HD Prelim 1 2/27/2017
Within Bowlby's theory, what is meant by "cradle to grave" (with normative restructuring)?
"CRADLE TO THE GRAVE": People have attachment bonds throughout their lives, but their main attachment figure can change over time (i.e. as a child, parent, and as an adult, a partner) NORMATIVE RESTRUCTURING: People can join the hierarchy or people can shift around in heirarchy
What is the WESTERMARK EFFECT?
(reverse sexual imprinting) People who grow up in close domestic proximity during a critical period in early life are ruled out as later sexual partners -Possibly as an anti-incest mechanism -Occurs regardless of genetic relatedness. E.g., Kibbutz study (kids at this age that were raised in close proximity were unlikely to choose each other as mates)
(1/3) What are the functions and activating stimuli of the social-behavioral system: ATTACHMENT BEHAVIORAL SYSTEM?
-Functions: security, self-protection -Activating stimuli: anxiety, fear, threat, distress
What did Hofer conclude about attachment bonds? (rat mothers and pups)
-Rat pups separated from their mother, showed a despair reaction. -Hofer discovered that each symptom of despair was specifically tied to a maternal feature. -Smell, touch, and warmth are some of the most important aspects of child development. When all the maternal regulators are taken away early, a number of physiological and behavioral systems become altered in their developmental paths, creating a complex pattern of vulnerability of the life span of the organism. BRADYCARDIA: a result of mother's milk deprivation INACTIVITY: result of deprivation from warmth REDUCED GROWTH HORMONE: result of deprivation from touch Conclusion: not just psychological, but also physiological connections inherent to attachment
What sleeping position and sleeping arrangement is currently recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics?
-SUPINE POSITION: Infants are recommended to be put to sleep on their back because infants don't have the strength to take themselves out of the prone position if they are having difficulty breathing & CO-SLEEPING: room sharing, but not bed sharing -co-sleeping environment mothers continuously inspect, attend to, and check out their infant in the middle of the night. -This recommendation resulted in a dramatic decrease in SIDs. -no direct connection to co-sleeping, but it is more likely that a parent could reposition a baby onto its back in a co-sleeping environment -they also recommend supervised, awake time on their stomachs for practice lifting their heads.
Emotional or Psychological Co-regulation (Hofer)
-one persons emotional state is regulated by the presence or absence of another person. -Physiological co-regulation is an inherent feature of attachment -Physiological & Psychological dis-regulation results from separations
Hofer Reading
1. WHAT CREATES AN ATTACHMENT BOND? -It's developed pre-natally (preferred mother's scent even if they didn't actually meet them... scent guides them towards mother's belongings) -A rapid, early learning process related to brain and hormone system development -Evidence here for child's relationships with abusive parents (if rat was exposed to an odor and then received negative stimuli later, it would still seek that odor later) 2. WHY IS EARLY MATERNAL SEPARATION STRESSFUL -Found a mother rat escaped from tank and couldn't get back in; pups were in bad shape -Pups were in despair phase -Conducted a number of experiments where he reintroduced maternal features individually -When he reintroduced milk into stomachs, brought heart rates back to normal -When he warmed the cage to the mother's body temperature, behavior improved -Each symptom was tied to a specific maternal feature showing that pups were being regulated by mothers Explanation for despair: -Each motherly figure was regulating a specific physiological aspect and that dis-regulation is relative to attachment (physiological and psychological ties) -Child becomes uncomfortable in many ways (see above bullet) 3. HOW EARLY CAN RELATIONSHIPS HAVE LASTING EFFECTS? -Moms are regulating stress hormones, temperature, food; if they leave too soon, it's bad -Babies would be affected by numerous psychological phenomenon that altered their development, and would later influence and complicate their adulthood. -Depravity of attachment created health problems.
What are the three main patterns ("styles") of infant-caregiver attachment identified by Ainsworth et al. and what characterizes the laboratory behavior of babies in each of the three categories? What episodes in the experiment are coded in order to assign infants to a particular pattern/category? What one variable assessed in the first 3 months of life predicted how babies would behave in the "strange situation" at 12 months of age? How is this variable defined by Ainsworth? And what are the caregiving antecedents of each of the patterns?
3 PATTERNS: B (SECURE): -mother is usually responsive to baby at home so it expects mom to protect it whenever it feels threatened, therefore baby is more exploratory, outgoing, sociable, adaptive, better at problem solving. - leaves - baby upset, cries, seeks proximity - returns - baby soothed, stops crying -2/3 babies like this - holds across the world except in samples of kids who are abused / neglected C (AMBIVALENT RESISTANCE): -mothers are a lot less responsive and expressive when dealing with babies. More ambivalent towards their children. Mother's usually have badly timed response to baby's distress, so baby usually don't have good experiences with bodily contact. -don't use mother as secure base to explore, more likely to be distressed and seek proximity to mother when stranger present. -caregiver leaves - baby upset, cries, seeks proximity -returns - baby resists comfort, not soothed, may show anger -Easily frustrated, over-reliant on their mothers, and generally incompetent in problem solving situations, slow in cognitive development -12% based on US samples -Varies dramatically across cultures -A (AVOIDANT): -mothers are rejecting to physical contact, usually angry and aren't responsive to baby. Baby doesn't feel like they are accessible or responsive, non dependable. -caregiver leaves - baby shows no emotion, may engage in self soothing -returns - baby actively avoids contact Mother reunions coded on four dimensions (behavior of baby during two points of separation → reuniting) -PROXIMITY SEEKING: do they seek contact after they've been separated? -CONTACT MAINTENANCE: do they maintain contact until they're comforted/soothed after they reunite? -RESISTANCE: do they show resistance to comforting (pushing away, angry behavior, stiffening, etc.)? -AVOIDANCE: do they avoid contact with attachment figure? Code the baby (and not the caregiver) because they don't care about being observed and don't change their behavior *Logic behind coding: if baby exhibits resistance/avoidance (there's no good reason to act this way), something has gone wrong in the relationship CAREGIVER RESPONSIVENESS is one reliable predictor of the infant's strange situation attachment pattern (defined): in a very specific context of their distress. When they are distressed and they are expressing their distress (I need comfort, I need soothing), defined as follows: NOTICE (distress signals) INTERPRET (correctly read the baby's signal) RESPOND (promptly/warmly)
Suomi Reading
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What is the difference between attachment behaviors and attachment bonds?
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIORS: Anything done by anyone to seek comfort/contact. Once the person you're most connected with leaves, you get closer to the person you can relate to most among those left around you. It's anything an infant does in order to bring them closer in proximity to attachment figure or to most familiar adult in the room. (can be directed to anyone, not only the person with they have a bond) ATTACHMENT BOND: You are more disposed to this person(s) above anyone else; it's who you seek out to comfort you to make you feel secure. Reciprocal emotional bond needed for child's normal behavior and social development. (usually with a parent) depending on the situation, people can engage in attachment behaviors without the presence of an attachment bond. For example: reaching out during distress to another human being (even if it is a stranger) to regulate your emotional state
What are the dynamics of the attachment behavioral system?
ATTACHMENT SYSTEM DYNAMICS: how children react to the presence and absence of their attachment figure Is my attachment figure sufficiently near? -->YES-->secure, content-->explore, play, socialize -->NO-->anxious, fearful-->seeks contact, signal distress
Ainsworth et al. Reading
B-SECURE: -Not likely to cry when the mother leaves because the child feels the mother would come back if he signaled to her -Heart rate increases when mother leaves -More cooperative with the mother -Generally less anxious -Uses mother as a secure base to explore -Tend to be more readily socialized and willing to meet new adult figures -More competent than other types, higher scores on developmental tests C-ABIVALENT: -More anxious, they cry more than B at home and in strange situation -Unable to use mother as a secure base -Slower to advance cognitive development due to lack of exploratory security -Passive aggressive -More ambivalent about being picked up at home and in strange situation -They want to be picked up (not played with) at the right time upon reunion A-AVOIDANT: -Similar to C babies in the home environment -Cries more and more anxious than B -Avoids mother in reunion phrase -More frequently angry -Behavior is possibly due to mother being rejecting, more frequently annoyed with or angry with baby -Avoidance protects the baby from being hurt in the future when rejected by the mother -Babies often avert their gaze -Avoidant behavior is more prominent in home -Lack confidence in mother's accessibility and responsiveness
What is the bi-phasic responses to separation from an attachment figure?
BI-PHASIC RESPONSES PROTEST: immediate, acute reaction (crying, throwing a fuss) DESPAIR: slower developing, longer lasting. Behavioral and emotional state (symptoms similar to depression, lethargy, failure to eat) if you can't get back in contact with AF. DETACHMENT: eventual reaction, adaptation. Children separated from parents for an extended period of time with ignore and reject parents one reunited (defensive reaction)
What differences between co-sleepers and non-co-sleepers were observed in the lab?
CO-SLEEPERS: found to have significantly more instances of waking, breast feeding, adjustments, and spent less time in a deep sleep NON-CO-SLEEPERS: Richard Ferber method ("Ferberizing" a baby) or training your baby to sleep through the night on its own in its own room -Important so parents can get their sleep -Process is letting the child scream each night and the number of minutes during which they scream will reduce -There are a certain number of minutes parents have to wait to go into the room and when one enters, they can't pick up the baby... Only pat it on the head No direct conclusion as to whether sleeping habits contribute to SIDS, but: isolated sleeping may cause SIDS because babies like to sleep on their stomachs, which is bad if there are breathing problems, like apneas--->but, the behavioral findings of co-sleeping could potentially reduce instances of infant apneas because mothers could re-position the baby Potential SIDS contributors: -infant experiences routine apnea (stop breathing while sleeping) -repositioning of larynx (larynx drops and physically obstructs breathing) -relocation of breathing control (initially located in brain stem, but migrates to more frontal areas)
endogenous factors that affect when an attachment figure is judged to be sufficiently near:
ENDOGENOUS/INTERNAL FACTORS: Age, temperament, illness, fatigue, blood pressure, hormone levels, emotional state
exogenous factors that affect when an attachment figure is judged to be sufficiently near:
EXOGENOUS/EXTERNAL FACTORS: Threats/perceived threats in the environment, familiar environment, physical state, can visually see if AF is present.
Bowlby argued that early bonding experiences can have lasting effects. How might this happen at the levels of experience, expectations, and behaviors as well as the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA)?
EXPERIENCE: When you're really upset, do you reach out? Do you think it'll be helpful? -Experiences lead to expectations EXPECTATIONS: regarding how people will respond to us if we need something (comfort, care, reassurance); for the most part, expected that people will help Expectations lead to BEHAVIORS: -Because of our experiences in early life, we expect to get certain treatment if we behave a certain way -Behaviors lead to experiences -Reconfirms your model, gives same experiences again and again FOR EXAMPLE: If you expect to be rejected by your caregiver, you will avoid contact with your caregiver when distressed. And as a result, because you avoid your caregiver when distressed, you will not receive comfort when distressed. Beneath the surface, there are two body-brain systems which regulate our reactions to stress, which are ANS and HPA. These systems get conditioned by our early life experiences. ANS & HPA CONDITIONING: The way you react and cope with stress is influenced by these early experiences with people most important in your life (and people on whom your life depended) -If systems are consistently down-regulated (i.e. whenever you feel distress you are comforted by your attachment figure, these systems are appropriately managed and you can recover quickly from distress throughout your life) -If you have a lower threshold for these systems (i.e. when you felt distress you were not comforted, thereby training these systems to be overactive), you get upset more easily and its harder for you to recover from distress
Based on the results of facialmetric analyses, which facial features are positively correlated, negatively correlated, or uncorrelated to attractiveness ratings of male and female faces? These features can be grouped into three categories, each of which serves as a cue for an important social-behavioral system. You should know the three categories and how they correspond to the three systems.
FEMALE -Positive: big eyes, forehead height, cheekbones, thick lower lip, pupil height/width, smile height/width, eyebrow height -Negative: chin length/width, eyebrow thickness MALE -Positive: big eyes, forehead height, cheekbones, eyebrow thickness, smile width -Negative: none -Uncorrelated: lower lip, eyebrow height, pupils Neotenous Features: Caregiving/Parenting System (eyes,forehead) "cute" Sexual Maturation: Sexual Mating System (lower lip, chin, cheekbones) "sexy" Expressive: Attachment System (eyebrow height, pupils, smile area) "warm"
(2/3) What are the functions and activating stimuli of the social-behavioral system: PARENTAL/CAREGIVING SYSTEM?
FUNCTION: others' security, protection ACTIVATING STIMULI: others' distress / vulnerability
(3/3) What are the functions and activating stimuli of the social-behavioral system: SEXUAL MATING?
FUNCTION: reproduction, pair-bonding ACTIVATING STIMULI: sexual maturation, fertility
What are the factors that promote bonding between infants and adult caregivers (what attracts them to each other)?
Factors that influence selection of attachment figure: FAMILIARITY/PROXIMITY(propinquity) -When a baby cries, who is the first person there to sooth distress, and how often does that figure come to help? That's who the baby zeros in on. COMPETENCE/MATURITY -Babies are able to detect differences between child and adult faces. - adult response time to when babies are in distress PHYSICAL INTIMACY -Who is nuzzling, cuddling, and kissing the baby? It's not necessarily how many hours a day the baby is with someone, but these other factors about physical intimacy. -Way they are handled by adults Factors that promote bonding: NEOTENOUS FEATURES: baby features that are designed to be appealing to adults, and adults are designed to be appealing to babies AVERSIVENESS OF INFANT CRIES: sound motivates caregivers to get up and do something about the crying. Biggest reason babies cry is because they are not in contact with caregiver APPEAL OF INFANT LAUGHTER: motivation to alleviate their distress and make the baby happy SMOOTH, SOFT SKIN: invites touch, in both childhood and adulthood INFANT-DIRECTED SPEECH (IDS/BABY TALK): heightened pitch, melodic INFANT ATTRACTION TO FACE AND EYES: bonding promoted when you breast feed baby because you make eye contact with them. Faces are in the infant visual range of 8 inches. They are imprinting on the facial features of caregivers BREAST MILK AND ARMPITS: within days of birth, infants show strong preference for their mother's smell. They prefer sweet breast milk and readily acknowledge familiarity of mother's smell. SOOTHING EFFECT OF VENTRO-VENTRAL CONTACT: tummy to tummy contact is most comforting/soothing for them
Bowlby Reading
HISTORY: -With WWII, many people were working on studying and finding ways to fix long-term/short-term ill effects of children living in institutions and changing maternal figures often in early years of life -Especially important because many children were being left homeless by the war -At this time, the main theory was babies getting attached to those who fed them (SECONDARY DRIVE THEORY OF ATTACHMENT) DOUBTING THE SDT OF INFANT-CAREGIVER ATTACHMENT: -Orphans weren't getting attachment bonds with people who fed them (inconsistency with the time's main theory) INFLUENCES OF WORK BY LORENZ AND HARLOW: -Lorenz's work was more proof against the secondary drive theory because in some animal species, babies fed themselves. Ducks super attached to moms, but moms don't feed them -Harlow's theory showed that monkeys don't always attach to the "mother" who gives them food, but instead the "mother" who provides comfort NEW PERSPECTIVE ON SEPARATION ANXIETY: An infant will become distressed because the separation from their parents/attachment figure signals an increase of risk and threats of abandonment in a situation
On average, how does puberty (i.e., surges in estrogen and/or testosterone) affect overall body shape and facial structure, sexual dimorphism, and physical intimacy with parents?
HORMONE-RELATED BODILY CHANGES, ESPECIALLY IN OVERALL SHAPE: As children, males and females have the same general body shape -Estrogen creates bigger rear, hips, thighs -Testosterone creates bigger shoulders and chest HORMONE-RELATED FACIAL CHANGES, ESPECIALLY IN OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE FACE: -Testosterone creates bigger jaw, chin, brow -Estrogen increases lower lip plumpness -Both trigger development of cheekbones ASSOCIATED CHANGES IN PHYSICAL INTIMACY WITH PARENTS: Parents don't touch and handle you the same way anymore BOTH TYPES OF CHANGES INCREASE SEXUAL DIMORPHISM: The sexes look differently than they did pre-puberty
What evidence suggests that the patterns of attachment identified by Ainsworth et al. are due to nurture (i.e., the way infants have been treated by their caregivers) and not due to nature (i.e., inborn temperament)?
Neonatal differences in stress reactivity, but... -different styles with different caregivers -attachment styles can be altered through parental responsiveness training -temperament does not predict attachment styles Ainsworth's response to this idea was that there is no good reason for a one year old to reject or avoid contact with a caregiver
Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? Know which aspects of facial attractiveness are objective/"universal" and which aspects are more subjective or idiosyncratic.
OBJECTIVE/UNIVERSAL (not in the eye of the beholder, we can measure and agree upon them): Features are indicators of genetic robustness, which allows stable development and a phase of life with high fertility -Smooth, clear skin -White teeth -Clean, sparkling eyes -Color (lips and eyes) -Lustrous hair ****All signs of youth and health SUBJECTIVE/IDIOSYNCRATIC (in the eye of the beholder): -People can have/do have types -Affection & infatuation effects -Overall effect size of objective vs. subjective are equal objective vs subjective: one does not dominate the other. They are equal
What makes attachment systems different from other social ties? What are the 4 defining features?
PROXIMITY MAINTENANCE: you stay in touch SAFE HAVEN: you seek them out when distress SEPARATION DISTRESS: separation anxiety--distressed when separated SECURE BASE: comforted that someone "has your back", so you then explore Attachment behavioral systems serves to achieve or maintain proximity with attachment figure. Turns on attachment system: separation from attachment figure Turns off attachment system: return of caregiver and coddling/holding of infant.
How did Harlow's experiments test the secondary drive theory of infant-caregiver bonding? What "sleeper effects" did he discover? What did he conclude? What might explain the interrelations among social-behavioral systems?
SECONDARY DRIVE: things we want only because we've learned to want them through association with primary drives (i.e. money) SECONDARY DRIVE THEORY OF ATTACHMENT: Babies get attached to parents/caregivers because they associate them with satisfaction of the hunger drive... So there's a prediction that babies would get attached to whoever was feeding them HARLOW'S EXPERIMENT WITH MONKEYS -In one experiment both types of surrogates were present in the cage, but only one was equipped with a nipple from which the infant could nurse. Some infants received nourishment from the wire mother, and others were fed from the cloth mother. Even when the wire mother was the source of nourishment (and a source of warmth provided by the electric light), the infant monkey spent a greater amount of time clinging to the cloth surrogate. These results led researchers to believe the need for closeness and affection goes deeper than a need for warmth. CONCLUSION: attachment is a primary drive -Even when the monkey is fed by the wire monkey, still prefers the cloth monkey for comfort -Scared monkey runs towards cloth mother, not the food mother -deprivation effects are both specific and lasting SLEEPER EFFECTS: -Those that are deprived of attachment in infancy later show deficits in both sexual mating and caregiving/parental behavior -If the attachment system doesn't develop normally/doesn't have the external stimulation and input it needs to function as it was designed to, there are negative effects on other social behavioral systems (early attachment experiences not only affect later attachment, but also other systems not yet active): Attachment, Caregiving/parenting, Sexual mating Why? Overlapping neuroanatomy and neurochemistry, it's what was required of our species to reproduce (why those three systems in particular)
What are the approximate ages, stages, and related behaviors in the ontogeny (formation) of infant-caregiver attachment bonds?
Up to 2 months: "PRE-ATTACHMENT" phase--> baby doesn't care who is taking care of them, as long as they are cared for 2-6 months: "ATTACHMENT IN THE MAKING"-->begins to show preference to certain people, settle in faster with people they are familiar with, smiling more at people they prefer, engage in intimate behaviors to show their special relationship (nuzzling is a key behavior) 6-8 months: "CLEAR-CUT" attachment. First time in love and truly obsessed/attached-->3 sudden, dramatic changes occur in this period: 1. separation distress --> baby will all of a sudden start crying when you leave the room and show separation distress signals 2. stranger anxiety --> baby will scream in fear when in contact with strangers 3. self-produced locomotion --> capable of getting around on their own
What are the two "universals" in terms of attractiveness ratings of male bodies? What information might they convey? And on these two dimensions, what is judged to be most attractive?
WHR Shoulder-to-hip ratio Convey: normal testosterone surges during puberty Ancient greek statues illustrate the ideal man. SHR should be 1.4 WHR should be 1
What is the one "universal" in terms of attractiveness ratings of female bodies? What information does it convey and what are its correlates? And on this one dimension, what is judged to be most attractive?
WHR of 0.7 HEALTH STATUS: (the higher the ratio, the higher the probability) -Diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, overall mortality FERTILITY -Bodily changes at puberty -Bodily changes at menopause -Bodily changes during pregnancy -Bodily shape and likelihood of conception MOST ATTRACTIVE: The average WHR from women who are post-pubescent, pre-menopausal, nulliparous (haven't had a kid)
What are the short and long term effects of "Kangaroo Care"
babies strapped belly to belly with their mothers SHORT TERM: cried less, slept longer, had lower levels of stress hormones, gained weight quicker, left the hospital sooner LONG TERM: children were found to be less stress-reactive and more exploratory
Within Bowlby's theory, what is meant by "monotropy" ?
every individual has a primary attachment figure. We may have multiple, but there is always a single main one (monotropy) that we prefer to go to
What is SEXUAL IMPRINTING?
process by which a young animal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. It is thought that a similar sexual imprinting occurs in humans around this age, but it is not known for sure. e.g. male zebra finches prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them.
Within Bowlby's theory, what is meant by "attachment hierarchies" ?
the existence of a primary attachment figure among multiple attachment figures suggests that there is a hierarchy among attachment figures
What bonding-related milestones correspond roughly to the ages of 2 years, 3 years, 4-6 years, and 8-12 years?
~2 years: Shift in attachment/affiliation balance -Around 2 years of age, children shift from spending a great deal of time seeking comfort from a caregiver to spending more time with peers ~3 years: New developments in peer relations -By this age, children have developed all of the normal components of social interaction. Compare to a 12-month old, for example, who will play on its own even when placed next to another infant. The two infants will engage in "parallel play" rather than engage in a true social interaction -by 3 years, true social play emerges. ~4-6 years: In this period, kids start to think about gender in a way which they previously have not. They become aware of their own gender and start to segregate themselves based on sex. This occurs regardless of adult-imposed segregation -SEXUAL IMPRINTING: process by which a young animal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. It is thought that a similar sexual imprinting occurs in humans around this age, but it is not known for sure. -e.g. male zebra finches prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them. -WESTERMARCK EFFECT (or reverse sexual imprinting): People who grow up in close domestic proximity during a critical period in early life are ruled out as later sexual partners -Possibly as an anti-incest mechanism -Occurs regardless of genetic relatedness. E.g., Kibbutz study (kids at this age that were raised in close proximity were unlikely to choose each other as mates) Reconciling the two -Westermarck Effect: rules out specific individuals -Sexual Imprinting: ruling in specific features ~8-12 years: Parents vs. peers -Start to look toward their peers, rather than adults, for comfort -Recall the difference between behaviors and bonds -A perceived shift occurs toward autonomous behaviors -Shifts in attachment hierarchy ~Puberty: physical changes
