HBS 3.2 TEST

How are proteins broken down in the body?

1) Stomach Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the action of an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin is the active protein-digesting enzyme of the stomach. When pepsin acts on the protein molecule, it breaks the bonds that hold the protein molecule together, called peptide bonds. When these bonds are broken, you get chains of amino acids linked together called polypeptides. 2)In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes that we previously learned about called trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase really go to work breaking down the polypeptides. These enzymes enter the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These pancreatic enzymes are helped by the brush border enzymes. We previously learned that the brush border enzymes are special enzymes found on the microvilli of the small intestine that complete digestion. The peptide bonds holding the polypeptides together continue to be hydrolyzed, or broken down, and result in smaller units called peptides. Peptides are simply defined as two or more amino acids linked together. Enzymes continue to break down polypeptides and peptides into amino acids. Because amino acids are very small, they are able to be absorbed through the small intestine lining and into your bloodstream.

How are lipids broken down in the body?

A lipid is defined as a fat-like molecule that does not have the ability to dissolve in water. This inability to dissolve in water adds an element of difficulty to fat digestion. Because fat does not like water, it tends to clump together and form large droplets as it moves through your digestive system. By the time fat reaches your small intestine, it has not been digested at all. So dietary fat in the small intestine looks like a fairly large glob of fat. 1) Minimal digestion occurs in the stomach with gastric lipase 2) The enzymes of the small intestine are responsible for almost all of the fat digestion. When pancreatic lipase acts on the lipid, it breaks it down, which results in free fatty acids and monoglycerides, the two digestive products of lipids. These products are much easier for your small intestine to handle, and they have very little trouble being absorbed out of your digestive tract.

Function of the ureter

A ureter is one of two uterine tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Each ureter is about ten to twelve inches long. Urine flows down partly by gravity, but mainly by waves of contractions, which pass several times per minute through the muscle layers of the urethral walls.

Which enzymes are used in the digestive system

ABOVE Simple sugars: -maltose-Maltese (small intestine)

Trachea

AKA the windpipe Air is breathed through the nose/mouth and pulled down through the trachea into the lungs. The epiglottis is a leaf-shaped flap of cartilage tissue that lies just behind the back of your tongue. When you swallow, your epiglottis covers your voice box (larynx) stopping food from entering your windpipe (trachea). The trachea is composed of about 20 rings of tough cartilage. The back part of each ring is made of muscle and connective tissue.

AMP-ATP

ATP hydrolysis is the reaction by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. The product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate, orthophosphate (Pi). ADP can be further hydrolyzed to give energy, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), Energy Release

ATP

ATP works like a re-chargeable battery Energy can be released by by converting ATP into ADP (breaking off one phosphate bond) Phosphate Chain (high energy located between 2nd and 3rd bond) Adenine Ribose Sugar ATP+ H20=ADP+ PI+ENERGY ATP hydrolysis is the reaction by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. Dehydration synthesis, that is, builds build molecules up - at the expense of energy (endergonic reaction) - while hydrolysis breaks breaks molecules apart, liberating energy (exergonic reaction). ATP, for example, is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate via an energy-requiring dehydration synthesis reaction.

Albuterol Sulfate

Albuterol is used to prevent and treat difficulty breathing, wheezing, shortness of breath, coughing, and chest tightness caused by lung diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; a group of diseases that affect the lungs and airways). Albuterol inhalation aerosol and powder for oral inhalation is also used to prevent breathing difficulties during exercise.

How does aldosterone impact the urinary system

Aldosterone is a hormone produced in the outer section (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which sit above the kidneys. It plays a central role in the regulation of blood pressure mainly by acting on organs such as the kidney to increase the amount of salt (sodium) reabsorbed into the bloodstream and the amount of another salt called potassium removed in the urine. Aldosterone also causes water to be reabsorbed along with sodium; this increases blood volume and therefore blood pressure. Thus, aldosterone indirectly regulates blood levels of electrolytes (sodium, potassium and hydrogen) and helps to maintain the blood pH.

Calorie Intake

Amount of calories consumed (TDEE- BMR)

How does ADH impact the urinary system

Anti-Diruetic Hormone Water balance Monitored by osmoreceptors (neurons) Located in the hypothalamus. Too Little Water: Body senses thirst Pituitary gland releases more ADH Goes through blood, reaches kidney and nephron Increases permiablility in collecting ducts and tubules Reabsorbes water into blood vessles Cuased concentrated urine Too Much water Less ADH sent (less water reabsorbed into blood because less permiablilty) Diluted urine

Large Intestine:

Ascending (Cecum) -TRANSCENDING (Colon)-Decending 1) Cecum: absorb remaining nutrients FIBER ABSORBED HERE Aceding Colon Trasceding colon Decending colon Rectum 2) Colon: water absorption/ production of feces 3)Rectum: pOOP

BMI

BMI? Body Mass Index: measure for human body shape based on an individual's weight and height. Could be inaccurate with muscle mass Weight (kilograms) over height (centimeters) Kilograms: multiply weight by .45 Centimeters: multiply height by .025 (Convert to inces first, then .025)

BMR

Basal Metabolic Rate: the amount of energy expended daily by humans and other animals at rest

BMR

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment Gender, age, height and weight are important for this calculation.

Parts of the digestive system? Functions of each part ORAL CAVITY:

Breaks down food mechanically using the teeth, tongue and lips. Salivary amylase produced in salivary gland (breaks down starch) Food gets pushed against hard palate, soft palate pushes down esophagus. Lingual Lipase

ATP equation with products and reactants

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20 +ATP

TDEE

Calculation of the TDEE (total daily energy expenditure) TDEE is the number of calories burnt in a day scaling BMR to level of activity. This is the number of calories you need daily to maintain your current weight and is about the amount you should eat on the days you're not fasting. find BMR, then multiply by value of activity multiplier

Which macromolecules begin to digest in the oral cavity? Enzymes that aid in this process?

Carbohydrates (Starches) Lipids Saliva, which is secreted in large amounts by the salivary glands contains the enzyme amylase, which starts the digestion of starch in the food. An additional enzyme, lingual lipase, hydrolyzes long-chain triglycerides into partial glycerides and free fatty acids.

What are the four macromolecules? What does each contain? What is the purpose for each macromolecule?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen Lipids: Fatty Acids, waxes, triglycerides Proteins: Amino Acids Nucleic Acid: DNA/RNA Carbohydrates: Break down into glucose for energy Lipids: Energy storage, insulation, building of cell membranes Proteins: Enzymatic catalysts, muscle building, transportation Nucleic Acids: Store and translate genetic material NUCLEOTIDES Sugars are broken down into monosaccharides. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids. Proteins are broken down into amino acids. Nucleic acids are broken down into nucleotides.

How does the body break down carbs in the body?

Carbohydrates: 1) Saliva salivary amylase immediately begins its work by breaking down carbohydrates contained in the food you chew into certain sugars. These simpler sugars are called disaccharides and trisaccharides, and travel to your stomach when you swallow. 3)Pancreas/Small Intestine pancreatic amylase, enters the small intestine and begins breaking down long carbohydrate sugars into more simpler forms of sugar. The small intestine secretes another enzyme called maltase, which further breaks down sugars into glucose and fructose, while another intestinal enzyme, sucrase, breaks down the sugar sucrose into glucose and fructose, as well. Glucose and Fructose are absorbed into the blood stream!

How do you test for each macromolecule found in food?

Carbohydrates: Benedicts Lipids: Paper bag grease stain Proteins: Burets Nucleic Acids (In everything!) Starch: Iodine

Catalyse

Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals). It catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is toxic to most living organisms. Many organisms are capable of enzymatically destroying the H2O2 before it can do much damage. Although this reaction occurs spontaneously, enzymes increase the rate considerably. At least two different enzymes are known to catalyze this reaction: catalase, found in animals and protists, and peroxidase, found in plants. Hydrogen peroxide is produced by reactions in our bodies. If it were allowed to build up it would kill us. Fortunately we have an enzyme in the cells in our bodies where hydrogen peroxide is produced called catalase. This enzyme catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen. catalase H2O2 H2O + O2

Describe the process

Cellular respiration is the process through which our cells get the energy to perform their functions. Since all living things are made of cells, and all cells need energy to perform life's functions, cellular respiration is necessary for all living things. 1) Glycolysis (Cytoplasm) During glycolysis, the six-carbon sugar molecule, glucose, is broken down into two pyruvate molecules, which are three-carbon sugars. Anaerobic 2) Kreb's Cycle (Mitochondria) These reactions take a two carbon molecule (acetate) and completely oxidize it to carbon dioxide. Most summaries of the Krebs Cycle will usually indicate that the cycle is an aerobic process (one that requires oxygen) that produces ATP by breaking down glucose. 3) Electron Transport Chain (Mitochondria) Anaerobic 34 ATP are made from the products of 1 molecule of glucose. The process is a stepwise movement of electrons from high energy to low energy that makes the proton gradient The proton gradient powers ATP production NOT the flow of electrons This electron transport chain only occurs when oxygen is available . Glucose + Oxygen=Carbon Dioxide + Water +ATP C6H12O6 +O2=CO2 + H20 +ATP

Induced Fit

Co enzyme being present helps to fit part of the active site, however, the enzyme still has to change shape to fit with the substrate.

Lock and Key Model

Coezyme helps fill in the key

How are nucleic acids broken down in the body?

Destruction of nucleic acid is a catabolic reaction. Takes place in the small intestine DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase), which are released by the pancreas.

Diaphram

Domed-shape muscle between the chest and the abdomen. WHen the muscle contracts/expands, it causes the lungs to inflate and deflate. INHALE: Diaphram contracts, lungs expand and takes in oxygen, less pressure to let more air into the lungs), more volume in chest cavity EXHALE: Diaphram relaxes, lungs contract, C02 out (more pressure to let air out), less volume in chest cavity

Drug Names

Drug Names • Each drug is referred to by three different names: • The generic name of the commonly prescribed antibiotic is amoxicillin. The chemical name is hydroxybenzyl-penicillin. Amoxicillin is marketed using over a dozen brand names such as Alphamox® or Amoxil®.

Enzymes/Coenzymes

Enzymes are an important component for that maintenance. Enzymes are a type of protein called catalysts. A catalyst facilitates or helps a reaction to occur more readily by reducing the energy required for the reaction to occur. The catalyst is not part of the actual reaction, does not change the chemical reaction, and is not permanently altered by reaction. It does however facilitate the reaction and can be used over and over again. Most chemical reactions in the body are dependent upon enzymes. Enzymes are highly specific and work on only one substance called its substrate. coenzymes are organic molecules that are required by certain enzymes to carry out catalysis. They bind to the active site of the enzyme and participate in catalysis but are not considered substrates of the reaction. Lock and Key Induced Fit Coezymes help to shape the active site

Why are enzymes important? What is the substrate or product in an enzymatic reaction? What impacts enzymatic reactions?

Enzymes are proteins that control the speed of chemical reactions in your body. Without, enzymes, the reactions would take place too slowly to keep you alive In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates. After being converted into different molecules, they are called products EX: lactose is substrate, ase os enzyme pH (optimal or denature) Temperature (optimal, increases molecule movement) Enzyme concentration (more the better)

ERV

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The additional volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation.

Pancreas:

Food leaves stomach: -pancreatic amylase, protease, lipase, which is secreted into the duodenum Makes insulin

FEV1

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1) to characterize impairment. FEV1 is the maximal amount of air that can forcefully be exhaled in one second. It is then converted to a percentage of a normal value (taking height, weight, and race into account). In general, FEV1 greater than 80% of predicted = normal FEV1 60% to 79% of predicted = mild obstruction FEV1 40% to 59% of predicted = moderate obstruction FEV1 less than 40% of predicted = severe obstruction

How is urine formed/eliminated in the body

Function: Urine Formation and Excretion. Urine is composed of unwanted substances that have been filtered from the blood by nephrons, the functional units of the kidneys. The urine formed in the kidneys passes through the ureters and is temporarily stored in the bladder.

Catalasye

Hydrogen peroxide is made by quite a few enzymes in the body. In particular, some enzymes breaking down certain amino acids and fatty acids make significant amounts of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen Peroxide: Catalasyee the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Found in all living organisms. 2H202=2H20+02 Temperature: Optimal temperature (increased molecule movement, substrate will break down more quickly without an enzyme catalyst) pH: Best at a neutral pH (7). Optimal pH- denature Concentration; More, the better

Metablosim

In catabolism, energy rich fuel molecules are broken down to release their energy to supply the cell's needs. Anabolism, on the other hand, takes simple building blocks and uses them to build up more complex molecules a cell may need for growth and repair. Together, anabolism and catabolism make up metabolism, the sum of all of the chemical reactions that occur within body cells. These important reactions help convert the fuel in the food we eat to power for everything we do.

Which macromolecule begin to digest in the stomach? Enzymes?

In the stomach, proteins are broken down into peptides by the active enzyme, pepsin, made from the inactive enzyme, pepsinogen. Gastric Lipase Pepsin: Pepsinogen production is stimulated by the presence of gastrin in the blood. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) converts pepsinogen to pepsin which breaks down proteins to peptides. HCl maintains a pH in the stomach of approximately 2.0. It also dissolves food and kills microorganisms.

IRV

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The additional volume of air that can be inhaled with maximum effort after normal inspiration.

Mechanical/Chemical Digestion

Mechanical: Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical: Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva. Amylase Protease Pepsin HCL Sucrase (Sugar-glucose and fructose) Lactase (Lactose-glucose and galactose) Maltase (maltose-glucose) Lipase Bile

MV

Minute Volume: The volume of air breathed in one minute without conscious effort: MV = TV x (breaths/minute).

Small Intestine

Most absorption takes place here! Protein: amino acids, fat- lipase, carbs-amylase Bicarbonate ions in the duodenum (stabilize pH) Lactase, sucrase, smaller enzymes to break down smalelr moleucles 1) duodenum: Receives partly digested food and bile: absorbed carbs (amylase)proteins (protease) minerals 2) Jejunum: Breaks down food: absorbs starch and glucose 3) Illeum: breaks down food such as amino acids, fats

Other ROutes

Other Routes of Administration • Transdermal - Administration via skin preparations • Ex. Creams, ointments, lotions, sprays, patches • Ophthalmic - Medications administered to the eye • Otic - Medications administered in the ears • Nasal - Medications administered in the nose Routes of Drug Administration Other Routes of Administration • Inhalation - Administration by drawing breath, gas, or vapor into the lungs • Could be delivered by aerosols, nebulizers, or inhalers • Vaginal - Administration into the vagina • Rectal - Administration into the rectum

How does being overweight or underweight most typically impact the human body?

Overweight: More likely to develop heart disease, stroke, diabetes, certain types of cancer, gout, and gallbladder diseases, diabetes Underweight: Infertility, weakened immune system (cancer), anemia,osteoprosis

Parenteral ROutes

Parenteral Routes (Routes via injection) - offer immediate delivery of the medication • Intradermal (ID) - Injections given just below the epidermis into the dermis of the skin. • Ex. Often used in allergy skin tests • Subcutaneous - Injections given into subcutaneous tissue below the dermis in the upper arms, upper back or upper abdomen. • Ex. Used for insulin injections • Intramuscular (IM) - Injections given directly to large muscle groups in shoulder, thigh or hip • Ex. Used for delivery of some vaccines Intravenous Injection (IV) - Injections given directly into the veins.

Stomach

Powerful muscles mix food to break it down into smaller pieces Gastric glands: hold parietal cells that form enzymes and decontaminate food. Gastric lipase Hydrochloric acid + pepsinogen=pepsin (protein) pH of 2 Chyme: mix with enzymes and food Hydrochloric Acid: pH of about 1 Weak lower spincter: Acid reflux

Liver:

Produces bile (absorbs lipids) Stored in gallbladder Released in duodenum

Pulse Oximetry

Pulse oximetry is a test used to measure the oxygen level (oxygen saturation) of the blood. It is an easy, painless measure of how well oxygen is being sent to parts of your body furthest from your heart, such as the arms and legs. Oxygenated/Deoxygenated blood

RV

Residual Volume (RV): The volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation (under normal conditions, the lungs are never completely emptied). 1.5 L

Peak Flow

Review Melissa's Peak Flow Chart. Note that average (or normal) peak flow for a patient of Melissa's size is 267. The chart below describes the classification of peak flow values. Normal Peak Flow Values % of Normal Peak Flow: Meaning: Classification: 80% - 100% All is fine Green Zone 50% - 80% Caution Yellow Zone Less than 50% Medical Alert Red Zone

Enteral Routes

Routes of Drug Administration Enteral Routes (Routes through the GI tract) • Oral - Medications taken by mouth, absorbed through stomach or small intestine • Can be solids, such a pills or capsules, or liquid • Sublingual - Medications held under the tongue until they dissolve. • Offers rapid action as oral cavity contains a rich blood supply • Buccal - Medication placed between the gums and cheek

Gallbladder

Stores bile This bile is secreted into the duodenum (breaks down lipids)

TDEE

TDEE? Total Daily Energy Expenditure: a metric to calculate the amount of calories your body needs to function in a day

Relationship between Amp, Adp and Atp

The 'A' stands for adenosine, which is an adenine ring and a ribose sugar. ATP = Adenosine triphosphate (3 phosphates attached) ADP = Adenosine Diphosphate (2 phosphates attached) AMP = Adenosine monoposphate (1 phosphate attached) Basically, the more phosphates it has, the more stored energy it has. Usually in a cell, the molecules jump back and fourth between ATP and ADP, releasing energy (by breaking off a phosphate) and storing energy (by attatching a phosphate) Dehydration syntnthesis Hydrolysis: Breaking of a phosphate bond Dehydration Synthesis: adding a bond and storing energy

How does oxygen get to a RBC

The air you breath in is sucked down into your lungs by changes in your thoracic diaphragm. Within the lungs are alveoli, tiny "sacs" that are richly vascularized and offer many opportunities for gas exchange to occur. The air containing oxygen comes into contact with tiny blood vessels with walls that are so thin that the oxygen can simply diffuse accross them. The oxygen encounters a hemoglobin molecule within a red blood cell and binds to the Fe2+ contained within the hydrophobic cleft of the Alpha-Beta dimer.

BMI

The body mass index or Quetelet index is a value derived from the mass and height of an individual. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, Remember: Muscle is more dense than fat, so it may be not accurate Remember- there are 0.454 kilograms per pound and 2.54 centimeters in an inch. BMI = weight (kgs) _________________ [height (m)]2

What are the main purposes of the digestive system?

The digestive system works like an assembly line in reverse. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are progressively broken down into smaller molecules that can be used by the body. This system extracts needed nutrients and gets rid of any unnecessary wastes. Structurally, the digestive system consists of the long tube, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that serves as the direct pathway for what you eat and excrete. Along the way, various accessory organs help with the mechanical breakdown and the chemical digestion of food. Mechanical digestion involves physically mashing or tearing the bites of food we put in our mouths. We normally think of mechanical digestion occurring in the mouth, but there are other features of your GI tract that also help mash up your food. As what you consume is being smashed, chemical digestion also begins. Enzymes break fats, carbohydrates and proteins into their building blocks so they can be used by the body. Once these molecules are broken down, they can become the raw material for the production of the body's energy currency, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Function of The kidney

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that extract waste from blood, balance body fluids, form urine, and aid in other important functions of the body. They reside against the back muscles in the upper abdominal cavity. They sit opposite each other on either side of the spine.

Bronchi

The left and right bronchi branch off from the trachea

Bronchi

The left and right bronchi branch off from the trachea and carry oxygen further into the lungs. The right bronchi is sightly larger and wider than the left.

Lobes (LUNGS)

The lungs are not symmetrical. The right lung is slightly larger. Right lung: 3 lobes: -Superior -Middle -Inferior Left Lung: -Superior -Inferior

What macromoleule begin to digest in the small intestine? Enzymes?

The small intestine is where most chemical digestion in the human body takes place. Most of the digestive enzymes in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates. Enzymes: lipase, protease, amylase Bicorbonate Ions!

Blood Vessels (Lungs)

The thin walls of the alveoli are covered in a lattice of tiny blood vessels called capillaries. Oxygen passes into these capillaries by diffusion, and is carried to the heart, where co2 is taken out of the blood. Oxyhemoglobin: hemoglobin that is oxygen rich

How do personal and environmental factors influence how the body uses the three resources that give the body power?

They all depend on environment they are in! Water: (P) Athletic training, fasting (E) Temperature change, drought, high altitude, humidity Food: (P) Weight loss/weight gain, fasting,exercise (E) Non arable soil, temperature change Oxygen: (P) Asthma, COPD, respiratory failure, altitude training (E): Altitude, water depth, fire

Bronchioles

Thousands of tiny tubes that brach off from the two bronchi and carry oxygen deep into the lungs.

TV

Tidal Volume (TV): The volume of air breathed in and out without conscious effort. Delta y

TLC

Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Total volume of the lungs is the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume: TLC = VC + RV.

Esophagus

Transfers food from mouth to stomach. Peristaltic movements: rhythmic waves pushing food towards stomach. Reaches the lower spinctet (opening to stomach)

Urinalysis

Urinalysis: A test that determines the content of the urine. - Because urine removes toxins and excess liquids from the body, its contents can provide vital health information. - Urinalysis can be used to detect some types of disease, particularly in the case of metabolic disorders and kidney disease. - Urinalysis can also be used to uncover evidence of drug abuse. Macroscopic Examination • Looking at the physical properties of the urine: - Color: • Normal urine should be a shade of yellow ranging from a straw to amber color. • Abnormal urine can be: colorless, dark yellow, orange, pink, red, green, brown, or black. - Clarity (transparency): • Normal urine should be clear • Abnormal urine can be: hazy, cloudy, or turbid Parts of Chemical Analysis • pH - Test measures if urine is acidic, basic or neutral - Normal urine ranges from 4.6 to 8.0 • Specific Gravity: - Test measures the concentration of particles in the urine and evaluates the body's water balance. - The more concentrated the urine, the higher the urine specific gravity. - The most common increase in urine specific gravity is the result of dehydration. - Normal urine ranges between 1.002 to 1.028 Parts of Chemical Analysis • Ketones: - Test measures the presence or absence of ketones, the endpoint of rapid or excessive fat breakdown, in the urine. - Normal urine does not contain ketones • Protein: - Normal urine levels of proteins (called albumin) are very small, usually approximately 0 to 8 mg/dl. Parts of Chemical Analysis • Glucose: - The test measures the amount of sugar in a urine sample. - Normal urine does not contain glucose. Microscopic Examination • Red blood cells are not found in normal urine. • White blood cells and bacteria, signs of infections, are not found in normal urine. • Epithelial cells are found in urine as they are the cells that line the urinary tract • Common crystals seen even in healthy patients include calcium oxalate, triple phosphate crystals and amorphous phosphates. - A large number of crystals, or certain types of crystals, may mean kidney stones are present or there is a problem with how the body is using food

VC

Vital Capacity: Vital Capacity (VC): The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation: VC = TV + IRV + ERV

What are the three things that give the body power? What are the functions of each item that gives the body power? What body systems do they impact and how?

Water, Food & Oxygen Water: Flushes out toxins, increases circulation, increases blood volume, hydration, temperature Food: Energy (glucose) Forms structures SOme foods we digest cotain ions for action potential (Potassium. sodium) Oxygen: Respiration, Cellular Respiration Water: Circulatory System, Digestive, Urinary (Kidneys) Food: Digestive, Muscular, Skeletal, Circulatory Oxygen: ALL (respiratory and circulatory)

Pharmacology

What Is Pharmacology? • Pharmacology is the study of drugs, including their action and effects in living body systems. • To administer a drug safely, doctors must know the usual dose, the route of administration, significant adverse reactions, and major drug interactions.

Alveoli

Where gas exchange occurs! Located at the end of each bronchiole (thousands of tiny air sacs) Have extremely thin membranes which allows for oxygen to be diffused into the blood and c02 to be diffused out of the blood.

Accolate

Zafirlukast is used to prevent asthma symptoms and to decrease the number of asthma attacks in people 5 and older. It helps make breathing easier by reducing swelling (inflammation) in the airways. Regular use of this medication can help control your asthma, improve your ability to exercise, and decrease the number of times you need to use your rescue inhaler. This medication works by blocking the activity of natural substances (leukotrienes) that may cause or worsen asthma. This medication does not work right away and is not used to treat sudden asthma attacks. CONTROL

How does alcohol impact the urinary system and its regulatory hormones

decreased ADH hormone (pituitary cannot secrete)

Urethra

he duct by which urine is conveyed out of the body from the bladder, and which in male vertebrates also conveys semen. Usually longer in males becuase they are taller

Bladder

he urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis, just above and behind the pubic bone. When empty, the bladder is about the size and shape of a pear. Urine is made in the kidneys, and travels down two tubes called ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine, allowing urination to be infrequent and voluntary. 2-5 hours Transitional Epithelial Tissue -Cubodial shape when empty -Flattened,plate like when full Straited, protects from low ph