) (one of his own Senate speeches on immigration:DO).

Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendia was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice

(Many years later:ADV), (as he faced the firing squad:NRM-adverb clause), (Colonel Aureliano Buendia:NPS) (was to remember:MVP) (that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice:DO). [Hint: "was to" is a semi-modal] "Many years later" is an example of a gray area: if we delete the first adverb clause, some writers would retain the comma after "later," while others would delete it. Those who delete the comma are thinking that the ADV modifies the MVP, while those who retain it are thinking that it's a sentence adverb. I'd be inclined to accept either argument.

Bones found in a quarry near Shanghai encourage some biologists to believe that primates originated in Asia

(NPS: Bones found in a quarry near Shanghai) (MVP: encourage) (DO: some biologists to believe that primates originated in Asia). We know that "some biologists" is not an IO object because you cannot place "to" or "for" in front of it and "some biologists" are receiving the action of the verb which is the DO's function.

Lebanon Valley College, which was founded in 1866, is in Pennsylvania.

(NPS: Lebanon Valley College,) (NRM: which was founded in 1866,) (MVP: is) (ADV: in Pennsylvania). "which was founded in 1866" is a non-restrictive relative clause.

The girl holding the circular saw is my sister

(NPS: The girl holding the circular saw) (MVP: is) (PN: my sister). "holding the circular saw" is a restrictive participal phrase. It is necessary information. It is acting as and adjective.

Working slowly and carefully, the potter pushed her thumb into the center of the spinning lump of clay.

(NRM: Working slowly and carefully,) (NPS: the potter) (MVP: pushed) (DO: her thumbs) (ADV: into the center of the spinning lump of clay). "Working slowly and carefully" is a non-restrictive participal phrase. It can be moved in the sentence.

Native Americans began forming coalitions to resist American expansion into their territory

(Native Americans:NPS) (began: MVP) (forming coalitions to resist American expansion into their territory: DO). "forming coalitions.." is a gerund.

On Tuesday John Livingston, because he just felt like it, ordered a second dessert.

(On Tuesday:ADV) (John Livingston:NPS), (because he just felt like it:ADV), (ordered:MVP) (a second dessert:DO).

Sarah Pearsall has interesting things to say about the Mormons, though much of her book is devoted to exploring earlier examples of polygamy in North America

(Sarah Pearsall:NPS) (has:MVP) (interesting things to say about the Mormons:DO), (though much of her book is devoted to exploring earlier examples of polygamy in North America: adverb clause)

She wanted to tell him something important

(She:NPS) (wanted to tell:MVP) (him:IO) (something important:DO).

Some of the most memorable geographic places never existed, like Tolkien's Middle Earth and Swift's Lilliput.

(Some of the most memorable geographic places:NPS) (never:ADV) (existed:MVP)(:like Tolkien's Middle Earth and Swift's Lilliput:NRM-prepositional phrase).

South Dakota's Black Hills are considered sacred by the Lakota Sioux, who believe humans and spirits meet in harmony among these ancient rocks.

(South Dakota's Black Hills:GS) (are considered:MVP) (sacred:OCA) (by the Lakota Sioux, :LS/ADV) (who believe humans and spirits meet in harmony among these ancient rocks:NRM) This is a passive sentence. The active version of the sentence is "The Lakota Sioux consider South Dakota's Black Hills sacred."

Stately, plump Buck Mulligan came from the stairhead, bearing a bowl of lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed

(Stately, plump Buck Mulligan:NPS) (came:MVP) (from the stairhead:ADV), (bearing a bowl of lather on which a mirror and a razor lay crossed:NRM-present participal phrase). The comma after "Stately" simply means that the two adjectives ("Stately" and "plump") work independently

Tall and stately, the Chrysler Building rises above midtown Manhattan in all its art-deco glory

(Tall and stately, :NRM) (the Chrysler Building:NPS) (rises:MVP) (above midtown Manhattan in all its art-deco glory:ADV). "Tall and stately" is a non-restrictive appositive adjective. If those words were regular adjectives, the sentence would begin "The tall and stately Chrysler Building. . ," and that phrase would be the NPS, without any punctuation.

The Mole had been working very hard all the morning, spring-cleaning his little home

(The Mole:NPS) (had been working: MVP) (very hard:ADV) (all the morning:ADV), (spring-cleaning his little home:NRM-present participal phrase).

The federal government owns hundreds of tourist attractions--including the Grand Canyon, the White house, and Steamtown, a railroad theme park in Scranton, Pennsylvania

(The federal government:NPS) (owns:MVP) (hundreds of tourist attractions:DO) (--including the Grand Canyon, the White house, and Steamtown:NRM-participal phrase), (a railroad theme park in Scranton, Pennsylvania:NRM-appositive NP)

The next morning, I found Dad in the kitchen dumping flour into a glue-like substance I assumed was supposed to be pancake batter

(The nextmorning:ADV) (I: NPS) (found:MVP) (Dad:DO) (in the kitchen:ADV), (dumping flour into a glue-like substance I assumed was supposed to be pancake batter:NRM-present participal phrase.

The night sky displays wondrous objects-- giant galaxies that look like pinwheels, gauzy nebulae that drift through the milky way

(The nightsky:NPS) (displays:MVP) (wondrous objects:DO) (--giant galaxies that look like pinwheels: NRM-appositive noun), (gauzy nebulae that drift through the milky way: NRM-appositive noun phrase). How we know we must separate the appositive noun phrases: The comma is our biggest clue, but if we look at the NRMs, we can see that there are two separate noun phrases there, one with "galaxies" as the headword, and one with "nebulae," and each with a relative clause attached to it. No single grammatical constituent is built out of two noun phrases.

The novel is divided into brief sections, its unconventional paragraphing compelling us to focus on individual sentences.

(The novel:NPS) (is divided:MVP) (into brief sections:ADV), (its unconventional paragraphing compelling us to focus on individual sentences:NRM-absolute phrase).

The timetraveller was expounding a recondite matter to us

(The timetraveller:NPS) (was expounding:MVP) (a recondite matter:DO) (to us:ADV/IO).

There was no possibility of taking a walk that day

(There:GS) (was:MVP) (no possibility of taking a walk that day:LS).

This is the book he was looking at. What it means is unclear

(This:NPS) (is:MVP) (the book he was looking at:PN). (What it means:NPS) (is:MVP) (unclear:PA).

Vanilla ice cream, apple pie, Hershey's chocolate, ginger snaps--these desserts were among my grandmother's favorites

(Vanilla ice cream, apple pie, Hershey's chocolate, ginger snaps-- :NRM) (these desserts:NPS) (were:MVP) (among my grandmother's favorites:ADV) Everything before the dash is a non-restrictive appositive noun phrase that re-names the NPS "these desserts." Without the NRM we don't know which desserts, but the sentence itself would still make sense, in the same way that "The desserts . . ." would make sense.

We left the beach sooner than we had planned, the weather having turned cold and drizzly.

(We:NPS) (left:MVP) (the beach:DO) (sooner than we had planned:ADV), (the weather having turned cold and drizzly:NRM-absolute phrase). In this sentence, the absolute phrase is made up of the NP "the weather" and the partial predicate "having turned cold and drizzly." The absolute would be an independent clause if "having" were replaced by "has" or "had," but "having" is a verb without tense.

When FDR's funeral train passed through towns thousands turned out to say goodbye --heads bowed, openly weeping

(When FDR's funeral train passed through towns: ADV), (thousands:NPS) (turned out:MVP) (to say goodbye:ADV) (--heads bowed, openly weeping: NRM-appositive adjective). "to say goodbye" is an ADV, not an infinitive phrase functioning as a DO because you can put "in order to" in front of it.

When FDR's funeral train passed through towns, thousands turned out to say goodbye --heads bowed, openly weeping

(When FDR's funeral train passed through towns:ADV), (thousands:NPS) (turned out:MVP) (to say goodbye:ADV) (--heads bowed:NRM), (openly weeping:NRM)

When Gregor Samsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams, he found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous insect.

(When GregorSamsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams:ADV), (he:NPS) (found:MVP) (himself changed in his bed into a monstrous insect: DO). "himself" is the DO (reflexive pronouns can function as DOs)

When Shoshana Zuboff was a graduate student in Harvard's psychology department:NRM-adverb clause, she met the behavioral scientist B. F. Skinner, who had perhaps the largest forehead you'll ever see on an adult

(When Shoshana Zuboff was a graduate student in Harvard's psychology department:NRM-adverb clause), (she:NPS) (met:MVP) (the behavioral scientist B. F. Skinner:DO), (who had perhaps the largest forehead you'll ever see on an adult:NRM-relative clause).

With a crayon in each hand, the two-year-old approached the freshly painted wall.

(With a crayon in each hand:NRM-absolute phrase), (the two-year-old:NPS) (approached:MVP) (the freshly painted wall:DO). Sometimes absolute phrases start with "with." But "with" does not always introduce an absolute phrase. In fact, most of the time it's just a preposition in a prepositional phrase. For example, "She'll ride with Aunt Mary to the picnic." Absolute phrases are not especially common. They appear in writing more often that in speech, but even in writing they're fairly rare.

(Yellowstone authorities:NPS) (allow:MVP) (buffalo herds to range freely:DO), (so that researchers can observe their natural migratory patterns:NRM-preopositional phrase).

(Yellowstone authorities:NPS) (allow:MVP) (buffalo herds to range freely:DO), (so that researchers can observe their natural migratory patterns:NRM-adverb clause). The adverb clause has an NPS ("researchers") and a MVP ("can observe").

An appositive noun phrase

A noun phrase that re-names another noun phrase. An appositive noun phrase will either immediately precede or immediately follow the noun phrase it renames. If it's non-restrictive, it will be set off with commas or dashes, and it will not attach itself to the NP it re-names, so it will function as a NRM. They are derived from predicate nouns following a BE verb.

WATCH OUT for passive sentences (they're sneaky bastards)

A passive MVP always (no exceptions) is formed with a form of the verb "to be" as an auxiliary, (e.g., is, are, were, was, has been, etc.) and the past participle form of the main verb. So a passive MVP will look like "was eaten," or "is taken," or "has been chased," or "are being read." Another way to test for a passive is to ask yourself whether the NP sitting in the normal NPS slot is actually performing the action of the MVP.

Adverb Clause

A very common structure that isn't an NRM, strictly speaking, but it acts like one. Adverb clauses are just what they sound like: dependent clauses, usually introduced by subordinators such as "because," "so that," "if," etc., that function as sentence modifiers. They are usually movable, and they are set off with punctuation unless they occur at the end of the sentence.

Semi-modals

Always occur at the beginning of a main verb constituent. They are ought to, used to, dare to, seem to, need to, happen to, want to, be able to, and have to

The absolute phrase

An absolute phrase is made up of a noun phrase and a partial predicate (usually a verb without tense, or else a prepositional phrase). Here's a famous example, with the absolute phrase italicized: "A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." If the participle "being" were replaced by the verb "is," we'd have an independent clause, but "being" is a verb without tense: it's just a participle, and it can't be a MVP by itself.

Non-restrictive Modifiers

Are almost always set off with commas (or less often with dashes, or with parentheses). Non-restrictive modifiers can be relative clauses, participial phrases, or prepositional phrases. All non-restrictive modifiers can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. They simply provide extra information. Because they don't embed themselves in other parts of the sentence, they aren't adjectives. Grammarians call them "sentence modifiers" or "sentence adverbs." We'll use the abbreviation NRM for "non-restrictive modifier."

Appositive adjectives

Are always non-restrictive, so they're set off with commas or dashes, and they are not embedded within the NPs they modify; they are NRMs. Appositive adjective phrases can immediately precede or immediately follow the noun phrases they describe.

Restrictive prepositional phrases

Are embedded in the noun phrase it modifies. Common prepositional phrase examples include about, after, at, before, behind, by, during, for, from, in, of, over, past, to, under, up, and with. Prepositions never inflect, and they're always followed by NPs.

Non-restrictive prepositional phrases

Are usually set off with commas, and they are movable

Advice from Gary

For the exam, the thing to focus on is whether or not something is set off with punctuation. If it is, then your first assumption should be that it's non-restrictive (unless there's a different reason for the punctuation). The punctuation is the reason that "Later in the same book" is a NRM, and not just an ADV. If "Yesterday" at the beginning of a sentence is set off with commas, then you should label it a NRM.

How to tell if a verb is transitive or linking

If a verb is transitive, you can make it passive. Ex: The ruthless ethics . . . were embodied by Jim Bowie.

The adverb or infinitve phrase test

If you can put "in order to" before the "to" statement, it is an adverb. If not, it is an infinitive phrase.

The difference between "restrictive" and "non-restrictive" is important. Here's an example: "High school students who ride the bus to school are growing in numbers." "High school students, who are typically between fourteen and eighteen years old, make up a minority of the district's students."

In the first sentence, "who ride the bus to school" is a restrictive relative clause. It's embedded in the noun phrase "High school students" and it forms the NPS "High school students who ride the bus to school." Because the phrase is "restrictive," it implies that there are other high school students who don't ride the bus to school. In other words, it "restricts" the meaning of the NP "high school students" to only those who ride the bus. In the second sentence, the relative clause is set off with commas because it's non-restrictive. The NPS is just "high school students," and the relative clause simply gives us a bit of extra information about that NPS. If we remove the non-restrictive relative clause from the sentence, we don't change its meaning in any way. However, we can't remove the restrictive relative clause without changing the meaning of the sentence: if we remove it, we're saying that the number of all high school students is growing, not just the number of those who ride the bus.

I must pass statistics to complete my General Education requirements

Infinitive phrases can fill noun slots, but they can also function as adverbs. In that sentence, "I" is the NPS, "must pass" is the MVP, "statistics" is the DO, and "to complete my Gen Ed requirements" is an ADV, answering the adverb question "why?"

What is "as the title implies"

It is an adverb clause because (like any clause) it includes both a NPS and a MVP.

Non-restrictive participal phrases

Like most non-restrictive modifiers, they can be moved. They look just like restrictive participial phrases, but they do not embed themselves in the NPs they provide extra information about, and they are always set off with punctuation. Non-restrictive participal phrases often show cause or reason and occur at the same time of the MVP; they can act as adverbs of attendant circumstance.

Mickey Mantle ran the bases like a charging bull his head down, his legs pumping furiously

Mickey Mantle ran the bases (like a charging bull:ADV) (his head down: NRM-absolute phrase) (his legs pumping furiously:NRM-absolute phrase). The two NRMs are absolute phrases: each includes a NPS and a partial predicate. "His head [was] down" and ""His legs [were] pumping furiously."

How do you tell when you should label a prepositional phrase as an adverb or NRM?

Prepositional phrases are either adverbial or adjectival. If they're adjectives, then they can't be NRMs. So the question is about adverbial prepositional phrases. There's a bit of a gray area here. For the purposes of our exam, I'll only expect you to recognize when a prep phrase is or isn't set off with punctuation; if it's set off, then it's a NRM, and if it isn't, then it's just a plain old ADV.

Participal Phrase

Relative clauses in which the relative pronoun functions as the NPS (or GS) and the MVP is either passive or present progressive can be reduced to past or present participial phrases. These participial phrases function just like the relative clauses they were "reduced" from, i.e., they function as adjectives, and they attach themselves to the nouns immediately to their left.

Restrictive relative clauses versus non restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive relative clauses imply one group being seperate from another; non-restrictive ones don't. Ex: "The computers which we installed last year are no longer working. But the ones we installed last month are still functioning."

Bill resists working for a living

The DO is the gerund phrase "working for a living."

NRM Past Participal Phrase

The GS and BE are deleted from the passive underlying clause. In other word, it is what usually follows "has."

NRM Present Participal Phrase

The NPS and BE of the underlying clause are deleted. It is the "-ing" form of the verb

Differentiating Between Chapters

The difference is that the relative clauses and participial phrases we've worked with earlier attached themselves to noun phrases that they followed, and then formed a single larger noun phrase. Similarly, prepositional phrases can attach themselves to noun phrases if they function as adjectives. We don't use punctuation to mark the borders of those phrases, and we call them "restrictive."

"That" Clause- A type of noun clause

The first is called a "'that' clause," because it's often introduced by the subordinator "that." For example, in the sentence "Bill thinks that UFOs exist," the NPS is "Bill," the MVP is "thinks," and the DO is "that UFOs exist" (which is a noun clause: "UFOs" is the NPS, and "exist" is the MVP). If the "'that' clause" is filling the DO or PN slot, then the subordinator "that" can be deleted: we can say "Bill thinks UFOs exist."Sometimes a "'that' clause can fill the NPS slot, as in this sentence: "That Bill believes UFOs exist is not surprising." However, we tend not to like this kind of construction in English, so it's more common to do a little "extraposition" with a sentence like this, i.e., we move the NPS to the end of the sentence, and we use an expletive as a "grammatical subject": "It is not surprising that Bill believes UFOs exist." "It" is the GS, "is not" is the MVP, "surprising" is the PA, and "that Bill believes UFOs exist" is the LS

"Wh-" Clauses- A type of noun clause

The other kind of noun clause is a "wh- clause," which gets its name because it begins with pronouns like "what" or "who," or pro-adverbs like "when," "where," "why," "how," or "how often." The word "whether" can also begin a "wh- clause." Like a "'that' clause," a "wh- clause" can fill almost any noun slot in a sentence. Unlike a "'that' clause," though, the "wh- word" that introduces the clause does fill a grammatical slot in the clause. Let's take this sentence: "What Bill hopes for is a close encounter of the third kind." "What Bill hopes for" is the "wh- clause," and it fills the NPS slot of the whole sentence. Within the wh- clause, though, the word "what" functions as the object of the preposition "for." In the sentence, "Mary asked how often Bill had visited Roswell, New Mexico," the wh- clause is filling the DO slot of the whole sentence, and the pro-adverb "how often" is introducing the wh- clause and also functioning as an ADV within that clause.

How to tell if an -ing word is a gerund or part of the MVP

The real key is asking yourself whether what you think is the main verb is preceded by a genuine auxiliary. The common auxiliaries are forms of the verbs "to be" and "to have" (we use these to form passives, progressives, and perfects). The tricky ones are the modals and the semi-modals. The actual modals aren't too hard to remember: shall, should, will, must, may, would, can, could. The semi-modals are a bit harder.

Existential "there"

The word "there" isn't a noun, so it can't ever be a NPS. It's an expletive; all it does is fill up the grammatical NPS slot. "Existential there" sentences can have only a GS.

The word "whether"

The word "whether" is in its own class. It looks like a "wh-" word, but it's only a subordinator: it does not perform a grammatical function within the wh- clause. It can be replaced by the phrase "whether or not" or by the word "if." "Bill wonders whether/whether or not/if he'll ever uncover hard evidence of UFOs." Classmates'

Non-restrictive relative clauses

Unlike most non-restrictive modifiers, they can't be moved. They always follow the NP that they provide extra information about. However, they don't embed themselves in that NP. They are always set off with punctuation. They are equivalent in meaning to the comments in independent clauses. It's almost as if you introduced the nonrestrictive modifier with the phrase "and by the way." A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun: who/whom/whose/which/that (or sometimes "in which" or "to/for whom").

"Like" phrases

Usually function as prepositional phrases. What we must decide is if they are restrictive or non-restrictive.

What questions do adjectives answer?

Which one? What kind? How many?

Sometimes infinitives begin with "for"

if they do, then "for" is followed by the NPS of the infinitive verb. As an example: "For John to win that race would be a miracle." The MVP is "would be," and the PN is "a miracle." The NPS is the infinitive phrase "For John to win that race," in which "John" is the NPS of the infinitive "to win."

Sometimes an infinitive isn't introduced by "to."

n the sentence "The Peace Corps allows Americans to teach survival skills," the infinitive phrase "to teach survival skills" is easy to spot. But in the similar sentence "The Peace Corps lets Americans teach survival skills," it may be harder to recognize that "teach" is an infinitive