HA1012 introduction to politics

W5 3 functions of public budgeting

1. control - control spending 2. management - manage ongoing activities 3. planning - how govt strategically plan a budget

W5 tax principles

1776 Adam Smith—The Wealth of Nations : He laid a foundation for American tax systems with 4 Maxims of the Principles of Taxation. I. Citizens should contribute to nation in proportion to what the revenue they earn under the protection of the state (Ability to Pay) II. Tax should be certain and not arbitrary in regards to the time of payment, manner of payment, quantity to be paid (Certainty, Equity, Transparency) III. Levied at time or in manner that makes it most convenient for contributor to pay (Feasibility/Easily Collectible) IV. Should take as little as possible (Efficiency)

W1 what is political science

A set of techniques, concepts & approaches whose objective is to increase the clarity and accuracy of an understanding about the political world (relationship between individuals & political institutions) → PS is a method of how to study "Politics": Differs from "Politics"

W5 what is public budgeting

Documents, Descriptions, Explanations, Preferences "Decision about how much of society's resources we want to take from the private sector to use for problems of broader public interest" "A budget is more than simply numbers on a page. It is a measure of how well we are living up to our obligations to ourselves and one another." - President Barack Obama • Budgeting is not just about numbers... • It's a mechanism for setting social, economic, and political goals and objectives, and for managing organizations, programs and activities to achieve these goals. • Budgetary decisions on revenues, spending, and debt reflect many underlying values, ideologies, and policy priorities. • Public budgetary decisions are necessarily political.

W2 hobbes

Imagined the life in 'State of Nature' - A war of each against all (in full of fear and danger of violent death) o Great work "Leviathan": His social contract advocated for an authoritarian system of gov't, where individuals surrender all political power to the gov't so that gov't can more efficiently prevent civil unrest and violence (war). o Self-interest leads people to form civil society; People would prefer a bad monarch over anarchy (justified absolute power of kings)

W6 what is political socialisation?

Members can learn how to play the political game; provides a training ground for leaders by enduring psychological attachment to a party (partisan identification or party ID)

W1 2 concerns from political philosphy

(1) creating a good society & (2) balancing the pursuit of power with justice and order

W2 "Can Politics be Studied as a Science?"

- "Science" originally means "Knowledge" → Toward "Precise, factual, supported by experiments and data" (Evidence-based) - Simply treating PS like natural science (?) - Large areas of politics are not quantifiable! (ex) how and why leaders make decisions - PS is an empirical discipline that uses both QUAN and QUAL evidence; seeks to generalize from persistent patterns

W4 Advantages & Disadvantages of Parliamentary Systems

- Cannot suffer from Deadlock (what the majority wants the majority gets) as the executive and legislative branches are controlled by the same party. - If there is a disagreement, a no-confidence vote can occur, which means no long, drawn-out political drama, which makes removing executives easier (rare, though!) - Predictable votes; - Coalition gov'ts (when no party has a majority) can be less stable in maintaining the coherence of the gov't as leadership positions are split; can get stuck over the same issues which can cause immobilism/inability to decide major issues

W6 what is the classic communist system of lenin?

- Favored the interlocking of a single party with the economy - Not directly ruled by the party

W5 20th and 21st century budgeting reforms

- Financing the "Welfare" State - Controlling expenditures (b/c loss of budget balance) - Increasing efficiency - Ensuring achieving results (performance) + responsibility

W5 Budget acts as a(an)...

- General Plan to allocate resources and balance between revenues and expenditures for the next planning period. - Operation Guide for each department (program) in all levels of gov't for the fiscal year. - Political Tool to decide policy of who to tax or how to spend money. - Policy to prioritize among competing interests. - Task List to show what to do by what was already agreed upon. - Tool for Evaluation/Performance/Communication.

W6 How can you finance parties?

Political Campaigns (operating budgets of parties): ▪ USA: heavily dependent on wealthy donors (subject to limit); allows taxpayers to designate a small portion of their federal income tax returns for the presidential election fund → Little transparency issues → Few Americans choose to contribute ▪ Singapore: Political Donations Act → Donations accepted only from permissible donors (SG citizen more than 21 years old; SG-controlled company; his/her political party)

politicians vs political scientists

Politicians love power seek popularity; think practically hold firm views offer single causes see short-term payoff; plan for next election respond to groups seek name recognition see Political scientists are skeptical of power seek accuracy; think abstractly reach tentative conclusions offer many causes see long-term consequences; plan for next publication seek the good of the whole seek professional prestige

W1 What is politics

Politics is a human activity through which power and influence are used in the promotion of certain values and interests! "The Ongoing Competition between People," usually in groups, to shape policy in their favor W2

W1 Three General Types of Political Knowledge

1. Description of Political Facts ("what" questions) - (ex) France is a member of the European Union 2. Explanations of "How and Why Politics occurs" as it does - (ex) Why do wealthy countries still have high levels of poverty? 3. Prescription of "what should happen" in any area of political activity (A value judgment that indicates what should be done) - (ex) Everyone should have the right to vote

W6 what is a political party?

a group of people that includes those who hold office and those who help get and keep them there

W3 what is public policy?

actions made in the public's name, made by gov't or at least started by gov't. • It includes both what government intends to do and what government chooses not to do. • It is defined as in the public (national) interest, but there is debate over what is the true public interest.

W5 what is wagner's law?

growth of govt ❑ Wagner's law (1893) ❑ The size of government as measured by public spending increases proportionately more than the growth of national income. ❑ Why? ➢ Rapidly increasing demand for public spending ➢ Increases in the supply of tax revenue ➢ Political-economy reasons, including the arise of interest groups (elected officials) that share some selfinterested public-policy objectives

W7 different political actions

individual expression- citizen joining collective action- mobilised citizen leading collective action- activist or leader professional politics- lobbyist/politician/staffer/advisor/bureacrat violent action-rebel or revolutionary terrorist

W6 what is the lesson learnt about communist parties?

not workable over the long-term; inflexible and cannot adapt well to changing conditions; China's change to allow private ownership of much of the economy

W2 traditional vs modern viewpoints of political science

traditional ★ Study of State (past, present, and future); Government; International Relations and Organizations; The Man as a Political Being; Political Ideologies; Political Parties; Pressure Groups; Rights and Duties; The Electoral System; Law Modern ★Study of Power; Influence; Leadership; Authority; Problems and Conflict; Who gests what when and how; Decision-making Process; Political Behaviours of an individuals; Political Culture; Political Socialization; Comparative Government and Politics

W3 how does that actions of the market participants explain market activity?

• All participants, for the most part, are trying to obtain the maximum return from the scarce resources they have. - Buyer/Consumers: maximize the utility (satisfaction of unmet wants) they can get from available incomes. - Firms/Businesses: maximize profits by selling goods that satisfy while keeping costs low. - Government: maximize the general welfare of society.

W3 where is the equilibrium on a supply and demand curve

• Equilibrium: only one price and quantity combination is compatible with the intentions of both buyers and sellers. • Equilibrium is located where the demand curve and supply curve intersect.

W4 The Public vs. Private Sector

• Government (Public Sector) - Revenue received through taxes (e.g., income, sales, property taxes). - Bottom line is equity (welfare maximization) and the provision of public goods and services. - Players are lobbyists, legislative branch, executive branch, and citizens (so-called, voters or taxpayers). - Process is open by rigid by law. • Private Sector (For-profit & Nonprofit) - Revenue through business or gov't grant/donations. - Bottom line is profit (maximization) or faith-based mission. - Players are owners and stakeholders (or donors). - Process is closed and flexible

W5 explain legislative approval

• Legislative Review Committees - Authorization; Appropriation (voting process) - Budget - Financing (e.g., U.S. Senate Finance, House Ways and Means) • Processes - Hearings - Modifications - Adoption • Executive Veto & Legislative Response • A chief executive can propose a spending plan ONLY, but it is NOT an official budget until it is adopted by a vote of the legislative body of the gov't. • In other words, all public budgets must be approved by a legislative body (e.g., the U.S. Congress, a state legislature, a county board of supervisors, a city council, or a school board). • Three sequential actions are typically involved in adopting a public budget: (1) various legislative committees collect information and hold hearings on the proposed budget; (2) the legislative body resolves to adopt the amended budget; and (3) the chief executive signs the budget legislation into law...

W5 describe the first step: executive preparation

• Likewise, at the state and local levels, the most common first step in the budget preparation process is that the central budget office issues budget request instructions (budget guidelines to agencies)! • Agencies prepare & submit budget requests • Every public budget process must include both "revenue" and "expenditure" forecasts. • Common starting point for budget preparation ▪ Estimates of spending by object (e.g., wages, benefits, rent, utilities, insurance, etc.) • Executive and Budget office review and compile budget for submission to legislature

W5 how to measure the relative sizes of the public sector?

• Methods to measure size - Total # of Employees (Government Workers) - Total Expenditures (as % of GDP) - Total Revenues (Gov't Revenues as % of GDP) • Reasons for growth - Government responsiveness to society's demands (towards Welfare State) - Appropriate role/degree of government (intervention)? Big government or not? Debate is still going on...

W3 what is an economic man?

• Only individuals make choices • Assumptions about the individual - The individual is self-interested • Has a set of preferences - The individual is rational • When faced with options, he will choose to act in a way that maximizes preferences and minimizes costs

W6 How Successful is the Majority in Enacting its Legislative Agenda? parliment vs presidential, decentralised vs centralised

• Parliamentary systems are far more successful (conductive to responsible party gov't) at this than presidential systems. B/C the gov't is the majority and the majority must resign if they cannot muster enough votes to pass their agenda. (ex) UK - Brexit referendum (Theresa May resigned) • The high levels of decentralization in the US make this very difficult. B/C members of U.S. parties even have trouble agreeing on a national program. Sometimes, members vote against their own party except cases in where there's a strong president whose party controls both houses of Congress.

W3 Private sector vs. public sector perspectives Justification for Gov't Intervention - Public Policy

• Private sector vs. public sector perspectives - Economics pervades the public sector (?) - What Makes Public Organizations Distinctive? : A public agency needs to consider goals (public values) in line with "public interest", such as equity, fairness, accountability, transparency, and better quality of life (employment/environment protection). - A public agency generally needs to look at benefits and costs that affect the wider public.

W5 Three Economic Justifications for the Gov't Function

▪ Allocation (Efficiency) Gov't actions that change the pattern of output of the economy by adjusting resource allocation: 'Developmental Policy' Corrective measures for inefficiency in system ▪ (Re)distribution (Equity) Gov't actions to redistribute income in a downward direction by national gov't (e.g., Progressive Income Tax, Social Security or Medicare) ▪ Stabilization (Accountability) Government actions to stabilize the running of the economy (e.g., to control unemployment & inflation (price); to reach economic growth)

W5 Stabilization Function

▪ Can be pursued through: ▪ Fiscal policy (expenditures and tax) vs. Monetary policy (money supply and interest rates) ▪ This should be a function of the national (central) gov't... as the money supply should be controlled by central gov'ts - especially, today's global health crisis (e.g., Covid-19) ▪ (Some Arguments against Stabilization - Friedman, 1968) - Lag time: changes in policies may take time to affect investment, aggregate demand, and real GDP - Rapid expansion in gov't spending is undesirable as this will cause inflation - Crowding out effect: When gov't borrows to finance spending, demand of loanable funds increases, raising interest rates. Business might suffer because of higher cost of credit (which will be used to finance business expansion)....

W3 how can the govt stabilise the economy?

▪ Fiscal policy (expenditures and tax) ▪ Monetary policy (money supply and interest rates)

W3 what are the 4 types of market failures?

▪ Monopoly ▪ Information Asymmetry ▪ Public Goods ▪ Externalities

W6 What is a fluid party system?

▪ Party systems, usually in new and unstable democracies, that are fluid and inchoate - "A mess" ▪ Parties rise and fall quickly ▪ If party systems has at least two parties, it can be described as competitive ▪ Often personalistic parties that have no overarching program or ideology (ex) Putin's Unity Party...

W3 what are some issues associated with privatisation?

▪ Public Employees (lay off personnel or lower the wages and benefits) ▪ Transparency (how can the general public oversee the operations of a public asset?) ▪ Ownership (e.g., a mass transit district may be supported by gov't funding at the local, state, and federal level. When deciding to privatize this service, which level of gov't should receive the proceeds of the sale or lease?) ▪ Competition within the system (long term agreements can be efficient? help lower costs?) ▪ The Importance of the Contract -Contractor Opportunism -"Information asymmetry" - worker (contractor) knows more about his productivity compared to government Mismanagement/ Corruption/Cheating ▪ (ex) fabricating reported results

W4 UK Germany France govt?

▪ UK: The British system is the "classic" parliamentary system - Monarch invites leader of majority party to "form a gov't" - Prime Minister (PM) appoints cabinet (the gov't) and subcabinet officials; PM has real power; can dismiss ministers ▪ Germany: German Chancellor as strong as British PM - Can only be ousted by a vote of constructive no-confidence - Parliament must have a cabinet ready to replace the ousted chancellor but it is much harder to replace than just oust ▪ France - France's system is "semi-presidential" - combines a working president and a prime minister (similar to Russia & China) - If both the president and PM are from the same party, no problem - Otherwise, led to "cohabitation

politiical scientists vs political theorists

▪ [Political] Scientists try to understand how things do work. ▪ [Political] Theorists look at how things should work.

W4 what is the government?

❖ A Government is "the Organization of Political Authority within a State." (Parsons, 2016) ❖ A Government is "a set of people who run the state"; they are the means through which state power is exercised. (Clark, Golder, & Golder, 2018) ❖ Governments are sometimes referred to as "regimes" or "political systems." (Parsons, 2016) - A set of rules, norms, institutions, or processes by which people gain authority to make collective decisions for a state; determine how the gov't is constituted, organized, and major decisions are made.

W6 Electoral Realignment

❖ A theory of critical or realigning elections - Towards major, long-term shift in Party ID • In general, people retain party ID for years • Critical elections can set the stage for the emergence of new issues, debates, and topics (e.g., scandal/corruption, bad economy) • This can lead to one party having dominance.. and the direction of public policy • (ex) 1932: New Deal Democrats emerge, 2008-2012: Realignment in Democrats' favor ❖ Controversial... critics argue: trends? (declining voter turnout; party ID; trust in gov't); applies only to presidential elections

W6 Give an overview of elections and electoral systems

❖ An electoral system is a set of laws that regulate electoral competition between candidates or parties or both (e.g., principles of representation: majoritarian vs. proportional) ❖ Voter turnout is heavily influenced by a range of socioeconomic variables; Certain demographic groups are more likely to vote in certain ways than others. ❖ Candidates and Parties can deploy a range of strategies when attempting to win elections. ❖ Democracies are sometimes classified in terms of the electoral system that they employ.

W4 what is The Trouble with Bureaucracy?

❖ The world does not love bureaucracy (1) France, Italy: hatred of bureaucrats is part of political culture (2) U.S. bureaucracy is frequently the target of hostile political rhetoric (inefficiency) ❖ Bureaucracy can exhibit particular pathologies; show signs as follows: - Eichmannism: "Just doing my job" or "just following orders" - Parkinson's Law (1962): bureaus' inherent tendency to grow - An expression that speaks to the inefficiencies with the pithy expression, "Work fills to expand the time allotted to it." - Niskanen's Budget Maximization Theory (1971): bureaucrats tend to maximize the total budget of their bureau ❖ Corruption and bureaucracy are intertwined - The more regulations, the more bureaucrats, the more corruption ❖ Early theorists assumed the bureaucracy would never make public policy - Bureaucrats are not publicly accountable (principal-agent problem - information asymmetry) - In practice, the implementation of laws cannot be apolitical which gives bureaucrats a lot of power

W6 4 main purposes of political parties?

❖ They structure the political world. ❖ They recruit and socialize the political elite. ❖ They mobilize the masses. ❖ They provide a link (bridge) between the rulers and the ruled ❖ They serve "to aggregate diverse interests in society" into larger interests. coalition of interest groups ❖ They help pull "new groups" into the system that had previously been excluded (integration into the political system) ❖ They help to "mobilize citizens to engage with politics." ❖ They serve as "the agents that organize gov't" and the winning party has a great deal of latitude in not only setting gov't policy, but also in distributing gov't jobs.

W7 When is Behavior "Political"?

❖ Voice requires influence • In order to change one's environment, one typically needs to change the behavior of other people ... so ... politics is involved when voice is used. ❖ But it's also involved whenever voice is considered! • The decision whether to respond with exit, voice, or loyalty is a "political" decision. • (Controversial Qs) When should a citizen choose to exit, use voice, or remain loyal? We often see citizens protesting and the state ignoring them, why?

W2 what is political socialization?

"The process by which citizens develop the values, attitudes, beliefs and opinions that enable them to support the political system." Different background ("Demographics") of citizens, various groups of people (age, gender, race/ethnicity, religion, culture, friends, family, level of education, and socioeconomic status) → will likely influence Whether and How We Participate in the Political Process

W3 what 3 trade offs does society face? and what is this called?

"allocation decisions" 1. Which goods and services to produce - If a society produces more cars, it must produce fewer of other goods and services - There are only so limited resources (e.g., workers, raw materials, capital and energy) available to produce goods 2. How to produce - To produce a given level of output, a firm must use more of one input if it uses less of another input - (ex) cracker and cookie manufacturers switch between palm oil and coconut oil, depending on which is less expensive 3. Who gets the goods and services - The more of society's goods and services you get, the less someone else gets (the rich vs. the poor)

W3 on public failure, what is the public choice theory?

- Politicians, bureaucrats and others acting on behalf of the 'public' may act in their own self interest as 'utility maximisers'. - 'Rent seeking' - 'Log rolling' - (ex) Bureaucrat's "Budget Maximization"

W3 goals for public policies?

- Social Welfare Toward Good Society - For (involuntary) unemployment, inflation, the balance of payments (e.g., trade deficit) - Human Dignity: Equity of Opportunity and Floors on Consumption (e.g., public assistance (money, job training, and physical rehabilitation) for vulnerable populations) - Income Inequality in the U.S. and Globally - Preserving Institutional Values (legitimacy from constitutions defines the rights and duties of national gov'ts) - (For Policy Choice/Diffusion) +++ Globalization, IT (ICT) ...

3 major views of the state

1) Normative Ancient philosophers (e.g., Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle) believed [political] power should be used to achieve "Social Justice." o Just rule more likely to be distributed by the wise, educated. o The elite wield power for the common good. o (ex) Plato (The Republic): City-States should be ruled by philosopher-kings, who would keep everyone in their appropriate roles; simple lives (no private property; shared families) o Aristotle was the first empirical political scientist (Politics) - combined descriptive & normative approaches to find the most desirable political institutions (a good, stable system - power on rich, educated middle class who understood virtue). Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) challenged this viewpoint by studying how rulers actually acquire and use "Power," even for unjust ends. o Lived in the Republic of Florence, which was governed by an elected Council; Realist who argued for rationality and toughness in exercising power o Greatest work The Prince - Argued against Aristotelian model: a smart prince must start with reality first and not an ideal political model o Politics full of conflict and uncertainty → Raw power would bring stability and prosperity → The primary purpose of gov't (to prevent civil unrest & to promote security) •Confucius (A Chinese philosopher, trad. 551-479 BCE) called for people to pursue lives of virtues, study, and contemplation; rule by a virtuous emperor oAlso suggested that the people could challenge tyrannical leadership (looking for a new leader) oA major influence on political thinking in Asia •Kautilya (A Indian philosopher, c. 350-283 BCE) was an advisor & a Prime Minister to the first Maurya Emperor oGood leaders must hold onto power before can enact virtuous policies; oConsidered what is realistic; then select from realistic options the most virtuous 2) Contractarian • Social Contract Theorists (Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau) wrote about the appropriate relationship between the gov't and the individual • Theories from the Renaissance into the Enlightenment o The state of nature is a term used to describe situations in which there is no state. o How can we get out of the state of nature? o Why Political Systems should exist at all? → A Social Contract! (Theory that individuals join and stay in civil society if they had signed a contract) 3) Marxist theories Karl Marx (1818-1883) produced a very complex theory consisting of at least three theories: (1) economics; (2) a social class; (3) history o Things do not happen by accident; everything has a cause (Hegel, 1770-1831 - Spiritual Zeitgeist) o Economics: "Surplus value" (profits) goes to capitalist owners; Overworking, under-purchasing proletariat results in overproduction and depressions. o Social Class: Bourgeoisie (The capitalists; obsessed with hanging on to property; a cause of war) vs. Proletariat (the working class) o History: class conflict drives history (change) o Led to tyranny and failure in Communist countries (ex) The Soviet Union Contributions vs. Critics o Societies are never fully unified and peaceful. o We must always ask, "Who benefits?" in political controversy. o Prediction did not come true - capitalism has not collapsed due to its flexible adaptive nature o Marx missed the point that capitalism is not one simplified system (e.g., US vs. SG capitalisms are distinct from each other).

w2 4 theories in political science

1) behavioralism ▪ Focus on "Institutions" in the U.S. from the late 19th century through mid-20th century ▪ Claimed to concentrate on "actual behaviour" as opposed to thoughts or feelings ▪ Look at statistics (numbers/%!) from elections, publicopinion surveys, votes in legislatures... ▪ Numerous Critiques ▪ Far from "scientific" and "value-free" in practice ▪ Neglect possibility of change (too static, conservative, irrelevant to the urgent tasks at hand) ▪ Works best in established democratic systems; Focused on relatively minor topics and strayed from big questions - Leads to "Post-behavioral Movement" (synthesis of QUAL data of traditionalists + QUAN data of behavioralists) 2) new institutionalism ▪ Rediscovering institutions in the 1980s: Institutions not simply reflections of social forces ▪ Government structures (human organizations and rules) shape the "behaviour" of people within them (politics) ▪ Explores the topic within the elected-versus-appointed dichotomy (direct electoral-versus-indirect democracy) ▪ Critiques: - Appointed public officials do not necessarily maintain politically neutral positions in office, nor are they always less self-interested (risk-averse) than their elected counterparts. 3) systems theory • "Political systems" model devised by David Easton - Simplified reality by looking at complex entities as systems (as entities similar to living organisms in biology) • Politics of a given country work like a feedback loop • Citizen "inputs" recognized by decision makers who process them into "output" decisions and actions. ▪ (Issues) not as applicable in some situations - Feedback can be split - Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia do not fit the systems model. - How could it explain the Vietnam War? - Main problem: "Black-Box" conversion process - Inner workings of gov't are important and have an influence on the outputs; Domestic politics matter; Also, pressures from various parts of gov't matter: "withinputs" ▪ Model is static, biased toward status quo, and unable to handle upheaval. 4) rational choice theory • Assumes that people are rational, have (all) the information they need, and consider all the options • Argue that one can predict ''political behavior'' by knowing interests of actors involved • Helped political scientist predict how people would react in a variety of situations (know-it-all attitude) → Minimise costs and maximise benefits! • Theorists sometimes call themselves neoinstitutionalists. • A tool or method for clarifying arguments, not a theory in itself (?!) • Institutional thinkers used this method to explain how rational people would respond to certain rules of the political game → Game theory

W3 what is the tragedy of the commons?

Individuals behave according to their own self-interest, without consideration of the community's long-term best interests by depleting some common resource (Garrett Hardin, 1968).

W3 Statist, Socialist, Laissez-Faire, and Welfare-State Approaches

Laissez-Faire the government adopts a hands off approach to the economy. • This means that there is limited attempts to redistribute wealth in society and that the government owns very little industry. - In general the belief that guides a laissez-faire system is that economic prosperity increases as government regulation decreases and markets are free to work. EG US SWITZERLAND Welfare the redistribution of wealth in society and allow government a wide range of options in ensuring greater levels of social equality among citizens. - In a welfare state system the government will not own industry generally but will rely on high levels of taxes to fund social programs to help redistribute wealth in society. - (ex) Northern European Countries EG SWEDEN DENMARK Statist In a statist system (centralized executive authority), the government is the number one capitalist and runs most of the industry. - The purpose is to set the economy in service to the state and its goals. - In doing so, the state cares relatively little about inequality among citizens and provides few welfare benefits to its citizens - (ex) South Africa, Brazil, + some argue: the present-day economies of the People's Republic of China, where the gov't owns controlling shares in publicly traded companies. EG SOUTH AFRICA AND BRAZIL Socialist a high degree of state ownership of the major industries in the country. (e.g., including utilities, railroads, mines, etc.) - Socialist states emphasize social equality and as such they promote high levels of social welfare which effectively redistributes wealth in society → Command Economies - (ex) In the early 20th century, socialist parties from around the world had appeared, such as the Italian Socialist Party, the French Section of the Workers' International, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party and the Socialist Party in Argentina, the Socialist Workers' Party in Chile; In Asia, states with socialist economies—such as the People's Republic of China, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam—have largely moved away from centralised economic planning in the 21st century, placing a greater emphasis on markets... EG SOVIET UNION AND CUBA

W5 what is a financial tool of the govt?

TAX • a payment in money (extraction of financial resources from individuals and businesses) • required by a government • that is unrelated to any specific benefit or service received from the government (vs. fees and charges) • a financial, mandatory (non-voluntary), non-equivalent charge or other levy imposed on a taxpayer by a state. • The tax is implemented by law. • The failure to pay taxes is punishable by law. • The taxes can be paid regularly or occasionally based on certain conditions stipulated by the tax legislation.

W4 Bicameral vs Unicameral?

The unicameral structure, by concentrating legislative power in the members and leaders of one house, enhances the prestige, independence, and authority of the legislature. A bicameral system describes a government that has a two-house legislative system, such as the House of Representatives and the Senate that make up the U.S. Congress. ❖ 2/3 of legislatures in the world have bicameral systems (two separate assemblies/chambers/houses: upper vs. lower) - In general, lower houses are much more powerful. - For example, UK has the House of Lords (upper house, 773 seats) and House of Commons (lower house, 650 seats as of 2020). - Only in the US are the two houses of the legislature co-equal, and some would argue that the U.S. Senate is actually more powerful than the House of Representatives. ❖ Why use a "bicameral" system? - From the institutional choice of federalism: In a federal system, the upper house represents component parts such as states or provinces while the lower house represents districts based on population. ❖ But... the overall utility of "upper houses" are unclear (no purpose/do not work very much - abolished) ❖ A smaller number of legislatures are unicameral (ONE house/chamber) (e.g., Singapore, South Korea, Denmark, New Zealand) - (+) Help reduce related expenditure in legislatures; speed-up process (e.g., discussion and voting); - (-) lack of monitoring/oversight, giant (two) parties, and legislative tyranny over the executives ❖ Some states, in an effort to deal with multi-ethnic and multiracial populations, have multi-chamber legislatures. (ex) South Africa: three houses; Yugoslavia: five houses

W5 The Main Issues of Tax Theory

Two main issues related to tax theory: ➢ Normative: How to design taxes to promote social welfare in terms of the public interest in efficiency and equity ➢ Positive: The economic effects of the various taxes that governments use o What effects do taxes have on people's desires to consume, save, supply their labor (work), or on firms' desire to invest? o Who bears the burden of various taxes? - Leaders & Public officials need to be able to answer these questions to design taxes that promote social welfare (how about Tax Resistance? Loopholes? Black market? Shirking?)

W6 4 ways to describe the representative's votes

❖ Majoritarian: Representatives with the most votes (plurality) ❖ Proportional: Representatives chosen in proportion to voter support ❖ Descriptive: Voters choose representatives who are like them (gender, ethnicity, etc.) ❖ Mixed

W3 what is the central problem of economics?

• Scarcity is a situation in which resources are limited in quantity and can be used in different ways. • Because our resources are limited, we must sacrifice one thing for another. People make "trade-offs" because they can't have everything. "There is nothing such as a free lunch." • To get one thing that we like, we usually have to give up another thing that we like - "Opportunity Cost"

W6 Classifying Party Systems

▪ A nonpartisan democracy is a democracy with no official political parties. ▪ A single-party system is one in which only one political party is legally allowed to hold power. ▪ A one-party dominant system is one in which multiple parties may legally operate but in which only one particular party has a realistic chance of gaining power. ▪ A two-party system is one in which only two major political parties have a realistic chance of gaining power. ▪ A multiparty system is one in which more than two parties have a realistic chance of gaining power.

W3 what are the 3 economic justitifcations for the governments function?

▪ Allocation Government actions that change the pattern of output of the economy by adjusting resource allocation: 'Developmental Policy' ▪ Redistribution Government actions to redistribute income in a downward direction by national gov't (e.g., Progressive Income Tax, Social Security or Medicare) ▪ Stabilization Government actions to stabilize the running of the economy (e.g., to control unemployment & inflation (price); to reach economic growth)

W7 3 possible responses to politics

(1) Exit - Accept that there has been a deleterious change in your environment and alter your behavior to achieve the best outcome possible given your new environment. eg. avoidance (2) Voice - Use your "voice" (complain, protest, lobby, take direct action) to try to change the environment back to its original condition. eg. organise tax revolt (3) Loyalty - Accept the fact that your environment has changed and make no changes to your behavior. eg. keep mouth shut • Politics is about using power to influence others while trying to avoid being influenced oneself. • If the citizen does not have a credible exit threat (option), then s/he is just a sitting duck! - The state can take things from the citizen and the citizen can do nothing about it. • "Voice" & "Exit" should be understood metaphorically. - "Exit" may mean emigration, but it may also mean changing industry or political parties; The actual use of "Voice" might range from a ballot (voting) to a bullet (protest).

W4 Presidentialism vs. Parliamentarism

(1) Presidential Democracies (Presidentialism): Gov't comprises the President & the cabinet (administration) (ex) U.S., Mexico, S. Korea (2) Parliamentary Democracies (Parliamentarism): Gov't comprises a Prime Minister & the cabinet (ex) UK, SG, and Japan ❖ Making and Breaking Governments (Clark et al., 2018) - Two distinct systems of organizing the Executive-Legislative Relationship (President vs. Prime Minister) - The manner in which the head of gov't is elected is different! - Most parliaments have little policymaking powers! - Separation of Powers (American system/model) vs. Fusion of Powers (British/European systems) president • Shows clearly Separation of Powers between legislative and executive branches (independent) → Useful in preventing tyranny • Most powerful legislatures (electoral base) are in Presidential systems • The head of gov't, the President, is elected directly by the citizens by means of a separate election • President combines the roles of head of state and head of gov't • President is NOT responsible to the legislature, and is difficult to remove from office (e.g., Impeachment) parliment • Defined by the Fusion of powers - their legislative and executive branches • The head of gov't, the Prime Minister, serves as head of both branches. • Prime ministers come to power through their party and are elected to their position by their colleagues in parliament. • Head of state - (ex) King/Queen/President - is weak/symbolic so distinct from the head of gov't (here, Prime Minister) • The government is directly responsible to the majority in the legislature

W4 3 central political institutions of the government

(1) The Executive, play a leading role at the beginning & the end (1) Formulation stage (beginning) - Identify problems or goals, propose new actions (2) Implementation stage (end) - Put policy into practice (2) The Legislature, and do their work in the middle - Before budgets and bills are approved: debate, amendments, etc - In most liberal democracies, executive dominates policy making. ❖ Theoretically... at least, the legislature enacts laws that allocate values for society; the executive branch enforces the statues passed by the legislature (e.g., USA) In practice, legislatures do lots of things, but initiating legislation is (getting) no longer their primary function; as they have been eclipsed by executives & their branch of gov't. (3) The Judiciary. (Supreme Courts) operates under fairly conservative principles; interprets the law through the courts; sometimes overrule the actions of agencies for two main reasons: (1) to protect the intent of the legislation (2) to prevent agencies from violating correct procedures

W6 describe the soviet communist party system and Why Gorbachev undermined the Soviet party structure?

(The Central Committee of the Politburo) - The heart of Soviet governance; and made all the decisions that directed economy and the state Why Gorbachev undermined the Soviet party structure? : Single party that attempts to control everything → Corruption; highly resistant to change

W4 who are the bureaucrats?

(unelected public officials/appointed policy experts) - Historically, government jobs were hereditary or for sale (ineffective, incompetent, and corrupt) - Contemporary Bureaucracy: (1) knowledge-based recruitment; (2) salaried professionals; (3) systematic procedures; & (4) hierarchy (e.g., Best example: Militaries)

W4 Who should control the bureaucracy?

- Bureaucracy should be responsive to elected officials (e.g., Congress, the President, Prime Minister) • Members of the bureaucracy are not elected, and must be held accountable for their actions • In principle, bureaucrats provide technical/specialized support for politicians; In practice, bureaucrats shape how politicians see options and how their choices are implemented - The bureaucracy should be free from political pressures (should be autonomous) but in practice may be difficult to balance expertise and representation

W4 what does mark weber have to say about bureaucracies?

- German Sociologist - Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947) - Bureaucracy allows for the optimal form of authority - "Rational Authority" - Cornerstone: Existence of "Written Rules" - Principles and Elements of Management - he described "An Ideal or Pure Form of Organizational Structure" (general policy and specific commands) - Worker should respect the "right" of managers to direct activities dictated by organizational rules and procedures - More DESCRIPTIVE

W6 centralised vs decentralised democratic parties

Centralized organizational structures rely on one individual to make decisions and provide direction for the company. Decentralized organizations rely on a team environment at different levels in the business • The level of centralization affects the amount of control that the party leadership can exercise over its members. ❖ Parties with high levels of centralization will tend to be more coherent, ideologically consistent, and disciplined. (ex) US vs. Europe: US candidates are quite independent of the parties; Rifts and splits in U.S. parties (rise of the Tea Party)

W2 incentives between higher power elected one and lower powered appointed one

High-Powered Elected One • Applicable to mayor-council government or elected officials - Election-driven government structures (Politicians) • Incentive → reelection or postgovernment employment opportunity • Politically risk-averse (more voter-oriented) - Sometimes, reluctant to pursue innovative policies in the long term • More likely behave opportunistically for individual gains in the use of public money Low-Powered Appointed One • Applicable to council-manager governments (progressive reformed gov't) or appointed officials - Non-election-driven ones (Bureaucrats) • Incentive → professional mobility • Have politically independent (more career-oriented) • More likely to respond to achieve productive efficiency gains: innovative administrative practices; better capacity to manage their financial resources w/o considering political gains.

W3 Keynes vs Friedman on recesssions

Keynesian Policies ▪ Called for active government intervention to fight unemployment during slumps by: Borrowing Spending heavily on public works Printing more money Friedman and Monetarism ▪ A market economy needs deliberate stabilization ▪ Government role should be limited to managing the money supply (in circulation and in bank deposits) ▪ Slowly increase money supply during recessions to stimulate demand and investments ▪ Rapid expansion in gov't spending is undesirable as this will cause inflation

W3 Keynesianism and Neoclassical Economists

Keynesianism • Government should stimulate demand (economy) through increased expenditures, incurring a deficit • Deficit spending is okay because we owe the money to ourselves and "in the long run, we will all be dead." • Keynes proposed ending depressions by dampening the swings in the business cycle ✓ During bad times, increase spending and welfare to make recessions milder and short ✓ When things grow too fast, with bubbles and high inflation, cool economies with tax increases Neoclassical economists • Fredrich Hayek & Milton Friedman (conservative economists) • Gov't regulation of the economy was out and free market economics was in as a way of inducing economic growth and prosperity • Gov't can also use the interest rate to speed up or slow down an economy, depending on the circumstances • Neoclassical economics was extremely popular until the economic crash of 2008 led many people to rediscover the principles of Keynesian economics

W4 what is the us budget cycle

The budget cycle typically consists of four phases: - Preparation and submission • Primarily executive branch - Approval • Legislative responsibility (review/cut) - Execution • Executive agencies and departments - Audit • Unit could be housed in executive or legislative branch • GAO (Government Accountability Office) is arm of Congress

W3 what is adam smith's invisible hand?

The term "Invisible Hand" was used by Adam Smith to describe the natural force (supply and demand) that guides free market capitalism (Price) through "competition for scarce resources.

W5 What is a BUDGET CYCLE?

The time frame a budget covers, using monthly, quarterly, annual or biennial budget cycles to control costs and streamline administrative duties ★ Preparation: Draft budget is formed for consideration. ★ Approval: Budget is reviewed, amended and enacted into law. ★ Execution: Activities and policies related to the budget are carried out. ★ Assessment: Budget spending is accounted for and assessed for effectiveness.

W5 Results of Gov't Intervention:

When the gov't intervenes in competitive (or failed) markets (e.g. imposes price floors or price ceilings), three important results may occur: - Some people win - Some people lose - A loss of welfare (economic efficiency) → How? Why

W6 What is the future like for parties?

concerns ❖ Declining membership over the years, voters are considerably less loyal to political parties ❖ Parties may exaggerate differences with opponents. However, most parties may have become mainstream and similar. ❖ Most local offices may consistently won by one party - Parties may not represent their own supporters very well; Dominant party gets lazy; the minority party has little incentives to work hard if they never win ❖ The role of mass media, interest groups & think tanks has been increasing (doing some functions of parties?) ❖ Large Parties may Crowd Out Other Voices! (Decline of Parties?) - (ex) US: Democrats and Republicans make it very difficult for "third parties" to form and complete ❖ Members share fewer political values with the opposite party (Party Cohesion has increased) ❖ Sometime, candidates can be independent of the party and party leadership (e.g., Trump?).

W5 main concerns of chief executive? (during executive preparation?)

o A budget (a set of budget documents) reflects a chief executive's decisions (including President, governor, mayor, or county executive) on policies and programs... o Budget office analysts ("gatekeeper") review the budgetary requests of the agencies. *Analysts' role: (1) Planner; (2) Controller/Cutter/Scrutinizer; (3) Communicator; (4) Advocate (against the legislative branch on behalf of the agency); (5) Enforcer, and (6) Reviewer/Evaluator o Line agencies always try to protect their own budget (desire higher funding). Budget request is the result of extensive agency deliberations. It is constrained by rules and norms from the central budget office. o During the budget preparation phase, only the chief executive is committed to viewing the budget and its policy implications in their entirety. S/he makes the final decisions. o Neutral Competence (Unbiased Budget Recommendations): The chief executive needs to convey to the various governmental departments and agencies involved, and especially to the central budget office (of course, consider his/her executive priorities in mind) so that effort is not needlessly wasted on proposals that he/she may likely reject later. o Strategic concerns and overall priorities • Sources of budget constraints: Revenue growth, uncontrollable expenditures, judicial mandates, tax and expenditure limitations (TELs) • Views of the role of government • "What is the overall public interest?" (how the budget can reflect citizens' demand?) & "How large should the public sector be in the total economy?"

W5 What brings "Budget" idea in the US

o Budget Idea first came into the US from Britain (1770s-80s) o In the early U.S. political system - inefficiency & waste in using public money and a lack of responsibility in the executive branch o Budget idea has been a reaction against the results of irresponsible government, the political boss, logrolling methods, and pork barrel legislation. o "Budget Idea" has finally come to be thought of as a constitutional principle. "Control over the purse" should be done under a representative system into harmony with the ideas of democracy and popular sovereignty.

W2 3 mian subfield of PS

o Comparative Politics: Focuses on Similarities and Differences in Political Processes and Structures within Different Countries - why & what effects (e.g., comparisons based on various factors such as size, economy, and geography) o International Relations: Studies the way nations interact with one another and the influence of global trends on nation-states (e.g., to understand the causes of conflict) o Political Theory or Philosophy: Focuses on the ideas and debates dealing with important political questions regarding human social relations(e.g., justice, equality, democracy, or human rights?!)

W2 Locke

o Less pessimistic view of the State of Nature (competition of resources, but not Hobbesian) o Felt a more "limited gov't" was needed; an absolutist king was worse than the state of nature o However, there is no way to secure property → Individuals contract to form gov't to protect life, liberty and property o Inspired U.S. Revolution and political system in the 1700s

W2 Rousseau

o Much more optimistic view of the State of Nature (People are naturally good; as "Noble Savages" without artifice or jealousy) o State formed because people were told gov't would protect their private property - No Social Contract o "Man is born free but everywhere is in chains." o Society is the source of corruption; if people are bad it's because of society; but society can be changed by leading to "human freedom" (the roots of "totalitarianism"?) o "General Will" - imagined a bottom-up society with inclusive political participation

W2 Multidisciplinary Subfields of PS

o Public Administration: Studies how bureaucracies work and how they can be improved o Constitutional Law: Studies the applications and evolution of the Constitution within the legal system o Public Policy: Focuses on the interface of politics and economics with an eye to developing effective programs o Political Science vs. History & Journalism - seeks to "generalize" vs. explain the unique circumstances of a particular event (past or current specific events)

W5 Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes

progressive tax—A tax that takes a larger percentage of income from high-income groups than from low-income groups. proportional tax—A tax that takes the same percentage of income from all income groups. regressive tax—A tax that takes a larger percentage of income from low-income groups than from high-income groups.

W5 redistribution leads to?

stabilization - Economic activities that are intended to stabilize the running of the national economy (e.g., to control unemployment & inflation (price); to reach economic growth) - Examples: • Anti-recessionary policy at low points in the business cycle • Anti-inflationary policy at high points in the business cycle

W3 what is market failure?

• A market failure is a condition under which a market does not produce an efficient outcome. • When the market is unable to allocate all of the productive resources of the economy (efficiently) in a way that we thought was satisfactory, we need some allocative role for government.

W4 what are the Formal Roles and Responsibilities in Public Budgeting Process

• Chief Executive (President, Prime Minister, Governor, Mayor) - Prepares and submits annual budget request for legislative approval - Signs appropriations bills following legislative approval - May be able to veto individual spending items • As of January, 1997, the president was given line-item veto power, but it was ruled unconstitutional in June 1998. • Instead, the President does have impoundment and deferral powers. • Legislature - Authorizes programs through legislation and appropriates funds for program accomplishment - Grants budget authority to agencies to commit and obligate funds - May be able to alter executive's spending requests

W4 presidents vs prime ministers

• In parliamentary systems, the chief executive is indirectly elected by the national legislature from its own ranks - Prime Ministers are responsible to parliament & are secure in their seats if they represent a majority party; • Can be ousted by a vote of no-confidence or by a loss of the majority (support) in the general election. - Presidential systems bypass this by having a strong president who is not responsible to parliament (e.g., the U.S. presidency has become too powerful) and is elected separately for fixed terms. • Can suffer from the deadlock of democracy, which parallels parliamentary immobilism; Impeachment possible

W6 Factors that affect who votes and why

• Income (+) and Education (+?) - (Controversial) Education broadens interests and increases the perception that the voter has a stake in the system but voter turnout declined as education levels rose in the U.S. • Age (+) - Young people are less economically involved and therefore have lower stakes in election outcomes; changes as they get older (if they pay taxes, their stake may increase) • Gender - Traditionally, women voted at lower rates than men in almost every society; in the U.S., that trend is reversed in recent years (female suffrage granted in 1920 → this is a reflection of women's higher education levels) • Place of Residence (Urban vs. Rural areas) - Regional differences: typically, urban areas have higher voter turnout rates than rural ones (higher levels of education; polling stations nearer) • Demographic shift: Race (ethnicity), Religion • (+++) Individual convictions on particular issues; financial crisis (e.g., Jobs); a party affiliation ...

W5 What problems might exist in this system (of legislative budgeting)?

• Legislative budgeting typically centers on a fragmented and decentralized committee system • In contrast to the centralized executive budgeting system that has evolved • May have much more narrow view of priorities than executive - Importance of constituent service • The fragmentation of the budget process makes it difficult to: - Pass a balanced budget - Pass a budget on time - Look at the big picture - Have central budget staff to compete with executive budget office • Use of budget for electoral purpose leads to "member items" (pork) • Like the bureau, the incentives in the legislature can inflate spending: - Legislators get on committees for programs their constituents care about (To be re-elected in the next term?) - They bargain with other legislators so that each gets their pet project (logrolling) • Issue of Fragmentation: (also related to Week 11!) (ex) House of Cards https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7woLOcPNnU (ex) Senate vs. the House https://youtu.be/GmUX0JnV2C4

W5 what is singapore budget cycle

• Singapore budget is prepared for each financial year, which begins on 1 April of every calendar year (CY) and ends on 31 March of the next calendar year (CY). • The budget includes the revised gov't revenue and expenditure projections for the current financial year, as well as the planned gov't revenue and expenditures for the upcoming financial year (FY). • The Budget Feedback Process • Ministry of Finance (MOF) starts its public consultation process prior to Budget day to gather feedback in the design of the Budget. • Budget is presented to the Cabinet for approval. Step 1: Cabinet approves the budget Step 2: MOF presents Budget to Parliament. Step 3: Committee of Supply debates on the Budget. Members of parliament query Government on expenditure of funds in the previous FY, & the proposed budget for the next FY. Step 4: Parliament passes Supply Bill. President's assent is sought for enactment of the Supply Bill. President's role: safeguard past reserves, may withhold assent if estimated expenditure may draw on past reserves. Step 5: President's assent is given. The Supply Bill is enacted as law known as the Supply Act. It controls Government's spending in the next FY.

W4 What Legislatures Do

• The Committee System • Most of the power of modern legislatures lies in the committee system, which can make or break legislative proposals • Separation of Power; Public Hearings (citizen/interest group input) • Screen bills to help determine which ones are worthy of consideration • Lawmaking (traditionally important work) • Legislatures pass laws but rarely originate laws (writing bills) anymore • Constituency work • Function as ombudsmen (to help citizens wronged by gov't) • Supervision/Criticism of Gov't • General Oversight (e.g., British Question Hour); Committees' Reaction to the budget proposed by the executives • Education & Representation

W3 how does intervention result in rent seeking?

▪ Gov't intervention in markets can make some people win or lose (a loss of welfare) and create rents ▪ Rents - a form of profit that are not a consequence of any productive activity; gains in either producer or consumer surplus ▪ Rent-seeking - efforts and expenditures to capture rents (e.g., lobbying, bribing) ▪ Rent-seeking does not create new wealth; instead it is an unproductive activity

W3 what is this public choice theory alternative?

▪ Interestingly, self-interest and utility maximization are also the keys to correcting government failure... ▪ ... but only if we rely on the market or introduce "market-like forces" in government ▪ In the 1980s, New Public Management (NPM) has emerged as a promising innovation in the public sector not only to reduce the size and scope of gov't, but also to improve its managerial performance. ▪ "Steering, not rowing" (towards smaller yet efficient government having businesslike essence) the solution: privatisation ▪ Privatization of monopolies ▪ Contracting out services (publicly funded but externallyprovided goods/services) ▪ Cost-Saving Rationales!

W7 Technology: U.S. Political Participation Offline vs. Online

▪ The effect of "Technology" has been increasing; the advance of technology has changed our political lives. eg. Offline Options % Online Options % Worked with fellow citizens to solve a problem in your community 35 "Liked" or promoted material related to political/social issues that others have posted 23 Attended a political meeting on local, town, or school affairs 22 Encouraged other people to vote 21 Been an active member of a group that tries to influence public policy or government, not including a political party 13 Posted your own thoughts/comments on political or social issues 20 Attended a political rally or speech 10 Reposted content related to political/social issues 19

W4 describe the decline of legislatures

▪ Trend of Losing Power to the executive branch has continued and grown; maybe expectations for legislatures were too high to being with... ▪ Structural Disadvantages: very efficient in passing legislation; but predictable and boring → Legislative Atrophy + Ongoing Struggles with the Executive Branch (US Congress) ▪ Overspending: "Pork Barrel" Politics for seeking re-election; Imposing limits (e.g., spending caps) were routinely ignored. ▪ Incomprehensible legislation + Lack of Expertise - Laws too long and harder to understand; Members rely on shorter, partisan reports; lobbyists; "logrolling"; lead a heavy reliance on experts from the executive departments ▪ Psychological Disadvantages: Citizens are more impressed with Presidents or Prime Ministers than legislatures → Presidential worship per se ▪ The Absentee Problem (legislators are really busy doing other things? Some might just be lazy? Or Legislators themselves do not regard legislating as their chief function?) ▪ The Lack of Turnover - Members become career, lifetime politicians who are reelected - Legislature loses ability to innovate and respond to new trends in public opinion ▪ The Dilemma of Parliaments (e.g., Russian case - Putin's reform) - watch the following: https://youtu.be/u6dHGbWPfnI

W5 Incentives and Behavior in a Bureaucracy (Hillman, 2009) (during executive preparation?)

❑ Government bureaucracies are monopolies (PCT). ❑ Incentives in a gov't bureaucracy include maximizing costs because costs include bureaucrats' salaries (Budget Maximizing Behaviors) ❑ Bureaus have incentives to create demand for their services. ❑ An asymmetric information phenomenon ❑ Basis for a principal-agent problem ❑ Taxpayers and voters (principals) do not know precisely what is happening inside bureaucracies (agents).

W5 Politics-Administration Dichotomy (during executive preparation?)

❑ Politics-Administration Dichotomy - Bureaucracy should be free of politics • Wilson: Bureaucracy is neutral and not political - Bureaucrats are experts in their specialties and must be left alone to do their job without political interference • However, people began to realize that politics and administration might NOT be separate (e.g., Iron Triangle and Issue Network - Review Weeks 7 & 11 Lectures) - Norton Long said, "Power is the lifeblood of administration"

W2 "Why do some people hold political power over others?"

❖ Biological explanation: - Aristotle: "Man is by nature a political animal" (zoon politikon). - Biologically, humans need each other for sustenance & survival. - Forming a political system & obeying is innate to human behavior. - (Critics) How can we explain instances when political groups fall apart and people disobey authority? ❖ Psychological explanation: - Similar to biological in terms of obedience. - (ex) In the 1960s, Milgram Study: Administration of shocks to a victim; Administrators surrendered actions to authority figure https://youtu.be/mOUEC5YXV8U - "Groupthink" and obedience to authority: Most people are naturally conformist (Critics) The Nazi Holocaust ❖ Cultural explanation: - Human behavior is learned: "nature vs. nurture" debate - Holds that bad behaviors can be unlearned and society can be improved, though slow change (e.g., by educating young people). - (Contractions) Where does culture come from?; If all behaviors are cultural, political systems should all be different based on different cultures ❖ Rational explanation: - Against the claim that people are either born or conditioned to certain behavior - People know what they want! Can think rationally - Classical political theorists Hobbes and Locke → "Civil Society" better than anarchy - (Critics) How can we explain a change of mind? → People make judgements all the time. ❖ Irrational explanation: - People are basically emotional (dominated by myths/stereotypes) - "Feed people myths to control them." (e.g., Mussolini - fascism)

W3 what is the ongoing debate on poverty?

❖ Defining poverty is tricky • Poverty is in part a relative condition (past vs. present). • Many argue that the current formula used to determine poverty, based on food spending, is out of date. • Liberals think the poverty line is set much too low and as a result there are lots of people who need assistance who do not get it (equity/equality) ❖ Historical Government Interventions (ex) The War on Poverty initiated by the U.S. President Johnson (Great society programs); Welfare & Health care reforms; Food stamps

W3 what is a mixed economy?

❖ In 19th - early 20th century, the gov't engaged in relatively "little" regulation of markets for goods and services. ❖ Since the middle of 20th century, government intervention in the economy has dramatically increased... (e.g., due to unemployment, business bankruptcy, social security (pension), environment protection, and the promotion of civil rights) ❖ A mixed economy is still primarily a democratic society's market economy (the interaction of buyers & sellers in markets) ❖ Gov't indeed has become to play a significant role in the allocation of resources; redistribution of wealth; stabilization (e.g., great recession and depression) + on-going COVID-19 pandemic!

W6 Strategies of Winning Elections

❖ In Modern Elections, the rational choice of voters is heavily manipulated by "Candidate Personality" and "the Mass Media." - Modern parties showcase their leaders' personalities - Ideology is rarely mentioned or advertised - (Image is important!) Leaders as presented as charismatic, calm, and caring, or professionals; Candidates who are optimistic about the country and its prospects tend to win ❖ The campaigns are media intensive (e.g., TV spot for debate, talk radio, social media). - Money matters? (with the best ads) ❖ Retrospective Voting - Citizens may vote based on their overall evaluation of the incumbent's performance during his/her time in office - Rewards the incumbent's party if things (e.g., the economy) are going well; otherwise punishes - (ex) US - financial meltdown of 2008 swung the election decidedly in Obama's favor ❖ Candidate Strategies and Voter Group - Candidates want to avoid alienating their home bases and want to win swing and independent voters; to boost turnout among their supporters.

W6 Who votes?

❖ In most democracies, the average voters are: - Middle aged; Better educated; Urban; Likely to identify with a political party...

W3 what is the argument between welfare vs entitlement

❖ In the US, Welfare Spending is not the problem in the federal budget; The problem is middle class "Welfare Entitlements" such as Social Security, Medicare, farm subsidies, etc. - Goes to seniors, who are much more likely to vote than young people. ❖ Entitlement are difficult to cut (mandatory spending) because people are used to them and expect them as a right, and they are payments to which you are automatically entitled by law. ✓ In the end, antipoverty programs cannot offset high levels of unemployment and long-term trends in the U.S. economy + Welfare programs seem to increase welfare dependency among the poor...

W6 What are politicized cleavages?

❖ Individuals are basically multifaceted and have a repertoire of attributes (e.g., religion, language, class, gender, and skin color); that makes them eligible for membership in some identity category (e.g., through electoral institutions). ❖ An identity category is a social group in which an individual can place herself; One of the roles of parties is to represent particular groups in societies. - Social cleavages: class, urban-rural, ethnic and linguistic ❖ An attribute is a characteristic that qualifies an individual for membership in an identity category. - Attributes can take on different values; given and self-evident

W4 philosophers (john locke and montesquieu) on legislatures

❖ John Locke (English philosopher): The "Legislative" as the most basic important branch of government. - Both the "Supreme power" & the "sacred" institution in the republic → influenced the U.S. Constitution - Congress: The Power to Declare War & The Power of the Purse ❖ Montesquieu (French philosopher): The only way to ensure liberty is "to divide gov't into two distinct branches" - legislative & executive - for check and balance ❖ However.... in reality, we face "Never-ending Budget Battles": Congress vs. President (- Present) - (ex) U.S. Congress has been so polarized and paralyzed that it can barely pass a budget (shutdown issue, late budget adoption)

W6 Describe the ideological spectrum

❖ Left-Wing parties generally want to nationalize major industries. ❖ Center-Left parties favor welfare states. ❖ Centrist parties are generally liberal on social issues but conservative on economics. ❖ Center-Right parties want to rein in the welfare state in favor of free enterprise. ❖ Right-Wing parties want to dismantle the welfare state and break the power of labor unions. ❖ Far-Right parties are generally nationalistic and antiimmigrant.

W6 Why do people vote?

❖ Lots of reasons why people don't vote (e.g., US) • Many citizens feel their vote does not make a difference. • Citizens feel there is a lack of quality candidates. • No interesting, clear-cut choices due to the nature of the two-party system • Negative television advertising turns voters off by the end of the election cycle (election day) → Debate whether or not non-voting is bad for democracy ❖ US vs. Europe • Americans voter turnout is lower than that of Europeans • Differences in registration; the timing of elections, simplicity

W6 Party system vs parties

❖ Party systems are NOT the same as parties • Parties seek "power" (trees) • Party systems are about the interactions of several parties with each other (forest) - A single party vs. two-party vs. multiparty systems

W4 Please explain the origins of parliment

❖ Political Institutions become more differentiated, specialized and complex as they become more modern - A single leader (king) in Primitive tribes → Councils added → City-states (e.g., Athens) had assemblies that combined three branch functions → "Feudalism" (The balance of power begins!) ❖ Monarchs need tax revenues (e.g., war); The early struggles to limit the power of absolutist monarchs - In exchange for power of the purse, nobles had limited influence on royal policy (e.g., the basis for British, Swedish & French Parliaments) → Parliament soon forgotten as monarchs turned to "Absolutism" → Parliament slowly expanded powers (in the area of taxes) again and resisted monarchical attempts (e.g., English Civil War)

W2 Criticisms of PS

❖ Political Science is NOT a Science (from natural scientists). ❖ Its subject matter defies (disregard) systematic generalizations since political world is too complex and contradictable. ❖ Political Scientists cannot be objective (e.g., influenced by his/her culture, ideas, life experiences, and demographics) → A scholarly work should be reasoned (logical), balanced, supported with evidence, and theoretical.

W2 why politics matters?

❖ Politics matters as it is probably one of the most defining features of the human experience. ❖ We, as the next generation of citizens, all have a responsibility to at least try to understand the viewpoints of others, some of the challenges that face us in the coming century and to succeed in making this world a better and more secure place.

W4 relation between executives and bureaucracies

❖ Presidents and prime ministers differ in many ways, including electoral responsibility and terms of office. ❖ American cabinet secretaries differ in significant ways from their parliamentary counterparts (e.g. UK). ❖ It has been argued that bureaucratization is inevitable due to the nature of organizations. ❖ Bureaucracies vary considerably between states. ❖ Due to their nature, bureaucracies can become pathological in terms of how they function and make decisions.

W5 Budgetary Development

❖ Public Budgeting as it is meant today was invented in the early 19th century and has been reformed to service the dominant socio-economic purposes of different eras ❖ The role of gov't has been expanding to maintain social order and promote smooth economic crises and development! • Industrial State → Welfare State → Economic State • Allocation → Distribution → Stabilization • Laissez-faire (Invisible Hand) → Interventionism → Keynesianism → Intervention via Monetarism • Balanced Budget → Deficits → Chronic Deficits • Size: Small Government → Large Government (Budgeting) • Three stages: Budget → Finance → Economy (From a micro to macro focus, moving toward longer spans, wider perspectives, and loss of annual budget balance)

W4 explain the cabinet

❖ The heads of the various executive agencies of the bureaucracy. • In the presidential system (e.g., US), cabinet heads are called Department Secretaries; usually not working politicians but lawyers, leaders in business, & academics (appointed/elected) • In parliamentary system (e.g., UK and SG), they are generally referred to as Ministers; come from parliament (elected officials) and continue to serve in parliament (both legislators and executives) • There's No "right" size; The cabinet helps develop gov't policy on a range of issues in response to local/global environmental change. → A gradual expansion

W6 what factors determines HOW people may vote

❖ Voting is affected by many factors that can be divided into long- and short-term variables (ex) Party loyalty vs. Military outcomes, economic status ❖ Partisan Identification (Party ID) • Attachments that citizens feel toward a party for a long time • People with strong party ID habitually vote for one party • Heavily influenced by parents; Europe vs. U.S. • Important to Electoral Stability (politicians can anticipate what citizens want and try do deliver it) • Voting Blocs: Politicians design their campaigns to try to win the blocs most likely to vote for them; no bloc is entirely solid! ❖ Class Voting • Social class is a determinant of voting behavior • Two things that muddy class voting (not as accurate of a predictor but still extremely relevant in general) - Working-class people who vote for conservative parties due to self-identification as middle-class, family traditions, or individual convictions; Middle- and upper-class citizens who vote for parties on the left due to a working-class family background or the effects of higher education ❖ Regional Voting • Some regions identify strongly with certain parties ❖ Race and Ethnicity • (ex) US - non-whites are a growing electoral force; the voting patterns seem support the Democratic Party ❖ Religious Blocs: Many countries have religious/secular divide ❖ Age Groups • Young people tend to "catch the tide" of their youth and stay with it onwards... ❖ Gender/Marriage Gaps; Sexual orientation; Urban voting • (ex) US - Women used to be more traditional and conservative than men but now more liberal ... and consistently vote for Democratic candidates (like unmarried people); Big cities vote strongly liberal or left.

W7 How Can People Act in Politics? what is political action?

❖ What is Political Action? - Any action designed to send a message about collection decision making ❖ Forms of Political Participation - Essentially there are two forms: (1) Lower intensity options (expressing political views) ~ (2) Extreme options (e.g., rioting) (ex) Nonparticipation via boycott (traditionally) Voting, signing a petition, donating to a cause; Rallies, marches, rebellions

W6 What is Duverger's theory?

❖ Why do some systems have many parties and others have few? → Duverger's Theory ❖ Social divisions are the primary driving force behind the formation of parties : The greater the demand for distinctive representation, the greater the demand for political parties. ❖ Electoral institutions influence how social divisions are translated into political parties in practice. (ex) Specifically, non-proportional electoral systems act as a brake on the tendency for social cleavages (diverse groups) to be translated into new parties.

W5 Factors Affecting Legislative Decisions

➢ Role of party leadership and party control ➢ Decision-making in committees (much expertise resides there) ➢ Availability of time (the amount of time in session) ➢ Staff differences ➢ General relations between the branches ➢ Constituency differences between executive & legislature ➢ The economic and political environment ➢ Previous decisions...

W4 explain bureaucracies

➢ The term bureaucracy has negative connotations for most people ➢ A bureaucracy is any large organization of appointed officials who implement laws and policies. - Operates under rules and procedures; Organized into a hierarchy; Provides rationality, uniformity, predictability, and supervision to government. ➢ Another definition of bureaucracies is "permanent government" - Bureaucrats whose expertise stay for entire careers ➢ Inherently conservative and hard to change