HBIO301 - study guide modified - not finished

Understand how the 3 primary germ layers are formed.

(migration of epiblastic cells through the primitive streak to form the endoderm (day 14-15) followed by another ingression of epiblastic cells a day or two later to from the mesoderm) Gastrulation in week 3 1. formation of primitive streak 2. day 14-15 first invagination (endodermic cells displace hypoblastic cells) cells that migrate first become endoderm day 16=mesoderm (2nd invagination): Ingressing epiblast cells form mesoderm between the endoderm and overlying epiblast. Surface epiblast cells form ectoderm. cells that stay= ectoderm

powers of regeneration for each between PNS/CNS

1) Axon becomes fragmented at the injury site 2) Macrophages clean out the dead axon distal to the injury 3) Axon sprouts or filaments, grow through a regeneration tube formed by Schwann cells 4) The axon regenerates, and a new myelin sheath forms CNS—neuroglia never form bands to guide re- growing axons and often hinder axon growth with growth-inhibiting chemicals

Know the steps involved in excitation contraction coupling as well as those involved in the contraction cycle, cross-bridge formation, and muscle relaxation.

1. Action potential―a transient all-or-none change [depolarization] in membrane potential―travels down a motor neuron and reaches the nerve terminal at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). 2. The transient depolarization at the synaptic terminal opens Ca2+ channels and the influx of Ca2+ into the synaptic terminal causes the release of acetylcholine (ACh) into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. 3. ACh diffuses across the cleft and binds to receptors (Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors [nAChR]) on the motor end plate (sarcolemma membrane), resulting in a transient opening of non-selective, monovalent cation channels. 4. Na+ rushes into the sarcoplasm (some K+ out) resulting in a transient depolarization of the sarcolemma. The depolarization spreads across the entire sarcolemma and is transmitted deep into the muscle via the T-tubule system. 5. The depolarization affects dihydropyridine receptors (DHPRs) ― voltage-sensitive calcium channels of the T-tubule system which are mechanically linked calcium release channels in the SR known as ryanodine receptors (RyRs). Opening of these channels results in the release of a relatively large amount of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasma (known as the calcium transient [10-7M Ca2+ →10-6 M Ca2+ ]) 6. Ca2+ binds to troponin (specifically troponin C) on the thin filaments, which leads to a conformational change in the troponin-tropomyosin (TnC, TnI, TnM-Tm) complex and the tropomyosin physically moves aside to uncover binding sites for myosin on the actin filament (known as the "active site"). 7. The myosin head binds to actin (from cocked position with ADP/P bound, P releases to strengthen bond) thereby forming a cross-bridge. The myosin head pivots at the hinge towards the M-line as it undergoes a conformational shift known as the power stroke (ADP is released), pulling the actin toward the center of the sarcomere and thereby shortening the sarcomere (by 10 nm). 8. As soon as Ca2+ is released into the sarcoplasm it is actively taken up by sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPases (SERCAs). Similarly, as soon as ACh is released at the NMJ acetylcholinesterase degrades it. Both mechanisms minimize the latency period before another excitation-contraction coupling can occur. 9. With Ca2+ no longer bound to troponin C, tropomyosin slips back to its blocking position over the active sites on actin (for myosin biding). Contraction ends and actin slides back to its original "resting" position. 10. ATP is not only required for the SERCAs but primarily for the release of the myosin head from actin and, thus, breakage of the cross-bridge. As ATP is hydrolyzed by the myosin ATPase, the myosin head re-cocks making it ready for another power stroke. Another ATP binds to myosin head to detach and cycle starts again (ATP hydrolyzed to ADP/P).

Age-Related Changes in Blood Vessels

1. Arteries become less elastic (can lead to aneurysms) 2. Calcium deposits on vessel walls (can lead to stroke or infarct) 3. Thrombi can form at atherosclerotic plaques

Know the structural classifications of muscles in terms of the 4 major types of fascicle arrangement and the characteristics of each.

1. Circular Guard entrances of body 2. Convergent Broad area converges in attachment site (tendon, aponeurosis, raphe) Versatile (fibers can pull in different directions) Different motor units —> directionality All fibers stimulated—> less tension on attachment site compared to parallel muscles 3. Parallel Fibers parallel to long axis, shorten by 30%/widen Tension depends on total number of myofibrils (directly relates to cross sectional area) For high velocity/angular displacements 4. Pennate Unipennate: Fascicles insert on 1 side of tendon Bipennate: Insert on both sides of tendon Multipennate: Tendon branches within muscle

Age-Related Changes in Blood

1. Decreased hematocrit 2. Peripheral blockage by blood clot(thrombus) 3.Pooling of blood in legs (due to venousvalvedeterioration)

all major body cavities.

1. Dorsal body cavity (cranial and vertebral) 2. Ventral body cavity (thoracic cavity [2 lateral parts (lung and pleural cavity) and mediastinum --> not true cavity w/ major blood vessels, esophagus/trachea [heart and pericardial cavity) and abdominopelvic --> separated from above by diaphragmabdominal cavity (digestive viscera= liver, stomach, kidneys) and pelvic (bladder and reproductive, rectum) !! no division between abdominal/pelvic cavity 3. serous cavities: space lined by serous membranevisceral covers visceral organsparietal is outer wall of cavity (continuous with parietal serosa) secretes serous fluid (produced by both layers of serous membranes) pleura, pericardium and peritoneum SADpucker superenal, aorta, duodenum, pancreas, ureters, colon, kidney, esophagus, rectum (all organs in retroperitoneal space, posterior to parietal peritoneum)

how are skeletal muscles organized by connective tissue sheaths?

1. Epimysium covers the muscle (exterior collagen layer) and separates it from other tissues composed of collagen; connects to deep fascia 2. Perimysium composed of collagen and elastin, has associated blood vessels and nerves bundles muscle fibers into groups called fascicles • perimysium covers a fascicle 3. Endomysium • composed of reticular fibers; contains capillaries, nerve fibers and myosatellite cells (= stem cellsàrepair), surrounds individual muscle fibers

Eye

1. Fibrous Layer • Avascular dense fibrous connective tissue A. Sclera "white of the eye" • Posterior 5/6ths • Functions to maintain eye shape; attachment for eye muscles • Continuous with epineurium of optic nerve B. Cornea• Anterior 1/6th • Clear, allows light to enter the eye Lens • High concentration of pain receptors • Damage = scaring = inhibit vision Scleral venous sinus—allows aqueous humor to drain 2. Vascular Layer (Uvea) Function/Structure: Provides route for blood vessels and lymphatic vessels that supply tissues of eye Regulates amount of light entering eye Secretes and reabsorbs aqueous humor that circulates withinchambers of eye Controls shape of lens, which is essential to focusing A. Iris Anterior portion of uvea Contains papillary constrictor muscles for changing pupil diameter in response to light level Consists of smooth muscle + elastic fibers Eye color determined by melanin density, distribution & Tyndall scattering of light B. Ciliary Body • Contains ciliary processes and muscles that attach to suspensory ligaments of lens Circular smooth muscles function to focus lens and center it posterior to pupil • Secretes aqueous humor, which fills anterior of eye C. The Choroid • Vascular layer that separates fibrous and neural layers,posterior to ora serrata • Delivers oxygen and nutrients to retina • Contains melanocytes to prevent light scatter • Choroid corresponds to the arachnoid and pia maters 3. Inner Layer (contains Retina + Optic Nerve)• A. Pigmented Part (thin, outer) • Melanin-rich simple cuboidal• absorbs light to prevent visual "echoes", stores vitamin A• B. Neural Part (thick inner, Retina) • Contains visual receptors and associated neurons• Rod Photoreceptors (125 million): • do not discriminate colors but are highly sensitive to light• Cone Photoreceptors (6 million):• providecolorvision(3types);denselyclusteredinfovea,atcenterof macula lutea; provide sharp, clear vision

What are the 11 organ systems?

1. Integumentary System 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System 5. Endocrine System 6. Cardiovascular System 7. Lymphatic System 8. Respiratory System 9. Digestive System 10. Urinary System 11. Reproductive System

Newborn circulation

1. Lungs inflate with first breath The resistance in the pulmonary vessels is reduced; blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit falls. blood from the pulmonary trunk follows the path of least resistance into the pulmonary arteries and travels to the lungs to be oxygenated. 2. Foramen vale and ductus arteriosus close. the increased volume of blood entering the left atrium from the lungs effectively raises the pressure in the atrium, causing the closure of the flaplike valve of the foramen ovale. This structure is now called the fossa ovals. The ductus arteriosus constricts, closing the shunt to the aorta. 3. the heart is now functionally divided. The left side receives highly oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps blood through the systemic circuit. The right side receives poorly oxygenated blood from the body and pumps it through the pulmonary circuit.

What is the fate of the major derivatives of the embryonic germ layers?

1. Mesoderm (mostly segmented) Somites (from paraxial mesoderm) sclerotome (vertebrae/ribs), dermatome (skin, fat, conn. tissue, Dermis of dorsal body), myotome (trunk/limb musculature) Notochord nucleus pulposus of intervertebral discs Intermediate mesoderm (attaches to somite) kidneys, gonads Lateral Plate mesoderm (UNSEGMENTED) (forms coelom) Somatic mesoderm--> next to ectoderm: parietal serosa, dermis of ventral body region, connective tissue of limbs (bones joints ligaments), Splanchnic mesoderm--> next to endoderm: wall of digestive and respiratory tracts (except epithelial lining), visceral serosa, heart, blood vessels 2. Ectoderm epidermis, hair, nails, skin glands, brain/spinal cord, neural crest derivatives (sensory nerve cells, pigment cells, bones, head blood vessels) 3. Endoderm epithelial lining, respiratory tubes, digestive organs, urinary bladder, glands of digestive and respiratory tracts (thyroid, thymus, parathyroid, liver, and pancreas)

Olfactory transduction

1. Odorants bind to receptors in dendrites Binding activates G-protein coupled receptor, whichactivates adenylyl cyclase and stimulates cAMP production cAMP binds to sodium channels causing their opening and membrane depolarization Axons of olfactory sensory neurons gather into bundles called• Filaments of the olfactory nerve, which• Penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and then synapse with mitral cells• Mitral cells transmit impulses along the olfactory tract to limbic system/olfactory cortex

What are the different functions that skeletal muscles perform

1. Produce skeletal movement2. Maintain posture and body position3. Support soft tissues4. Guard entrances and exits5. Maintain body temperature6. Store nutrient reserves (when no adipose tissue reserves)

Age-Related Changes in the Heart (6)

1. Reduced maximum cardiac output 2. Changes in nodal and conducting cells 3. Reduced elasticity of cardiac (fibrous) skeleton 4. Progressive atherosclerosis 5. Replacement of damaged cardiac muscle cells by scar tissue hardening of the heart valves

Eye transduction

1. Rhodopsin (Opsin & 11-cis retinal) is activated and converted to 11-transretinal. This isomerizationactivates opsin, which is released. 2. Opsin activates the G- protein transducin, which in turn activates phosphodiesterase (PDE) 3. PDE breaks down cGMP, resulting in inactivation (closing) of Na+ channels 4. Reduction in sodium entry decreases release of neurotransmitter (glutamate), which reduces the dark currentand "hyperpolarizes" the cells to -70mV. This change in activity is relayed to the adjacent bipolar cell and, in turn, one or more ganglion cells.

What are the primary functions of blood,

1. Transport of dissolved substances (gases, nutrients, hormones, wastes) 2. Regulation of pH and ion composition 3. Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites (clotting) 4. Defense against toxins and pathogens (leukocytes) 5. Stabilization of body temperature

Know the basic anatomy/histology of blood vessel walls tunica externa

1. Tunica intima - innermost; endothelial lining and underlying connective tissue with elastic membrane (called internal elastic membrane in arteries) 2. Tunica media - middle; concentric sheets of smooth muscle in loose connective tissue with external elastic membrane (arteries only); contains smooth muscle responsible for dilation/constriction 3. Tunica externa - outermost; connective tissue sheath; anchors vessel to adjacent tissues; contains collagen & elastic fibers + in veins smooth mus

What are the four types of tissues in the body, from what cells are they made, and what are their basic functions?

1. epithelial: lines/protects internal passages/covers exposed surfaces, specialized for absorption, secretion diffusion, filtration, sensory reception; forms parts of most glands 2. connective tissue fill internal spaces, supports other tissues, transports materials, stores energy 3. muscle tissue contraction, line walls of hollow organs, guard entrance/exit 4. nervous carries electrical signals (excitable membranes)

be familiar withthe general circulatory pattern (umbilical arteries & veins, ductus venosus, etc.) note blood from the superior vena cava goes where? inferior?

1. placenta oxygenates fetal blood. the umbilical vein returns highly oxygenated blood to the fetus 2. the ductus venosus shunts a portion of the umbilical vein blood directly into inferior vena cava thereby bypassing the liver. most of the blood in the umbilical vein bypass the liver capillaries and is delivered to the inferior vena cava 3. the foramen ovale shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium. much of the blood delivered to the right atrium by the IVC is shunted to the left atrium via a hole in the intertribal septum, the foramen ovale. This blood is pumped out the left ventricle into the aorta for distribution to the fetal tissues 4. the ductus arteriosus diverts blood in the pulmonary trunk to the aorta. blood entering the right atrium from the superior vena cava passes into the right ventricle and is pumped into the pulmonary trunk. since fetal lungs are not inflated, resistance is high in the pulmonary arteries. consequently blood is shunted from the pulmonary trunk to the ductus arteriosus, which connects to the arch of the aorta

Know the differences between a 1st, 2nd and 3rd class lever with regard to the arrangement of the load, fulcrum, and applied force (effort) and the general characteristics of each (in terms of relative speed, distance, and force, and advantages and potential disadvantages of each).

1st: Seesaw; Force/resistance are balanced 2nd: Wheel barrow Least common Small force moves large weight Load moves more body (less distance) 3rd: Most common Maximized speed/distance traveled at the expense of greater force requirement Load arm> effort arm (more effort) i.e. movement of arm

What is an electrocardiogram (ECG), what do each of the electrical events (P,QRS & T) correspond to? How are problems in the conducting system of the heart diagnosed using ECG? Be familiar with those we discussed in class. Be familiar with the problems with ECGs we discussed in class.

A recording of electrical events in the heart Obtained by electrodes at specific body locations Abnormal patterns used to diagnose damage or disease P wave = Atrial depolarization QRS complex = Ventricular depolarization T wave = Ventricular repolarization Time Intervals Between ECG Waves P-R interval• From start of atrial depolarization to start of QRS complex Q-T interval• From ventricular depolarization to ventricular repolarization Ventricular fillibration/tachycardia is the most dangerous--> need defilibration! premature atrial contractions/ atrial fibrillation (not as dangerous)

Know the basic functions of the appendicular skeleton.

Allows us to move and manipulate objects

In what limb compartments would you find extensors and flexors? Why?** *medial compartment of the thigh and lateral compartment of the knee*

Anterior arm compartment muscles • Flex the shoulder or arm; Innervation is the musculocutaneous nerve Anterior forearm compartment muscles • Flex the wrist and digits; Innervation is the median or ulnarnerve Thigh: Posterior compartment muscles • Extend the hip and flex the knee • Innervation is the tibial branch of the sciatic nerve Anterior compartment muscles • Flex the hip and extend the knee • Innervation is the femoral nerve Medial compartment • Adduct the thigh • Innervation is the obturator nerve Leg Posterior compartment muscles • Contains digital and plantar flexors • Innervation is the tibial nerve Anterior compartment muscles • Contains digital extensors and dorsiflexors • Innervation is the deep fibular nerve Lateral compartment muscles • Plantar flex and evert the foot • Innervation is the superficial fibular nerve

morphological and functional differences between veins and arteries.

Arteries Elasticity allows arteries to absorb pressure waves from heartbeat Contractility - change vessel diameter via sympathetic division of ANS • Vasoconstriction: contraction of arterial smooth muscle; shrink lumen • Vasodilatation: relaxation of arterial smooth muscle; enlarging the lumen • Both affect afterload on heart, peripheral blood pressure, & capillary blood flow tunica media is thicker Veins Collect blood from capillaries and return to heart Are larger in diameter than arteries, have thinner walls with less elastin and much lower blood pressure Veins have greater compliance and less elastance than arteries Veins have high capacitance (i.e., are highly compliant), capable of distending 8x more than arteries, which are highly elastic Thus, veins can accommodate large changes in blood volume via distension valves (tunica externa thicker)

Be able to name and describe the morphological and functional features of all heart valves. aortic sinuses

Atrioventricular (AV) valves: • Connect rt. atrium to rt. ventricle (tricuspid) and lt. atrium to lt. ventricle (bicuspid or mitral) Permit one-way blood flow: atria →ventricles Cusps attached to chordae tendineaefrom papillary muscles on ventricle wall Papillary muscles prevent cusps from swinging into atria; during ventricular contraction pressure closes valve Semilunar Valves Pulmonary and aortic tricuspid valves Prevent back flow from pulmonary trunk and aorta into right & left ventricles, respectively Have no chordae tendineae or muscles• Aortic Sinuses Sacs at base of ascending aorta that prevent valve cusps from sticking to aorta Origin of right and left coronary arteries

What is the location of the autonomic headquarters for cardiac control, how do both divisions control heart rate, and *what are their effects on the ionic events involved in pacemaker function?***

Autonomic innervation Bothsympathetic(NE)andparasympathetic (ACh) innervation of SA node, AV node and atrial myocardium Sympatheticdominatesinventricles Cardiac centers of medulla oblongata monitor blood pressure (baroreceptors) arterial O2 and CO2 levels (chemoreceptors) cardioacceleratory center controls sympathetic neurons (increases heart rate -positive chronotropic effect) cardioinhibitory center controls parasympathetic neurons (slows heart rate -negative chronotropic effect)

Be able to compare and contrast difference in the PNS and CNS including differences in neuroglial cells found in each and

CNS 1. Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cell type • Sense when neurons release glutamate • Extract blood sugar from capillaries for energy • Take up and release ions to control environment around neurons• Involved in synapse formation in developing neural tissue (active role in neural activity) • Produce molecules necessary for neuronal growth (BDTF); most sources call this brain- derived neurotrophic factor = BDNF)• Propagate calcium signals involved with memory 2. Microglia • Are the smallest and least abundant glial cell • Phagocytes—the macrophages of the CNS • Engulf invading microorganisms and dead neurons (clean up crew)• Derived from blood cells (monocytes), unlike all other neuroglial cells that are derived from nervous tissue • Migrate to CNS during embryonic and fetal periods 3. Ependymal cells (ependymocytes = wrapping garment) • Begin as hollow neural tube and retained throughout life lining the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain ventricles; produce CSF 4. Oligodendrocytes— "have few branches"• Wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS• Produce myelin sheaths in the CNS PNS Satellite (glial) cells—surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia; serve similar role as astrocytes in CNS (nutrients, structural support, neurotransmitter) Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)—surround axons in the PNS• Form myelin sheath around axons of the PNS

Be familiar with the different types of skin cancer

Chromosomal damage of epidermal cells or melanocytes à cancer- Basal and Squamous cell carcinomas (cancer of keratinocytes) - Melanoma (cancer of melanocytes, metastasis common): recent advances include BRAF inhibitors, PD-1 inhibitors + G-protein-couple ER upregulation

What are *collaterals* and thoroughfare channels? What is vasomotion and what does a precapillary sphincter control?

Collaterals• Multiple arteries that contribute to an arteriole Thoroughfare channels• Precapillary arteriovenous anastomoses that bypass capillary bed Vasomotion • Contraction & relaxation cycle of capillary sphincters (NOTE: Blood volume not sufficient to fill all capillaries at any given time) Precapillary Sphincter• Guards entrance to each capillary

Gustation

Contain two major cell types• Gustatory epithelial cells: supporting cells • Basal epithelial cells: gustatory cells Contain long microvilli (book says hair-NOT)—extend through a taste pore to the surface of the epithelium Cells in taste buds replaced every 7-10 days

Be able to describe differences in capillary bed structure/function of continuous, fenestrated and sinusoidal capillaries and where (i.e., in what tissues) you find each.

Continuous Capillaries Have complete endothelial lining (fenestrated & sinusoid do not) Most common and least permeable Tight junctions and desmosomes join epithelial cells Gaps of un-joined membranes calledintercellular clefts allow small molecules in and out of capillaries Pericytes: contractile stem cells that control permeability and can give rise to new capillaries found in most organs Function:• Permit diffusion of water, small solutes, and lipid-soluble materials while blocking blood cells and plasma proteins Specialized Continuous Capillaries • Found in CNS and thymus; Have very restricted permeability, e.g., blood- brain barrier (only gases, anesthetics can diffuse through) and skin Fenestrated Capillaries • Have pores (60 - 90 nm) in endothelial lining Permit rapid exchange of water andlarger solutes between plasma and interstitial fluid Found in choroid plexus, endocrine organs, kidneys, intestinal tract Sinusoid Capillaries • Have gaps (30 - 40!m) between adjacent endothelial cells • Found in liver, spleen, bone marrow, • Permit free exchange of water, large plasma proteins and blood cells

Where does the coronary circulation arise and end and what are the major coronary blood vessels?

Coronary Arteries (lt. & rt.) originate at aortic sinuses and then branch out Cardiac veins return deoxygenated coronary blood into right atrium (coronarysinus) Right Coronary Artery -- supplies blood to rt. atrium, portions of bothventricles and cells of sinoatrial (SA) & atrio-ventricular (AV) nodes gives rise to marginal arteries (surface of right ventricle) Supplies posterior interventricular artery (bottom figure) Left Coronary Artery -- supplies blood to lt. atrium, lt. ventricle and interventricular septum • gives rise to circumflex artery and anterior interventricular artery Cardiac Veins: small veins drain into great cardiac vein which drains into the coronary sinus and eventually into the rt. atrium (at base of the inferior vena cava)

What are the differences in the histology of vessels between the elastic arteries, muscular arteries, arterioles and capillaries, as well as between venules, medium-sized veins, and large veins? medium sized veins and capillaries

Elastic arteries (also called conducting arteries) - 2.5 - 1 cm Large vessels (e.g., pulmonary trunk and aorta) Tunica media has many elastic fibers and few muscle cells; evens out pulse Muscular arteries (distribution arteries) - 1 - 0.3 cm • Medium sized (most arteries); tunica media has many muscle cells • Arterioles (small) - no longer a pulse, rather even flow - 0.3 mm - 10 μm• have little or no tunica externa; thin or incomplete tunica media Vein Classification • Venules (internal diameter 8 - 100 μm) Very small veins Collect blood from capillaries Small ones (<50 μm) lack tunica media • Medium-sized veins (2 - 9 mm) Thin tunica media and few smooth muscle cells Tunica externa with longitudinal bundles of elastic fibers • Large veins (> 9 mm) Thick tunica externa Thin tunica media

What is the role of the limbic system?

Establishes emotional states Links conscious functions of cerebral cortex with autonomic functions of brain stem Facilitates memory storage and retrieval

To what does an exteroceptor, interoceptor and proprioceptor respond? What about a mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor, thermoreceptor, photoreceptor and nociceptor?

Exteroceptors—sensitive to stimuli arising from outside the body (touch, pressure, pain, and temperature) Interoceptors—receive stimuli from internal viscera (chemical concentration, taste, olfaction, stretch, temperature, etc.) Proprioceptors - location of skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments (also monitor stretch) Mechanoreceptors—respond to mechanicalforces (touch, pressure, stretch, vibration, itch) • Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure Thermoreceptors—respond to temperature changes Chemoreceptors—respond to chemicals in sol'n solution Photoreceptors—respond to lightNociceptors—respond to harmful stimuli thatresult in pain

What structures allow blood to bypass pulmonary circulation in the fetus and what changes occur at birth?

Foramen ovale Before birth ,is an opening through interatrial septum Connects the two atria; seals off at birth, forming fossa ovalis Interatrial opening; directs blood from right to left atrium • Covered by valve-likeflap The ductus arteriosus is the predominate pulmonary bypass in the fetus (connects the pulmonary trunk to the aorta); closes at birth leaving the ligamentum arteriosum • The ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale reduce pulmonary blood flow by 92 - 95% • Short vessel that connects pulmonary and aortic trunks

Know the different ways that joints are classified (*material* vs. range of motion)

Functional: -Synarthroses— ("syn" = together, "arthro" = joint) immovable; common in axial skeleton • Amphiarthroses— ("amphi" = of both kinds) slightly movable; common in axial skeleton • Diarthroses—freely movable; common in appendicular skeleton (all synovial joints) Material: Fibrous: Bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue, Do not have a joint cavity, Most are immovable or slightly movable Cartilaginous: Bones are united by cartilage, Lack a joint cavity Synovial: Most movable type of joint, All are diarthroses, Each contains a fluid-filled joint cavity

Know the basic structure and functions of the integument

Functions:• Protects underlying tissues and organs • Maintains body temperature (insulation and evaporation)• Excretes urea, salts, water, and organic wastes (glands)• Synthesizes vitamin D3 • Detect sensory modalities - touch, pressure, pain, and temperature •Stores lipids (in hypodermis)

be familiar with the types of movements.

Gliding— Flat surfaces of two bones slip across each other• Gliding occurs between: • Carpals, Articular processes of vertebrae, Tarsals Angular movement—movements change the angle between bones• Flexion• Extension• Hyperextension Rotation—movement around a bone's long axis 1. rotation2. lateral3. medial Supination/pronation, Abduction/adduction, Circumduction, inversion/eversion retraction/protraction elevation/depression ankle extension/depression opposition/reposition

Which tissues are capable of extensive repair/healing and which are relatively poor?

Good to excellent: • Epithelial tissue, bone connective tissue, areolar connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and blood-forming connective tissue Moderate:• Smooth muscle tissue, dense regular connective tissue Weak: • Skeletal muscle,cartilage None or almost none: • Cardiac muscle tissue, nervous tissue

During what phase of the cardiac cycle does blood enter coronary circulation and by what means?

High blood pressure & elastic rebound forces blood through coronary arteries between ventricular contractions open during ventricular systole (when semilunar valve closes)--> blood diverted into coronary artery

Should fossa ovals and ductus arterioles structures remain open after birth, what is the relative danger of each and why?

In patent (open) foramen ovale, blood recirculates through pulmonary circuit instead of entering left ventricle • Fairly common (up to 25% population); not dangerous b/c less blood flow A patent ductus arteriosus creates a large "right-to-left shunt" • Very dangerous; needs to be surgically corrected b/c more mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood--> lower partial pressure of oxygen (blue baby= mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood)

Where is most blood found at rest and how does its distribution change during hemorrhaging or vigorous exercise by the actions of the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata or ANS?**

In the venous system hemorrhaging: loss of blood via rupture of blood vessel--> vasoconstriction in veins to keep blood pressure high exercise: blood flow diverted to muscles to keep them supplied with nutrients/oxygen and remove wastes (vasodilation)

Tissue inflammation and repair 1. what do damged cells release? 2. what is the fibrous clot replaced by?

Inflammatory Response • Can be triggered by: • Trauma (physical injury) • Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens) • Damaged cells release chemical signals into the surrounding interstitial fluid • Prostaglandins • Proteins • Potassium ions Injury stimulates mast cells to release: • Histamine• Heparin• Prostaglandins Causing the: • Dilation of blood vessels• Increases blood circulation in the area• Causes warmth, redness, edema • Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area • Removes wastes Plasma diffuses into the area • Causes swelling and pain • Phagocytic white blood cells • Clean up the area • Regeneration• When the injury or infection is cleaned up• Healing (regeneration) begins • Fibrosis• Fibroblasts move into necrotic area • Lay down collagen fibers• To bind the area together (scar tissue) New cells migrate into area• Or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells• Organization• Clot is replaced by granulation tissue • Not all tissues can regenerate

Internal landmarks of the heart superior/inferior vena cava receives blood from... coronary sinus right atria separated into how many parts (separated by) what is moderator band?

Interatrial septum: separates atria Interventricular septum: separates ventricles Atrioventricular (AV) valves: • Connect rt. atrium to rt. ventricle (tricuspid) and lt. atrium to lt. ventricle (bicuspid or mitral) Permit one-way blood flow: atria →ventricles Cusps attached to chordae tendineaefrom papillary muscles on ventricle wall Papillary muscles prevent cusps from swinging into atria; during ventricular contraction pressure closes valve Superior vena cava •Receivesbloodfromhead,neck, upper limbs, & chest Inferior vena cava •Receivesbloodfromtrunk,viscera, and lower limbs Coronary sinus •Cardiacveinsreturnbloodtocoronary sinus, which opens into rt. atrium Right atria separated into 2 parts: • Smooth-walledposteriorandanterior lined by pectinate muscles •Cristaterminalisseparatesthem Foramen ovale Beforebirth,isanopeningthrough interatrial septum Connectsthetwoatria;sealsoffat birth, forming fossa ovalis Free edges attach to chordae tendineae from papillary musclesof ventricle • Right atrioventricular (AV) Valve (tricuspid) •Openingbetweenrt.atrium&rt. ventricle • Trabeculae carneae Groupsofcardiomyocytesthat from muscular ridges on internal surface of right (and left) ventricle; similar to the pectinate muscles in the atria Includesmoderatorband:ridge contains part of conducting system • Helpscoordinatecontractions of cardiac muscle cells

Be able to describe the location and orientation of the heart in the thoracic cavity, mediastinum, and pericardial cavity, be able to identify major anatomical landmarks.

Lies left of midline, between 2nd rib and 5th intercostal space, posterior to sternum, in the pericardial cavity of the mediastinum (the region between the two pleural cavities, which also contains the great vessels, thymus, esophagus & trachea). anterior part of mediastinum

What are the major structural and functional differences between cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle? mitochondria and contraction period

Muscle cells = cardio[myo]cytes actin&myosinslidingfilaments;small w/ single nucleus richinmitochondria Cellsconnectedbyintercalateddiscs = fasciae adherens (long desmosome- like junctions) + desmosomes + gap junctions • connectionsformanatrial syncytium and a ventricular one Propagateactionpotentialandconvey timing & force of contraction Contractionsareallornone;longer contraction phase than skeletal

Be able to identify the functions and characteristics of skeletal muscle fiber components, including the sarcolemma, T-tubule system, sarcoplasmic reticulum, triads, myofibrils, and thick and thin filaments.

Myofilaments are responsible for muscle contraction (80% of cell volume): • Thin filaments(actin) • Thick filaments(myosin) Transverse tubules (T tubules): invaginations of sarcolemma that reach deep inside the cell to transmit changes in transmembrane potential to structures inside the cell. Transmit action potential through entire cell Facilitates the contraction of the entire muscle fiber simultaneously (by carrying depolarization deep into cell) Sarco/Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): A membranous structure surrounding each myofibril; similar in structure to smooth endoplasmic reticulum Function: store calcium and help transmit action potential to myofibril Forms chambers (terminal cisternae) attached to T tubules• Cisternae concentrate Ca2+ via ion pumps • Release Ca2+ into sarco- meres to begin muscle contraction SR has high density of Ca2+ pumps (SR [Ca2+] 1000x > than sarcoplasm) Triads are located repeatedly along the length of myofilaments • Triads=T-tubulewrappedaroundamyofibrilsandwiched between two terminal cisternae of SR • Formed by 1 T tubule and 2 terminal cisternae of SR • Triads are located on both ends of a sarcomere• Sarcomere=smallestfunctional unit of a myofibril

Be able to compare and contrast intramembranous ossification with endochondral ossification and know the steps involved in each. Which bones are formed by each process?

Ossification (osteogenesis)— bone tissue formation Intramembranous Ossification (dermal ossification) • Develops directly from mesenchymal membrane • Produces membrane or dermal bones; includes most of the bones of the skull, face, lower jaw, patella and lateral portion of clavicle 1. mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate into osteoblasts--> ossification centers in fibrous connective tissue membrane 2. osteoblasts secrete osteoid--> calcified in a few days trapped osteoblasts--> osteocytes (repeated) 3. accumulating osteoid laid down between embryonic blood vessels in random manner --> network of trabeculae (woven bone) vascularized mesenchyme condense on external face of woven bone--> periosteum 4. trabeculae just deep to periosteum thicken/replaced with mature lamellar bone (form compact bone plates )spongy bone: persist internally, vascular tissue--> red marrow Endochondral Ossification • Ossifies bones that originate as hyaline cartilage (true for most bone) - called "cartilage replacement bones" Begin forming late in the second month ofembryonic development • Continues forming until early adulthood all other bones 1. bone collar forms around diaphysis 2. cartilage in center of diaphysis calcifies then develops cavities 3. periosteal bud invades internal cavities and spongy bone forms 4. diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms as ossification continues, secondary ossification centers appear in epiphyses 5. epiphyses ossify: hyaline cartilage remains only in epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages

For the skull, be able to identify the cranial bones.

PEST OF 6 parietal (2) ethmoid sphenoid temporal (2) occipital frontal

blood primary constituents

Plasma (55%) plasma proteins solutes --> organic nutrients used for ATP production, growth, maintenance (lipids, acids, cholesterol, carbohydrates, amino acids) --> electrolytes --> organic wastes (urea, uric acid, etc.), carried to sites of breakdown or excretion water Formed elements (45%) platelets --> small membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances important to clotting WBCs --> defense mechanisms RBCs

Be able to trace pulmonary and systemic circulation through the heart conus arteriosus?

Pulmonary Conus arteriosus (superior end of right ventricle) leads topulmonary trunk Pulmonary trunk divides intoleft and right pulmonary arteries Blood flows from right ventricle to pulmonary trunkthrough pulmonary valve Pulmonary valve has three semilunar cusps Systemic Blood leaves left ventricle through aortic valve into ascending aorta (aortic arch), which then becomes the descending aorta

Know the regional and directional terms,

Regional: axial region (head, neck, trunk) appendicular region (appendages) Directional: superior/inferior anferior/posterior (ventral/dorsal) cranial/caudal (lower back or cranium medial/lateral superficial/deep proximal/distal (close/far away to axis of body) ipsilateral/contralateral*** always check if in correct anatomical position!! if CT scan heart points towards left side of body (look at superior/inferior position)

What are the major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

Sensory (afferent) division -Somatic sensory General: Touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature, and proprioception in skin, body wall, and limbs Special: Hearing, equilibrium, vision -Visceral sensory General: Stretch, pain, temperature, chemical changes, and irritation in viscera; nausea and hunger Special: Taste, smell Motor (efferent) division -Somatic nervous system Motor innervation of all skeletal muscles -Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Motor innervation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands --Sympathetic division --Parasympathetic division

Hearing pathway

Sound waves in the air enter the external auditory canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane The tympanic membrane vibrates the malleus, which vibrates the incus which vibrates the stapes The stapes vibrates the oval window, which creates waves in the perilymph in the scala vestibuli of the cochlea Pressure waves distort the basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the scala tympani, causing the hair cell cilia to brush against the tectorial membrane and become distorted Flexion of the stereocilia opens ion channels causing depolarization of the stimulated hair cells. An EPSP is transmitted to the sensory neurons of the spiral ganglion Axons of the spiral ganglion transmit action potentials along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the cochlear nuclei in medulla. Axons diverge with some going to superior olivary nucleus and others ascending via the lateral lemniscus to inferior colliculi of the mesencephalon (reflex), which projects to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. From there, axon project to the primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe.

Know the basic functions of the medulla oblongata, *pons*, hypothalamus, thalamus, epithalamus, *midbrain*, diencephalon and cerebellum.

Thalamus Filters ascending sensory information for primary sensory cortex (EXCEPT OLFACTORY) Relays information from thalamic nuclei to basal nuclei (subcortical) and cerebral cortex Hypothalamus control heart rate blood pressure, GI tract, secretion, thirst, hunger, sex drive, unconscious control of muscles Epithalamus (connects limbic system to other parts of brain; also has Pineal gland - secretes melatonin in response to hypothalamic commands) 1. medulla oblongata Connects brain to spinal cord Relays informationRegulates autonomic functions • cardiovascular, respiratory, , digestive systems 2. pons Connects cerebellum to brain stem Is involved in subconscious somatic and visceral motor control Abridgebetween the midbrain and medulla oblongata• coordinate voluntary movements and communicate with cerebellum) basal nuclei: start/stop//intensity of movements ordered by cerebral cortex • Connect portions of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum - coordinate voluntary movenemt Midbrain Also called mesencephalon Processes sight, sound, and associated reflexes somatic motor responses Maintains consciousness Periaqueductal gray matter surrounds the cerebral aqueduct• Involved in two related functions • Fight-or-flight reaction(visceral response) • Mediates response to visceral pain (nausea) • Corpora quadrigemina • The largest nuclei • Divided into the superior andinferior colliculi • Superior colliculus—nuclei that act in visual reflexes (unconscious tracking of moving objects with eye) • Inferior colliculus—nuclei that act in sound reflexes (when hearing a loud sound, turn towards noise) cerebellum: balance/posture smooth skeletal movements out

Hearing

The External Ear Auricle (Pinna) Surrounds entrance toexternal acoustic meatus Protects opening of canal Funnels sound & provides directional sensitivity External acoustic meatus Ends at tympanic membrane Lined with hairs and ceruminous glands Tympanic membrane Isathin, semitransparent sheet of connective tissue & epithelium Separates external ear from middle ear Transmits sound energy from air to auditory ossicles Air-filled mucosa-lined chamber between tympanic membrane and oval window Encloses and protects three auditory ossicles Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrup) Ossicles transmit sound energy from tympanic membrane (external ear) to oval window (inner ear) Cochlea (sound): spiral conical chamber begins at oval window, ends at round contains spiral organ (organ of Corti): Semi- circular canal • Houses hearing receptor cells• cochlear duct is sandwiched between a pair of perilymph-filled chambers (vestibular & tympanic ducts

What helps to aid venous return to the heart in the systemic circulatory system?

Venous return relies on skeletal muscle movement and valves in tunica intima to ensure 1-way movement and close proximity to arteries and breathing motions

Equilibrium

Vestibule (gravity and acceleration):• Membranous sacs: saccule & utricle Otolithic membrane = otoliths + gelatinous mass are gravity sensors (in utricle/saccule) (create a difference in inertial moment because really dense b/c different sizes (as well as membrane is gelatinous so dense), very sensitive to vertical/horizontal acceleration Semicircular Canals (rotation): 3 in total (x, y, z planes) connected to vestibule filled with endolymph (as is vestibule) Hair cells in the anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular canals (x, y, z planes) active only during specific movements Each duct contains ampulla, which contains receptors in crista Each crista has a gelatinous cupula into which the hair cells project Each hair cell has a single kinocilium and many stereocilia As head tilts, fluid moves, and cupulla lags behind (flexes hair cells) • Deflection of stereocilia towards kinocilium stimulates cell; deflection away from kinocilium inhibits hair cell

Be able to compare and contrast how the pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle articulate with the axial skeleton.

attaches upper limbs to trunk (arms to body) positions shoulders provides a base for arm movement no, The scapula has no bony attachment to the axial skeleton; only connected by muscle 1. 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae 2. clavicle articulates with manubrium & sternum, acromioclavicular joint of scapula & clavicle, clavicle attaches to 1st rib & manubrium of sternumnote only clavicle articulates with axial skeleton but scapula can move freely 3. socket of shoulder joint is very shallow (bad for stability, often dislocated) but high mobility 4. type of locomotion (imitating brachiation) pelvic girdle: bones: ilium, pubis, ischium fuse at 20-25 true girdle: Yes because it directly attached to the axial skeleton via the sacroiliac joint

What role does the lymphatic system play in fluid exchange at our capillaries?

collect excess tissue fluid from the loose connective tissue around blood capillaries and return it to the bloodstream

What fibers connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres and what is the functional consequences of severing these connections? In general, what different functional roles do the right and left cerebral hemispheres play?

corpus callosum if image shows up on left side--> cannot say what it is but can draw with their left hands The Left Hemisphere• In most people (~90%), left brain (dominant hemisphere) controls: -Reading, writing, and math -Decision making, logic -Speech and language-details The Right Hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere relates to: -Senses (touch, smell, sight, taste, feel) -Recognition (faces, voice)intuition, emotion, artistic/music"big picture"

Be able to trace the conducting system of the heart from the SA node through the Purkinje fibers and describe how the inherent pacemaker potential of the cells are different in each of the nodes, branches or fibers. Which group of pacemaker cells typically sets the overall heart rate and how is this modulated by neural input, circulating hormones and physical activity?

direct innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic neuron epinephrine/norepinephrine

By what mechanism(s) do parasympathetic and sympathetic input change the pacemaker potential of the autorhythmic cells in the cardiac conducting system?

direct innervation of the heart via vagus nerve or epinephrine or norepinephrine While epinephrine has slightly more of an effect on your heart, norepinephrine has more of an effect on your blood vessels. increased heart rate increased contractility (how hard the heart squeezes)

Be familiar with the underlying hormonal causes for the following disorders: dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly, cretinism, myxedema, Graves' disease, Addison's disease, cushing's syndrome

dwarfism= Low GH, gigantism= high GH acromegaly= high GH (After plates fuse) cretinism (hypothyroidism), myxedema= hypothyroidism Graves disease= hyperthyroidism, exophthamos, Addison's disease= •Deficiencies of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids and Cushing's syndrome: •Caused by hypersecretion of glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol)—usually due to a pituitary tumor that overproduces adrenocorticotropic hormome(ACTH) - loss of muscle, fat gain in face, buffalo hump, etc.

Know the basic structure and functions of the integument, including the cell types that are found in the various layers and how they are modified to serve the integumentary system.

epidermis: 1. stratum corneum 2. [stratum lucidum] 3. stratum granulosum 4. stratum spinosum 5. stratum basale dermis: 6. papillary layer 7. reticular layer hypodermis:

What structure's in adults are remnants of these structures in the fetus? umbilical arteries and veins?

foramen ovale: fossa ovalis ductus arteriosus: ligamentum arteriosum ductus venosus: ligamentum venosum umbilical arteries: median umbilical ligaments umbilical vein: ligamentum teres

Know the general functions of the axial skeleton as well as the 3 major groups of bones which comprise it.

forms the longitudinal axis of the body 1. skull/associated bones 2. vertebral column 3. thoracic cage

Gustatory transduction

glossopharyngeal, facial, vagus nerve--> medulla oblongata--> thalamic nucleus--> gustatory cortex in insula

Which organs are "true" (primary) endocrine glands vs. those with secondary endocrine functions (heart, skin, thymus, adipose tissue, digestive tract, and gonads) and be familiar with the hormones each secretes?

hypothalamus: production of ADH, oxytocin, and regulatory hormones pituitary gland: anterior: ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH, MSH posterior: release of oxytocin and ADH thyroid gland: thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin adrenal gland: adrenal medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine adrenal cortex: cortisol ,,corticosterone, aldosterone, androgens pancreas: insulin, glucagon pineal gland: melatonin parathyroid gland: parathyroid hormone

What roles do the integrative centers play (prefrontal cortex, Broca's area and Wernicke's area)?Where are they located?

integrative centers: Receive information from association areas Direct complex motor or analytical activities Prefrontal cortex of frontal lobe Integrates information from sensory association areas Performs abstract intellectual activities General Interpretive Area (Wernickes area) Present in only one hemisphere (usually left) in temporal lobe Receives information from all sensory association areas Coordinates access to complex visual and auditory memories Speech center (Broca's area) Is associated with generalinterpretive areaCoordinates all vocalization functionsin Frontal lobe

Understand how each sensory modality is sensed and by what type of sensory cell (neuron or neuroepithelial cell?). Which receptors have stem cells for their replacement?

olfactory/optic: nerves olfactory/gustatory: stem cells

Skeletal

organs: bones (>270), cartilages, associated ligaments function: provides support and protection for other tissues, stores calcium and other minerals, forms blood cells

Nervous

organs: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs function: directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates/moderates activities of other organ systems, provides/interprets sensory info

Cardiovascular

organs: heart, blood, blood vessels function: distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials, heat

urinary

organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra function: excretes waste products from blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine, stores urine, regulates blood ion concentrations & pH

Respiratory

organs: nasal cavities, sinuses, bronchi, larynx, trachea, lungs, alveoli function: delivers air to alveoli, provides oxygen, removes CO2, produce sound for communication

Endocrine

organs: pituitary gland, pancreas, gonads, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, etc. function: long-term changes in activities of other organs, adjust metabolic activity and energy use by the body, controls structural and functional changes during development

Muscular

organs: skeletal muscles &tendons function: provides movement, provides protection/support for other tissues, generates heat to maintain body temp, sphincter muscles

Integumentary

organs: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails function: protect against environmental hazards, help regulate body temp, provide sensory info

Lymphatic organs

organs: spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils function: defends against infection/disease, returns tissue fluids to bloodstream

digestive

organs: teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas function: process/digest food, absorb/conserve water, absorb nutrients, stores energy reserves

male and female reproductive

organs: testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis & scrotum ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, mammary glands, vagina, labia, clitoris function: produce sperm/oocytes, suspending fluids (males)/hormones & sexual intercoursefemales: support developing embryo/provides milk

blood basic physical characteristics?

pH = 7.4 Temp. = 38oC Vol. = 4-6 liters (~7% body wt.) High Viscosity

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Be familiar with some of the causes, risk factors, and treatments for CAD that we discussed in class.

partial or complete block of coronary circulation, results in coronary ischemia, typically due to atherosclerotic plaques in walls of coronary vessels → thrombosis--> reduce blood flow through the vessel but are dangerous because plaques can mobilize AND damage the endothelial cells leading to embolism. can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack): heart tissue denied oxygen common symptom of CAD:angina pectoris = pain in the chest as a result of the ischemia CAD treatments include drugs that block sympathetic stimulation (e.g., propranolol) vasodilators (e.g., nitroglycerin) and calcium channel blockers Plaques can be removed surgically via catheter (laser orroto-rooter) or via balloon angioplasty; stents (wire mesh) used to keep artery open Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) - use healthy veins (from legs) to create anastomoses around blockages; most people have 4 major coronary arterie

Know where the primary sensory and motor cortexes are located and why their homunculi appear to be distorted representations of our body.

primary sensory: Located along the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe primary motor: precentral gyrus of frontal lobe Sensory homunculus (more receptors on face/hands) motor homunculus: fine/gross motor control

What is the blood pressure in the pulmonary circulation, in the arterial side of the systemic circulatory system, at the arteriole side of a capillary, the venule of a capillary and in veins?

pulmonary circulation (ca. 15 mm Hg) arterial side of the systemic circulatory system (ca. 120 - 80 mm Hg) arteriole side of a capillary (ca. 35 mm Hg) venule of a capillary (ca. 15 - 18 mm) veins (ca. 15 - 18 mm

In terms of the physics of blood flow and pressure, how does the change in vessel diameter effect flow?

realize that flow is proportional to r4 and thus small changes in vessel diameter lead to large changes in flow

How are bones remodeled throughout life and what cells are involved?

remodeling at periosteal and endosteal osteoblast: deposit bone by osteoblast osteoclast: resorption of bone matrix by secreting HCl and lysosomal enzymes

Histological layers of the alimentary canal

same four layers from esophagus to anus

What is the composition and function of lymph (how does it compare to interstitial fluid and plasma?)?

small molecules of blood plasma (water, ions, nutrient, respiratory gases_ is filtered out through the small pores of the capillaries function: replenish CV system, and osmotic pressure or else edema

Be able to explain how cardiac output is modulated by the ANS, circulating hormones and stretch receptors in the heart.

stretch receptors: frank starling (stretch receptors in response to increase venous return--> increase contractile force) (physical increases overlap between thick and thin filament--> more myosin heads can interact) see above for parasympathetic/sympathetic and epinephrine and norepinephrine

liver anatomical division into lobules

• Hepatocyte—functional cells of the liver • Portal triad composed of:• Bile duct tributary • Branch of hepatic portal vein• Branch of hepatic artery • Hepatic macrophages—destroy bacteria