H Dev Psyc: Chapter 4
how many pregnancies end in miscarriage?
-1 in 4 -actual figure may be 1 in 2 (miscarriage take place before the women realizes she is pregnant)
miscarriage (males to females)
-120-170 males conceived to 100 females -at birth: 106 males to 100 females -after: 96 males to 100 females
women of normal weight and body build gain how many pounds during pregnancy and are less likely to what?
-16 to 40 pounds -less likely to have birth complications or to bear babies who weight at birth is dangerously low or overly high
fetus experiment (story-telling)
-3-day-old infants sucked more on a nipple that activated a recording of a story their mother had frequently read aloud during the last 6 weeks or pregnancy than they did on nipples that activated recordings of two other stories -infants recognized the pattern of sound they had heard in the womb -a control group, whose mothers had not recited a story before birth, responded equally to all three recordings
malnutrition
-Africa: born during hungry season (foods from the previous harvest are depleted) 10 times more likely to die in early adulthood than people born during other parts of the year -UK: mothers who had low vitamin D levels late in pregnancies showed low bone mineral content at age 9 (potentially increasing risk of osteoporosis in later life) -important to identify malnutrition early in pregnancy -malnourished women who take dietary supplements tend to have bigger, healthier, more active, and more visually alert infants -low zinc level supplements: less likely to have babies with low birth weight and small head circumference -Mexican households (low-income): nutrient-fortified supplements; infants grew more rapidly; less likely to be anemic
risk of transmission of HIV can be reduced by...
-C-section -promotion of alternatives to breast-feeding among high-risk women
folic acid (China)
-China has the highest incidence in the world of babies born with anencephaly and spina bifida (timing or babies conception) -Chinese women's pregnancies often begin in the winter, where there is little access to fresh fruits and vegetables (sources of folic acid) -women of childbearing age urged to take folate supplements and eating foods with folic acid before becoming pregnant
Rubella
-German measles -if contracted by a woman before her 11th weeks of pregnancy, almost certain to cause deafness and heart defects in her baby -vaccine was developed now routinely administered to infants and children -after 16 weeks: defects nonexistent -13 to 16 weeks: chances cut 1/3
embryonic disk
-a thickened cell mass from which the embryo begins to develop
most miscarriages result from?
-abnormal pregnancies
nutrition and maternal weight
-adaptive for fetuses to obtain maximum amounts of nutrients from mother -mother limits the transfer of nutrients to fetus to maintain her own health and ability to bear future children
blastocyst
-after fertilized ovum is dividing and making its way down the fallopian tube to the uterus; changes into a blastocyst -fluid-filled sphere, which floats freely in the uterus until the 6th day
outside environmental hazards
-air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extreme heat and humidity -pregnant women who regularly breathe air that contains high levels of fine combustion-related particles more likely to bear infants who are premature or undersized or have chromosomal abnormalities -women who work with chemicals used in manufacturing semiconductor chips have about twice the rate of miscarriage as other female workers
what other parts of the blastocyst begin to develop into organs that will nurture and protect the embryo?
-amniotic cavity (sac) -amnion -chorion -placenta -umbilical cord
medical drugs
-antibiotic tetracycline, certain barbiturates, opiates, other nervous system depressants, several hormones, certain anticancer drugs, accutane, epilepsy drugs, antipsychotic drugs, ibuprofen -linked to birth defects when taken anytime from the first trimester on -no medication be prescribed to pregnant or breast-feeding women -antidepressants: infants tend to show sings of disrupted neurobehavioral activity & increased risk of reparatory failure
what happens before implantation?
-as cell differentiation begins, some cells around the edge of the blastocyst cluster on one side to form the embryonic disk
implantation
-attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6 -only about 10-20% of fertilized ova complete this task
what happens if a woman does not gain enough?
-baby is likely to suffer growth retardation in the womb -be born prematurely -experience distress during labor and delivery -to die at or near birth
children with FAS may be less likely to develop _______ if they are ______ and _______
-behavioral and mental health problems -diagnosed early -reared in stable, nurturing environments
when do fetuses respond to sound and vibration?
-being at 26 weeks of gestation -rise and then reach a plateau at about 32 weeks
what do the fetuses do in the mother's womb during the fetal stage?
-breathe, kick, turn, felt their bodies , do somersaults, squint, swallow, make fists, hiccup, and suck their thumbs
tobacco
-brings increased risks of miscarriage, growth retardation, stillbirth, small head circumference, sudden infant death, colic (uncontrollable, extended crying for no apparent reason) in early infancy, hyperkinetic disorder (excessive movement), long-term respiratory, neurological, cognitive, and behavioral problems
toxoplasmosis
-caused by parasite harbored in the bodies of cattle, sheep, and pigs -in intestinal tracts of cats -second and third trimesters of pregnancy -can cause fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight or blindness, seizures, miscarriage, stillbirth, or death of the baby -if baby survives: later problems including eye infections, hearing loss, and learning disabilities -treatment with anti-parasitic drugs during the first year of life can reduced brain and eye damage
maternal age
-chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal age, reaching 90% for women age 45 or older -women over 30 to 35 are more likely to experience complications due to diabetes, high blood pressure, or severe bleeding and are at a higher risk of premature delivery -those babies more likely to show retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and chromosomal abnormalities -adolescents also tend to have premature or underweight babies (heightened risk of death in 1st month, disabilities, or health problems)
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
-combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy -retarded growth, facial and bodily malformations, disorders of central nervous system -poor brain waves -sucking/crying alters (emotional development) -sleep disturbances -slow info processing -short attention span -restlessness; irritability -learning disabilities -motor impairment -linked with leukemia & kidney abnormalities
placenta
-contains both material and embryonic tissue -develops in the uterus to allow oxygen, nourishment, and wastes to pass between mother and embryo -helps to combat internal infection and gives the unborn child immunity to various diseases -produces the hormones that support pregnancy -prepare the mother's breast for lactation -stimulate the uterine contractions that will expel the baby from the mother's body
olfactory system
-controls the sense of smell -well developed before birth
moderate or heavy drinking
-disturbs an infant's neurological and behavioral functioning -may affect early social interaction with the mother (vital to emotional development)
when is the embryo most vulnerable?
-embryonic stage -most vulnerable to destructive influences in the prenatal environment -any organ system or structure that is developing at the time of exposure is most likely to be affected -defects that occur later in pregnancy likely to be less serious
what happens during the fetal stage?
-fetus grows rapidly to about 20 times its previous length -organs and body systems become more complex -fetus puts on a layer of fat in preparation for birth -fingernails, toenails, and eyelids continue to develop
fetal stage
-final stage of prenatal development (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size -very active (muscle development)
germinal stage
-first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus
amniotic sac
-fluid-filled membrane that encases the developing embryo, giving it room to move -protection
prenatal development takes place in three stages
-germinal -embryonic -fetal
marijuana
-heavy use can lead to birth defects, low birth weight, withdrawal-like symptoms (excessive crying and tremors) at birth, increased risk of attention disorders and learning problems later in life -prenatal use associated with impaired attention, impulsivity, and difficulty in use of visual and perceptual skills after age 3 -suggesting that the drug may affect functioning of the brain's front; lobes
what turns a single-celled zygote into a creature with a specific shape and pattern?
-identifiable group of genes responsible for transformation in vertebrates -molecules called morphogens -begin sculpting arms, hands, fingers, vertebra, ribs, and a brain
FAS-related problems
-in infancy; reduced responsiveness to stimuli, slow reaction time, reduced visual acuity (sharpness of vision) -throughout childhood: short attention span, distractibility, restlessness, hyperactivity, learning disabilities, memory deficits, and mood disorders, aggressiveness and problem behavior
endoderm
-inner layer/lower -digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, respiratory system
fetal exposure to low levels of environmental toxins
-lead, mercury, nicotine, ethanol -sharp rise in asthma, allergies, and autoimmune disorders
Obesity for pregnant woman
-longer deliveries -need more health care services -bear infants with birth defects -18% more likely than normal weight women to have a baby with certain kids of heart defects -miscarriage
the amniotic fluid contains substances that cross the placenta from the mother's bloodstream and enter the fetus's bloodstream, what is partaking of these substances?
-may stimulate the budding senses of taste and smell -may contribute to the development of organs needed for breathing and digestion
mesoderm
-middle -develop and differentiate into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems
spontaneous abortion
-miscarriage -expulsion from the uterus of an embryo or fetus that is unable to survive outside the womb
maternal anxiety and stress
-moderate maternal anxiety: may spurge organization of the developing brain -study: mothers who had sown modern anxiety midway through pregnancy scored higher on measures of motor and mental development than did age-mates whose mothers had not shown anxiety during pregnancy -study: pregnant women whose partners or children died or were hospitalized for cancer or heart attacks were at elevated risk of giving birth to children with malformations (cleft lip, cleft palate, heart malformations) -child born to a woman who has suffered from early physical, emotional, or sexual abuse may bear permanent scars
methamphetamine
-more likely to have low birth weight and to be small for their gestational age than the remainder of the sample -associated with fetal growth restriction
prenatal alcohol exposure
-most common cause of mental retardation -leading preventable cause of birth defects in the US -risk factor for development of drinking problems and alcohol disorders in young adulthood
fetus experiment (music and speech sequences)
-newborns age 2 to 4 prefer musical and speech sequences heard before birth -prefer mother's voice to those of other women, female voices to male voices, and mother's native language to another language
caffeine
-not a teratogen -at least 2 cups of regular coffee or 5 cans of caffeinated soda daily=twice the risk of miscarriage as those who consumed no caffeine -four or more cups of coffee a day is related to increased risk of sudden death in infancy
to avoid toxoplasmosis, what should expectant mothers do?
-not eat raw or very rare meat -wash hands and all work surfaces after touching raw meat -peel or thoroughly wash raw fruits and vegetables -not dig in gardens where cat feces may be buried
umbilical cord
-nutrients from the mother pass from her blood to the embryonic blood vessels and then carries through cord to the embryo -embryonic blood vessels in the umbilical cord carry embryonic wastes to the placenta, where they can be eliminated by material blood vessels -with placenta
transforming growth alpha factor
-particular variant of a growth gene -greater risk than other fetuses of developing a cleft palate if the mother smokes while pregnant
mitosis
-period of rapid cell division and duplication
proximodistal principle
-principle that development proceeds from within to without, that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities -"near to far" -head and trunk before the limbs -arms and legs before the fingers and toes
cephalocaudal principle
-principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction, that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk -embryo's head, brain, and eyes develop earliest & disproportionately large until other parts catch up
physical activity and strenuous work
-regular exercise: helps prevent constipation, and improves respiration circulation, muscle tone, and skin elasticity (more comfortable pregnancy and easier/safer delivery) -occupation fatigue and long working hours: risk of premature birth
what major body system develop during the embryonic stage?
-respiratory -digestive -nervous
fetuses and mother's voice
-respond to the mother's voice and heartbeat and the vibrations of her body suggesting that they can hear and feel -hungry infants, no what matter on which side they are held, turn toward the breast in the direction from which they hear the mother's voice
what happens if a woman gains too much weight?
-risks having a large baby that needs to be delivered by induced labor or C-section
embryonic stage
-second stage of prenatal development (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs
newborns whose mothers ate fish high in DHA
-showed more mature sleep patterns -more attentive at 12 and 18 months of age
maternal smoking
-single most important factor in low birth weight in developed countries -more than 1 1/2 times as likely as nonsmokers to bear low-birth-weight babies (less than 5 1/2 pounds at birth) -SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) -brain/lung -oxygen -cleft lip -miscarriage/stillbirth -respiratory -heart rate -premature birth
cocaine
-spontaneous abortion, delayed growth, premature labor, low birth weight, small head size, birth defects, impaired neurological development, mild cognitive deficits into preadolescence -cocaine-exposed newborns show acute withdrawal symptoms and sleep disturbances -high prenatal cocaine exposure associated with childhood behavioral problems, independent of the effects of alcohol and tobacco exposure
beginning at about the 12th weeks of gestation, what can the fetus do?
-swallow and inhales some of the amniotic fluid in which it floats
ectoderm
-upper layer -outer layer of skin, nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, nervous system (brain & spinal cord)
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
-viral disease that undermines effective functioning of the immune system -caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
perinatal transmission
-virus may cross over to the fetus's bloodstream through placenta during pregnancy, labor, or delivery, or after birth, through breast milk -HIV
about how many mother gain more or less than the recommended amount of weight?
1 in 3
FAS and other, less severe, alcohol-related conditions are estimated to occur?
1 in every 100 births
offspring of mothers with diabetes are how many more times likely than offspring of other women to develop a wide range or birth defects?
3 to 4 time more likely
how many additional calories does a pregnant women typically need?
300 to 500 calories, including extra protein
normal range of gestation
37-41 weeks
how many infants in the US suffer from FAS?
5 in 1,000
about what % of miscarriages involve chromosomal abnormalities?
50-70%
how many miscarriages occur during the first trimester?
about 3 out of 4
gestational age
age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle
flavors and odors are transmitted through what?
amniotic fluid
what signals the fetal stage (final stage of gestation)?
appearance of the first bone cells at about 8 weeks
when do mature taste cells appear?
at about 14 weeks of gestation
chemically contaminated groundwater and use of home pesticides
childhood cancers linked to pregnant mothers' drinking this
teratogen
environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development and cause developmental abnormalities -birth-defect producing elements
after 2 months of gestation what size is the embryo's head?
half the length of the body
indications that early exposure to different flavors in the amniotic fluid may influence what?
later taste preferences
what happens when heavy drinkers continue to drink after becoming pregnant?
likely to have babies with reduced skull and brain growth
exposure to high concentration of disinfection by products is associated with?
low birth weight and slowed fetal growth
what gender is more likely to be spontaneously aborted or to be stillborn (dead at or after the 20th week of gestation)?
males
what gender tends to be more active and tend to move more vigorously throughout gestation?
males
familiarity with the mother's voice
may have evolutionary survival function: help newborns locate the source of food
maternal calorie restriction
might put children at risk for later obesity, perhaps by setting their metabolism to be thrifty
are all environmental hazards equally risky for all fetuses?
no, event, substance, or process may be teratogenic for some fetuses but have little or no effect on others
organogenesis
organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development
infants boy's tendency to be more active than girls may be what?
partly inborn
gestation
period of development between conception and birth
ultrasound
prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, so as to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally
fetuses nearing full-term show what?
the basic ability to recognize the voice of their mother and of their native language
what happens during the three stages of gestation?
the fertilized ovum/zygote grows into an embryo then a fetus
the most severely defective embryos usually do not survive beyond when?
the first trimester, or 3-month period of pregnancy
what permits and stimulate limited movement?
the flexible membranes of the uterine walls and amniotic, which surround the protective buffer of amniotic fluid
where the egg implants will determine what?
the placement of the placenta
what connects the placenta to the embryo?
umbilical cord
can fetuses feel pain?
yes, but unlikely that they do so before the third trimester
