HDE 101 exam 1&2

Eleanor and JJ Gibson said that humans evolved in a world of _______, so infants have what?

objects, so infants have some built-in perceptual abilities

cataracts

clouding of the lens

basic processes in neuronal development

neurogenesis synaptogenesis/differentiation synaptic pruning

early attention to social input: Early social preferences

newborns -Prefer human faces vs. other face-like stimuli -Recognize mom's voice prenatally -Recognize mom's face within about 1 day -Prefer human voices over other sounds

William James said that infants experience the world as what?

"great blooming, buzzing confusion"- perceptual abilities must be learned -nothing built in from biology, it is all experience. -we are blank slates when it comes to perception

sensitive period

(sometimes referred to as the critical period) for a specific skill or ability is the time in development (usually early in life) when it is most easily acquired. If a requisite experience occurs outside of this sensitive period (either too early or too late), the target skill will not be readily acquired—or possibly not acquired at all.

what is attentional inertia?

-cannot get attention off of what was relevant before -attention is stuck on first set of rules

what brain region supports inhibition?

-prefrontal cortex -prefrontal cortex isnt developed yet so its hard to inhibit

Spelke's Core knowledge system 2: People & actions

1. Goal directed: People's actions are goal-directed 2. Gaze direction: gaze is a cue for interpreting actions -Infants use people's gaze to interpret actions

test method Kuhl 2003

1. conditioning: when they hear a change in a sound they turn their head and get a reward: when something changes, look for the toy 2. test: half control trials- do babies turn their head even when there is no change? - measure % correct look, % of correct rejections (wasnt a change and didnt look), and number of false alarms (looked but there wasnt a change)

correct order of milestones and age

1. object permanence (4 months) 2. open to non native phonemes (6 months) 3. open face perception (6 months) 4. object permanence search task (8/9 months) 5. face perception narrowed 9-10 mos 6. phoneme perception narrowed 10-12 mos 7. first words 12 mos 8. cross situational statistical learning strategy 12-14 mos 9. mutual exclusivity 18 mos 10. vocabulary spurt 18 mos

how do memory abilities improve

1. strategies: rehearsing, organizing information, focusing attention (ex. elaboration) 2. content knowledge: familiarity effects, scripts -can improve and worsen memory performance 3. metacognition: knowledge of own cognitive abilities; metamemory: knowledge of one's own memory

first words usually start around

10-15 months -effortful to produce, hard to understand -overextension: use words in a category for anything (ex. use words for "ball" for anything round -underextension: "kitty" is only for the cat in their house early slow growth

infants understanding of desires STUDY goldfish vs broccoli What's the difference between 14 & 18-month-olds? 14 months: gave __________, regardless of _________ 18 months: gave __________, regardless of _________

14- and 18-month-olds Offered children broccoli & goldfish crackers. Kids choose goldfish. -Experimenter happy with goldfish (matched child) or broccoli (unmatched) & disgust for other food. 14 mos: crackers regardless of what experimenter liked 18 mos: gave experimenter broccoli if they liked the broccoli more 18mos can take perspective of experimenter, but 14 mos cant -early . stage . of understanding others desires

effects of child maltreatment on memory and suggestibility

1990s studies 700 3 to 16 year olds in child maltreatment investigations physical medical exam, blood draw, neutral and unpleasant events memory tested in day 5 memory for medical exam -age effects: overall, older made fewer errors -error type: most are omission (leaving info something out) not commission (including incorrect information) as adults, accurate memories of abuse and hospital events

number sense is predictive, how?

1st grade number sense predicts 7th grade math skills

ToM developmental trajectory

3 yrs consistently fail FB tasks 4 yrs potentially pass FB tasks 5 yrs Consistently Pass FB tasks "Fully-Fledged" (person-specific, realitydistinct) ToM develops over 3-5 years old Developmental trajectory is relatively consistent - Across variations in tasks - Across cultures/countries* (not always consistent) - But environment effects: Siblings! (pass FB tasks earlier)

what is th developmental change from 6-8 months vs 10-12 months in language development

6-8 months: can differentiate sounds in two . different language that sound mostly the same by 10-12 months: most infants cannot hear the difference between the speech sounds

Method Kuhl 2003

9 month infants english learning at home testing how they learn Mandarin Chinese in the lab conditions: -live interaction of language -video recording of language interaction -audio recording of language interaction is short term exposure sufficient? -Time of neural readiness -is 12 weeks and half an hour enough time to learn mandarin does social interaction matter? -social vs recorded: simple linguistic input may be sufficient, regardless of source

language development: what to look for Talk to doctor or specialist if:

9 months, no babbling at all age 1- no pointing or other gestures (ex where) 16 months, not more than 1 word 2 years, no 2 word combinations or under 50 words produced across ages, not showing an interest in communication bilingualism is good: executive function, communication

theory of mind

A concept of the mind & mental states Includes understanding of intentions, desires, knowledge, beliefs, emotions of other people

perceptual narrowing

A decline in the ability, during the first year of life, to discriminate between unfamiliar types of perceptual stimuli, such as two faces of another race or species, or two phonemes from a nonnative language -start off with broader ability to differentiate, and then we get more and more specialized for processing the input thats actually around us, so we may decline in the ability to process stuff that we dont see every day

core knowledge controversy: interpretational debate

Are babies counting OR responding to amount of stuff on the screen? Changes in interaction of components on the screen? Is this knowledge or perception? Is there a meaningful difference? Conceptual processing vs. basic perceptual process

mutual exclusivity assumption

Assume that each object has only one label, so new label must refer to new object isn't specified for only humans -ex: dog video picking the new toy

prereading: phonemic awareness (aka phonological awareness)

Awareness that words consist of separate sounds -How many sounds in " cat," in "shoe"? Grapheme-phoneme correspondences: basis for sound-letter correspondences, help for sounding out new words, spelling -grapheme= letter -phoneme= sound -what you need in order to spell things if you dont already have the word memorized -being able to see a letter and say what sound goes with that letter Phonemic awareness at 4 & 5 years predicts later reading achievement

cognitive limitations in problem-solving: integrating information DeLoache and colleagues interpretation of scale models What age do children fail to find Snoopy using scale models? When do they succeed? What happens during the shrinking machine task? What is the explanation for how the shrinking machine makes it easier to find the toy?

Big Snoopy, little Snoopy & shrinking room -2 1/2 yrs couldnt find snoopy bc they cannot represent two different images of reality at the same time -3 year olds can find it -2 1/2 yrs: shrinking machine allows them to hold one image of the doll in their mind, so it is the same doll in their mind -could find the doll when the room shrunk shrinking machine makes it easier to find the toy at 2 1/2 bc they do not have to make connections between two different rooms (do not have to have a dual representation)- viewing a something as a symbol -if the SAME ROOM shrinks/grows, it is not a symbol and does not require dual representation because it is all the same thing

development of planning skills

Biological maturation of prefrontal cortex: better inhibition; better working memory, possible to consider more elements PFC matures late: Risk taking in adolescents (plus highlighted rewards) Long term memory of prior experiences, solutions, and consequences Improve abstract thinking, consider hypothetical

alternatives to core knowledge

Bogartz & colleagues, Spencer & colleagues: babies can't reason, don't have beliefs, don't have innate knowledge -Instead: Infants perceive, store memories, & learn from experience. These simple mechanisms can explain infants' performance. Infants are skilled at detecting patterns - Example: Bayesian statistical inference

Feigenson et al (2002) STUDY: 10 & 12 month-olds watch crackers put in two containers

Children will pick MORE for 1 vs. 2 & 2 vs. 3 -But choose randomly if 3 vs. 4

Similarity and differences about conditions of exposure in Kuhl experiment vs the face exposure in the scott and monesson article

Conditions tested varying degrees of . exposure Most influential for Scott was the individualized monkey groups, and for Kuhl was the face to face interaction group scott: everything was done at home Kuhl: everything was done in the lab and more controlled

possible explanations for infantile amnesia

Creating memories about the self requires self awareness 1st children do not understand events well enough to encode them properly shifts in how information is encoded and retrieved from infancy to child/adulthood -early nonverbal encoding-> verbal encoding and retrieval lack of hippocampal development

identifying words

Difficulty identifying words → not fun to read Bad for reading development, scholastic achievement

Early ideas about WS vs. current understanding

Early ideas -Face processing & language of people with WS: intact -Spatial cognition & number: broken modules -"...children with Williams syndrome have a barely measurable general intelligence and require constant parental care, yet they have an exquisite mastery of syntax and vocabulary" -Argued as case for for sociability or friendliness gene Current understanding -This division is not this distinct! There are areas of relative strength/weakness that are not fully intact/absent -large vocabularies for ppl w/ WS (strength for ppl with WS) -list of animals- ppl with WS start with not typical animals (bc their language is developed extensively)(hippopotamus, brontosaurus etc) -social skills are an area of strength (no racial bias, extremely friendly in comparison to ppl without WS- high empathy) -downside for the social skills- they will not have wariness about strangers: they like everyone -face processing in WS: -infants: even more face focused than typical infants -strength: behaviorally, in typical range, but people with WS less disrupted by inversion: processing may be more featural (based on individual features) than configural (spatial; between features- how the features of the face go together) -Differences in brain activity: processing less localized/specialized; face processing region larger in WS -Brain shows reduced response to anger, fear -Multiple routes to information processing

more than one way to be good at math

Ecological validity of groups: Lab math task predict standardized tests. Good & perfectionist ~80th percentile; not-so-good, 40th percentile Back-up strategies aren ʼt inherently bad Teaching implications: Allow kids to get to solutions independently, increases memory for problem & solution → repeat → retrieval getting faster and faster at these number drills makes kids forget how the numbers work being able to think through numbers is important

WEIRD sample issues in reading

English orthography: alphabetic, but spelling-sound relations are complex (trough, thorough, through, threw). How universal are theories? -other languages are much more consistent that english is Alphabetic bias in reading research Same brain regions activated alphabetic (French) & logographic (characters; Chinese): Visual word form area, L hemisphere -But motor areas more active for Chinese

studying development in sociocultural approaches

Examining skills in context-free tasks won't give an accurate picture Tasks should be naturalistic, with social and cultural context ex. live speaker speaking in chinese made a key difference in how infants took in the info (made more naturalistic)

Scott and monesson STUDY: Interpretation

Experience with faces affects face processing! Infants typically specialized to own-species, but with specific type of exposure, can maintain discrimination ability. Requires individuation. Changed perceptual narrowing. -1st year may be particularly sensitive time for experience & brain specialization

Face perception in autism

Eye-tracking: people w/ASD rely on eyes less for recognition, emotion i.d. Overall, kids & adults w/ASD have difficulty on face processing tasks--recognition, discrimination, emotion identification

Development of higher level reading skills requires....

Goal: to comprehend text, not just words Automatization of word identification + improvements in working memory -Processes more efficient - can integrate better across sentences, paragraphs, with real world knowledge -the more you read the faster you get at reading -when you can hold more info in your mind, the more you can read ↑ content knowledge: know what's plausible, help infer motivations of characters, likely outcomes of events -allows you to have a richer understanding of whats happening Meta-cognitive knowledge: faster & more accurate at evaluating what was understood/remembered/ integrated -get better at knowing if they understood what they just read

understanding beliefs false belief task

Gold-standard test of 'fully-fledged' theory of mind Passing the task requires understanding: -Mental states are person-specific -Mental states are distinct from reality -Mental states guide action

prereading

Imitation writing Pointing at words in books, talking while looking at books

according to Heidelise Als, what contributes to attention and learning problems in premature infants?

Immature nervous system + overwhelming sensory input - Brain "expects" low stimulation, low stress - Vs. Neonatal Intensive Care Unit environment (limited light and sound, skin to skin contact with mother, providing more support for their bodies) developmentally informed premature newborn care -approach is highly responsive- positioning, swaddling, parent involvement, skin to skin contact, dark, comfortable evidence of better motor control, self regulation, cognitive processing, more advanced brain organization, more mature frontal regions

hypothesis of baillargeon STUDY

In a task that removes the demands of means-ends coordinated actions, very young infants will display knowledge of object permanence.

individual differences emerge when? individual differences show different manifestations when? individual differences are ________ characteristics of the child

Individual differences emerge as a child develops showing different manifestations at different times in development They are not innate characteristics of the child

reading progression

Infancy - 1st grade -id letters, write name, read a few words 1st & 2nd grade -phonological recoding: translate letters into sounds & blend sounds into words 2nd & 3rd grade -id individual words more quickly, but demands high 4th - 8th grade -"reading to learn" rather than "learning to read" High school -reading more sophisticated, broader range of subjects, history, politics, fiction

Adaptive nature of cognitive immaturity

Infants and young children's cognitive and perceptual abilities might be well suited for their particular time in life rather than incomplete versions of the more sophisticated abilities they will one day process What adults often consider to be immature and ineffective styles of thought might sometimes have an adaptive value for the young child at that particular point in development and should not be viewed solely as deficiencies

Why the disconnect 1 vs. 2 vs. 3 vs. 4in Feigenson's study?

Infants can subitize: quick perceptual process of identifying number in a set without counting -Doesn't work past 3; not number knowledge but perception

scott and monesson STUDY: Purpose

Investigate how experience shapes perception -How flexible is perceptual narrowing? -Do infants just need exposure to faces of other species to maintain their ability? Or do they need to be exposed in a way that encourages them to discriminate the faces?

testing critical period for language

Johnson and newport: first language korean or chinese -learning outcomes as a function of age of exposure to english (age 3 to 39) task: grammaticality judgments -showed Ps grammatically incorrect sentences results: -ppl who learned english at early age showed similar skills as native speakers but showed a gradual decline in the level of proficiency the later ppl learned the language -variance increases with age as well -limitation: learners already know a language

interaction of nature and nurture

Like WS, the biological influence on development may not be directly on social behavior, but in shaping attention -which then shapes development (including biological/neurological changes), because development is inherently shaped by experience

Child street market vendors in Brazil (Carraher et al., 1988)

Math in everyday life: 9- to 15-year-olds running family stands Researchers posed as shoppers: ~ 12 informal tests per child; no paper, pencil, calculator "Customer: Id like one coconut, how much is that? Age 12: 35 C: Id like ten, how much is that? Age 12: Three will be 100 & 5, with three more, that will be 200 & 10. [pause] I need 4 more. That is [pause] 300 & 15 ...I think it is 300 and 50" Follow-up at home: Formal test, same numbers, paper & pencil Age 12: 35 x 4 "4 times 5 is 20, carry the two; two plus three is 5, times 4 is 20." = 200. Age 9: 12 x 5 Child lowers the 2, then the 5 & 1 = 152. Word problems: Mary bought 12 bananas; each banana cost 5¢. How much did she pay altogether? Word problems ~ 74% correct Arithmetic: ~ 36 % WHY?

dyscalculia

Mathematics learning disability Approximately 6% children Trouble with number sense: intuitions about how numbers work, comparing & estimating quantities Strategies: inaccurate back-ups, slow advancement of back-ups; little memorization/retrieval Lasting problems: hard to build up w/out strong basic arithmetic (multi-digits, division, algebra) Why? -Normal intelligence -Environment contributes to risk, but also inherited

significance of spatial cognition

Mental spatial visualization (spatial reasoning) is valued. Why are spatial skills important? Where might male advantage in spatial reasoning come from? Practice, practice, practice: hobbies that rely on spatial skills? -blocks/legos spatial activities positively correlated with spatial abilities, But there is a directionality issue... -people who are good at spatial reasoning may do more spatial reasoning activities Video game experience (STUDY) -10 hours of action video game play (first person shooting game) can virtually eliminate gender differences in spatial reasoning -Maintained 5 months later -women benefited from the game and womens abilities in spatial reasoning went up MORE than men

Nature of Nurture

Nature: mental organ -domain specific nurture: social cues -domain general

face processing in infancy

Newborn babies (within an HOUR of birth) like faces- but not JUST faces- but anything with that face configuration - the configuration is important, not necessarily the features

Gaze detection

Newborns (2- 5 days) prefer pictures of faces with direct gaze over averted gaze (looking to the side)

early exposure is protective: will learning one language prevent learners from acquiring another language in a different modality? or is some language better than no language, even if it's a different modality?

No; yes speech-> cochlear implant speech-> ASL ASL-> reading/writing english ASL-> spoken language post cochlear implant

perceptual narrowing

Our experiences shape the way we view the world around us. If we are only exposed to one race, then the brain goes through sort of a pruning process and only is familiarized with this one race and no other races. other races will be seen as "novel" -we become tuned to what we are exposed to in our environments

alternatives to mindblindness

Perceptual basis → Difference in face processing -What if babies aren't drawn to faces? Autism: perceptual bias reduces attention to faces → contributes to social impairments/differences WS: increased attention to faces → contributes to social skills/differences

Reading impairments: Dyslexia 2 common problems, both relate to identifying/decoding words

Phonological dyslexia Surface dyslexia

Characteristics of Williams syndrome (WS)

Prevalence: 1 in 7500-10,000 births (rare) Specific genes deleted on chromosome 7 Specific facial features, heart disease, growth deficiencies Mild-moderate intellectual disability -IQ range 40 (lowest poss.) - 112 (normal range) -mean in 60s, mild intellectual disability on IQ test (but lots of variability) -the williams syndrome distribution is lower on average than typical distribution, but there is a wide range (hence IQ range)

prevalence of autism

Prevalence: ~1 in 59 (Autism Spectrum Disorder; CDC 2014) - rates increasing, reasons hotly disputed - 4 times more common in boys than girls Detected as early as 18 months (or younger), but more typically around 4 years Large range of functioning; about 44% typical IQ or higher Highly heritable (runs in families), genes not identified

Diagnostic criteria for Autism Spectrum Disorder

Qualitative impairments in social interaction & communication (impaired eye gaze; peer relations, lack of seeking to share interests/enjoyment; difficulty making/understanding relationships) Restricted repetitive & stereotyped behaviors, activities, or interests (stereotyped & restricted interests, inflexible adherence to routines/rituals, repetitive motor mannerisms) Frequently occur with delays in early language and lasting language impairments (but not for all on the spectrum)

How does studying WS inform understanding of cognitive development more broadly?

Similar behaviors can have different underlying causes Separability of cognitive functions Identify genetic cause of the disorder, can link back to cognitive strengths/weaknesses? Genes for sociability or friendliness? (no- you dont find ONE gene for this) -Alternative? Low level genetic predisposition that alters attention is more probable (↑salience faces, people?), rather than sociability directly?

explanations for face perception findings in autism

Social motivation hypothesis: faces don't produce rewards like in TD infants; instead faces → arousal (negative) vs. Perceptual differences: general or specific to face processing region deficits -Avoidance/perceptual differences → miss cues to emotions, intentions, labeling, explanations

findings of lillard and peterson

Spongebob (Fast-paced) watchers had lower EF than Caillou (Educational) or Drawing condition Drawing not consistently different from Educational

strategies for arithmetic

Strategies that we use when we cant access them from memory: earliest strategy: count from one: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... counting on: 5... 6, 7, 8 decomposing: 9+6=?, "i know 10+6 . is 16 and 9 . is one less than 10 Memory strategy: retrieval: memorized solutions

experience affects executive function: Lillard and Peterson (2011)

TV exposure is correlated with executive function (EF). with higher levels of TV, lower levels of executive functions

themes in cogntiive development

The bidirectionality of structure and function is a theme in cognitive development

Accounts of autism

Theory of Mind: ability to attribute mental states (desire, knowledge, beliefs) to oneself & others - social understanding is essential to communication - Joint attention is aspect of ToM Baron-Cohen et al. (1997): Mindblindess -Children with autism blind (dont understand) to significance of gaze, don't know how it can be used to learn

Differences in experience - spatial differences across genders

There is a measurable male advantage in spatial reasoning tasks -not very large magnitude, but statistically reliable -Spatial visualization task: mental rotation Measurable (but not very large) female advantage in object location memory tasks -Women better at detecting what's new

neuronal plasticity

There is apparently little or no plasticity in the production of new neurons, at least in the cerebral cortex. With few exceptions, a newborn comes into the world with more neurons than he or she will ever need. And from birth on, there is a loss of neurons—a rapid loss during infancy and a gradual decline thereafter

cultural context for development Rogoff STUDY

US middle-class families vs. Maya community in Guatemala -typical environment US kids: are segregated from adults, learn in lessons -typical environment Maya kids: integrated with adults How does this affect how kids learn & what they learn? -US: Parents organize, give lessons, naming routines -Maya community: interactive, responsive, nonverbal, follow child's lead

number sense

Understand how numbers relate Understand how operations affect numbers Understand how numbers decompose Compare amounts Estimate Processing number flexibly

core knowledge of psychology

Understanding people's actions & mental states Early knowledge: understanding intention- other people have goals and people do things for a reason STUDY: researcher reaching for the same toy, but infants interest increases when she reaches for a different toy -Infants (9 months) interpret people's actions as goal directed, but not inanimate objects -only look longer when it's a human

Scott and monesson STUDY: Methods

What ages were tested: 6mos and again at 9mos why this age? -should not have had the perceptual narrowing process yet got books to take home with pictures of monkey faces on them. parents read the books conditions: -individual labels: specific names (carlos, flora, etc) -category labels: monkey -exposure: no label method used to test face perception: Visual paired comparison -showed familiar monkeys and unfamiliar monkeys -tested to see how long they would look at the monkeys -if infants notice the new monkey, they will look at it longer

How should reading be taught?

Whole word vs. Phonics?

Key Theory of Mind components Where do these occur in Sally-Anne false belief task?

a 3 year old gets the person specific component wrong when ann puts the marble in the other box gets the distinct from reality component wrong because sally doesnt know where the marble moved to sally looks at place B because thats where they would look

is there something special about children's language acquisition skills

a critical period for language -period where relevant experience must occur in order for experience to have . the typical effect on brain development

social learning

acquiring information from others -social learning is evolutionary adaptive, crucial to human advances -because we evolved the ability to learn from others-> better cooperation & competition, rapid transmission of information, not rely on individual trial and error

pattern-detecting skills: using cross-situational statistical learning to learn words

across events, labels are clear infants track patterns of events and words they store information from individual events, tracking patterns to discover the structure rather than being overwhelmed by complexity, infants exploit it

function

actions external to the structure- neurochemical or hormonal secretions and other factors external to the individual that can best be described as "experience" Can also be internal to the structure -Ex. the firing of a nerve cell The functioning of mental structures promotes changes in the structures themselves -For structures to change, they must be active

when experience isn't typical, ________ can occur

adaptive reorganization Blind adults show activation of visual cortex when processing tactile or auditory stimuli Deaf adults show activation of auditory cortex when processing visual information

experience affects executive function

adults who multitask a lot perform worse on multitasking tests -harder time shifting attention, switching tasks, filtering out irrelevant information adolescence is a key time for prefrontal cortex -plasticity and multitasking? causal pattern: people who have difficulty attending also drawn to doing more at once? experimental evidence: forced multitasking-> reduced performance

limitations of the research lillard peterson

age- its supposed to be for older kids not four year olds pace- negative effects for preschoolers but maybe not for older kids fantastical- something about the show being fantastical rather than it being the pacing temporary- this might be temporary, the kids were tested right after watching the show exposure time- only exposed for nine minutes

core knowledge of biology

animate: people, animals, bugs inanimate: vehicles, rocks, furniture, toys, plants By 9 months, babies categorize birds together & separate from planes; copy animals drink & sleep, not vehicles they base this off of faces and movement -animates can move on their own, inanimate objects can't; infants surprised when inanimates do move -Newborns (1-3 days old) discriminate biological vs. nonbiological movement

brain damage and language: architectural constraint, chronotopic constraint and plasticity

architectural constraint: left side specialization at both ages chronotopic constraint: recovery varies by age plasticity: brain reorganizes around damaged areas

what is it about south africa that allows for a test of what causes race preferences

argest racial group is black south africans whites historically held power, repressed Black south africans, still have higher levels of wealth and education separating familiarity -separating who kids see the most -so kids should show a preference for other blacks since the majority population is blacks VS. wealth/power

testing children's memories

ask about real traumatic events experimental events: present a false event as true -you were lost in a mall when you were 5 (mousetrap) experimental event: play with an unfamiliar adult in a trailer, new adult comes to class -ask suggestive or misleading questions; sam broke the glass, didnt he -introduce false information, introduce stereotypes (same isnt nice, he breaks things on purpose) -repeat questions natural events: medical procedures, getting shots

preterm infants are at risk for

attention deficit disorder, lower IQ, social emotional and self regulation problems they are exposed to the world too early and their systems are encountering input that are greater than they are ready or capable to process

slow growth and plasticity

because of children's incomplete myelination, they are better prepared to adapt, cognitively, to later environments. If experiences early in life yielded automization, the child would lose the flexibility necessary for adult life. Cognitive flexibility in the species is maintained by an immature nervous system that gradually permits the automization of more mental operations, increasing the likelihood that lessons learned as a young child will not interfere with the qualitatively different tasks required of the adult.

Interpreting false belief task

before age 5, children lack theory of mind

Scott and monesson STUDY: Results

before training- infants looked longer to the novel stimuli after training- the infants who saw the category and exposure training did not show a difference in the novelty and familiar stimulus. -for babies who got the individual training, they saw a difference between the novelty and familiar stimuli

development

bidirectional relationship between structure and function in which the activity of the structure itself and stimulation from the environment can contribute to changes in the structure, which in turn contribute to changes in how that structure operates -Bidirectional relationship between structure and function can also be expressed as structure ← → function

bilingualism

bilinguism is good executive function advantage -learning strategies are adaptive first words and word combinations a couple of weeks later than monolingual but not "delayed" or "impaired" or "atypical" vocabulary size is larger across concepts -they know more concepts if account for both languages communicate in 2 languages, 2 cultures

cues to depth

binocular cues -2 eyes, overlapping fields of vision -disparity-> cue to location stereopsis: ability to perceive depth based solely on binocular cues emerges at 4 months info from left and right eye becomes segregated to different cells in visual cortex, other cells get both eyes experience is essential -strabismus (misalignment of eyes) fields don't overlap-> problems with binocular cues to depth -important to treat early. visual development occurs quickly, depends on typical experience to shape change -possible critical or sensitive period

when do income related differences start?

brain composition differences at 18 months infancy is important for brain development poverty can affect the brain due to lack of nutrition

architectural innateness

brain organization at birth. Neurons in some areas highly connected with other areas. Some areas process certain things & only connected to certain areas. Brains built for learning. Face processing specialization with learning; language

social preferences

by 2.5 years, kids prefer own gender as friends 10 month olds and 2 year olds share similarly with own and other race individuals (but less with opposite gender) -around age 4-5 preference for own race emerges

limitations on recovery of cataracts

cataract on left eye from age 2-6 months, then corrected, small deficits in face perception as adults

piaget's constructivist theory: is it domain general or specific? is knowledge innate or not innate?

children are active learners, scientific problem solveers who learn by experimenting with their environments' no innate knowledge -a domain general theory

cognitive/learning explanation for language acquisition

children are amazing learners (discover new patterns) but . also . benefit from limits in memory . and perception (less is more) -critical period occurs as brain commits to experience

social interactionist perspectives of language development

children are driven to communicate, have early skills for understanding intentions of others adults structure environments to support learning

cognitive example of language acquisition: less is more hypothesis

children have advantage in language . acquisition because of limits in perception and . memory adults: have better memory, capacity, can store longer sequences, harder to analyze children: only store small chunks, have to focus on parts of sentences

why prefeer groups that are larger, more familiar, or higher in social status (money, education, power)?

children in studies are maybe showing a preference because they see more faces that are white so they would rather play with people that are familiar may be picking up the group that has more money or education or power -may have noticed the privilege this is usually confounded because it is tested in US and Canada

"Truths" of cognitive development

cognitive development.... (focus on first 3) 1. proceeds from dynamic interactions of internal and external forces -nature vs nurture -internal: our biological endowment, genes from parents external: environment, includes physical and social (womb, school, community) 2. occurs in a social context -The culture in which children grow up also shapes or constructs their intellects -Tells children what to think and how to think 3. involves both stability and plasticity over time 4. Cognitive development involves changes in the way information is represented 5. Children develop increasing intentional control over their behavior and cognition 6. Cognitive development involves changes in both domain general and domain specific abilities

Spelke's core knowledge system 1: inanimate objects

cohesion: objects have boundaries and components are connected, shouldn't spontaneously disintegrate Contact: objects start to move when something else touches them Continuity: objects move along unobstructed paths and can't be in the same place, don't randomly appear/disappear -object permanence

experience-dependent processes (or experience-dependent synaptogenesis)

connections among neurons are made that reflect the unique experiences of an individual rather than the experiences that all members of a species can expect to have. In both cases, the overproduction of neurons enables an individual to make connections (and, thus, store information) that reflect his or her particular environment. -When certain experiences are not had—when the world does not cause certain neurons to be activated and synapses to join—the neurons die.

synaptogenesis/ differentiation

connections to other neurons form (dendrites and axon terminals extend(differentiation), make synapses (synaptogenesis) happens during 3rd trimester through adolescence

intersensory integration

coordinating information across senses sight and sound -at 2 months, match shape of mouth and vowel sound -also synchronize sounds with objects -ex. study saw infants look at face that is making the vowel sound

Previous experiments showed correlation between experience and executive function, why isn't that enough to say high tv exposure causes poor EF?

correlation does not equal causation -lower EF may cause the kids to watch more TV

why patch the good eye

cover the good eye to have the weaker eye make more connections

false belief task: misleading appearance

crayons vs candles they know that its candles in the box but the other person doesnt know. a three year old will say that snoopy thinks candles are in the crayon box too even though snoopy wasnt there to see the candles

nativist explanation for language acquisition

critical period is after maturational window for language acquisition

experience expectant plasticity

critical/sensitive period: relevant experience must occur during this time for experience to have usual effect on brain development

plasticity

development shaped by experience Big effects of environment: -Children from severe deprivation can bounce back in cognition & emotion

What is developmental dyscalculia? What is the hypothesis about magnitude processing in dyscalculia?

disability in calculation persistent across grade levels symbols for numbers dont have as much meaning. symbols remain symbols -this contributes to a magnitude issue -if you see a larger 9, and a number 11, they dont know which one is actually bigger in quantity

statistical learning and interactionist approaches are both __________ _________ accounts of language acquisition mechanisms

domain general -learn from patterns -learn from people -neither is specific to language

perceptual narrowing is a domain _______ process

domain general the same developmental function occurs in different domains

meta cognitive strategies

evaluation of one's own thinking (or one's own memory) source monitoring abilities -ability to track origins of information/details in time and space see improvements with age

specialized domains reflect

evolutionary history -areas with adaptive advantage naive theories of physics (objects), psychology (people), biology (living things), and language -allows rapid understanding in these domains

intersensory matching shaped by

experience -newborns: 4-6 months look longer at the fac that matches the sound being produced -BUT 8 months olds and 10 month olds look evenly at both dont match -sound/face perception has narrowed. young infants can look at other species and see difference, but perceptual narrowing makes it so that 8 month olds cant see the difference

Effects of experience

experience changes how infants perceive the world (saw this in scott and monesson article) visual acuity

what is the problem with only studying WEIRD populations when the goal is to understand how development works?

experience shapes our development, so only studying weird samples limits what we understand about development -not everyone lives in a white american household with a mom and a dad that only speaks english ex. studying college students for memory -probably at peak of memory so we dont understnad how it works ACROSS the lifetime ex. studying only MEN in alcohol studies -women metabolize alcohol differently so we dont understand how this studying can replicate across genders ex. language learning in monolingual households -MOST people are bilingual, but we are not studying this

where do word learning strategies come from

experience: most things have one name. most objects named by shape, substances by material/texture (for monolinguals) -consistent with statistical learning accounts of language acquisition: across areas of language (sounds, words, grammar,) infants learn by tracking statistical patterns in the input

Perceptual narrowing: faces

extensive experience with same race or species leads to expectation about typical faces—a face prototype. Specialization fits experience.

Can we see short-term causal effects of TV on EF? -Hypothesis:

fast-paced cartoons may be more taxing on encoding than slow cartoons use up limited attentional resources

information processing approaches to cognitive development

focus on basic components of cognition: -attention, memory, learning, processing capacity active problem solvers: kids are figuring things out on their own basic learning mechanisms, not innate knowledge (domain general; architectural vs representational innateness) -they are domain general same basic processes adults and kids, emphasize continuity

other limitations in early memory:

for very young (3-month olds), changing context disrupts remembering -for 3 mos if you change the mobile, they dont show that they remember -6 mos remember despite change

experience-expectant processes (or experience-expectant synaptogenesis)

functions will develop for all members of a species, given a species-typical environment. Early experience of merely viewing a normal world, for example, is sufficient for the visual nervous system to develop properly. Those neurons and connections that receive the species-expected experience live and become organized with other activated neurons, and those that do not receive such activation die. -Thus, although the infant comes into the world prepared and "prewired" both for certain experiences and to develop certain abilities, these abilities are substantially influenced by experience.

domain general theory

general purpose learning mechanism explain how children learn across domains

Domain general abilities

general, underlying cognitive abilities that influence performance over a wide range of situations (or domains) assume that at any point in time, a child's thinking is influenced by a single set of factors with these factors affecting all aspects of cognition

kind specific generalization

generalize the name of an object to others that are similar in relevant ways, starting around 18 months -objects extend name to same shape -substances extend to material for objects

genetic determinism

genes directly cause behavior, immutable effects (predetermined, unchangeable) -not correct

Baillargeon study methods

get infants habituated to seeing a moving screen- they would see a screen moving back and forth they want to see if babies dishabituate -want to get babies bored from looking at something so they can see if they are not bored when an unexpected event happens -the unexpected situation defies the laws of physics the possible event: screen meets the box and then goes back impossible event: the screen goes all the way through the box and then goes back

William's case: what abilities showed good plasticity vs. less plasticity? What was the difference between outcomes for William (surgery under ) 1 and Rachel (around age 5)?

good plasticity-language, personality, reading, larger muscle group motor function less plasticity- vision, fine motor function more difficult time with movement for rachel the later you have the surgery, the less plasticity. more room for change earlier in development

specialization in face perception

happens later in development At 6 months, infants can discriminate between faces that belong to unfamiliar races & species Adults & by 9 months - Easier to differentiate faces from group you grew up in -Other Race Effect, or Other Species Effect

children who receive hemispherectomies

have many skills in typical range with lots of therapy -Outcomes for kids often far better than expected for adults- generally

auditory development

hearing in the womb: around 26 weeks gestation, fetus can respond to sound -study: around 36 weeks gestation recognize mom's voice

folk biology

how people "naturally" come to understand the biological world

testing visual acuity

if infants can see the difference between lines, should prefer lines

methodologies used to assess infant perception

implicit measures: capture unconscious cognition that cannot be expressed directly explicit measures: participant report on their cognition or behavior infants use sucking -infants altered sucking ratee when hearing familiar passage vs novel passage visual preference paradigm -look longer habituation/ dishabituation paradigm -hab: the decrease in response as a result of repeated presentation of a stimulus. -dishab: following habituation, a new stimulus is presented that increases the level of responding.

What is the difference in the chimps' vs children's approaches? what are possible explanations for the children's behavior?

in the first round they performed similarly but in the second round the children still did the behaviors despite the fact that behaviors were unnecessary kids see adults as teachers so they include the steps even if kids know that they are not really necessary there might even be social pressure to do what the adult did chimps are focused on the goal rather than unnecessary steps imitative learning vs mimicry -imitative learning is understanding the goal and engaging in similar key behavior to reach the goal, not necessarily exact copy vs mimicry without understanding

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember specific events from early childhood average age of earliest memory in adults is 3 1/2 years (range 2-8 yrs) early memories, they are few and lack detail-perhaps results of conversations, pictures in childhood, age at earliest memory depends upon the age of the person doing the remembering (STUDY) -ask same kids to name earliest memories at age 4 to 13 and again 2 years later -as kids aged, oldest memory shifted about 1+ year

object cohesion and continuity

individual objects are seen as cohesive wholes with distinct boundaries.

Kuhl 2003 Purpose

infants can learn sounds of more than one language, but how much exposure is necessary? what kind of exposure? how much plasticity is there?

Rudimentary gaze following in newborns

infants look faster to an object on the side where the eyes looked

Results of Baillargeon STUDY

infants showed object knowledge by looking longer at the impossible events than the possible event -most consistent with 4.5 months -3.5 months with fast habituation had the same responding as 4.5 months -3.5 months with slow habituation do not differentiate for the possible vs impossible events

results of kuhl 2003

infants with live social interaction could hear the difference between the chinese speech sounds

beginnings of social learning: imitation

innate drive to imitate? Intermodal mapping between vision and own movements human tendency to imitate allows us to exploit others' solutions

Cultural context for development guided participation

involvement of individuals with others as they engage in shared activities -interacting together -not just explicit instruction, but also everyday experiences, observation of parents, chores, tv differences in guided participation across cultures

what activities promote number . sense? is it okay to count on fingers?

its okay to count on fingers in the beginning to get number concepts . down using tiles which gives children a visual sense . of how to decompose the numbers -can see all of the ways that numbers work together an idea that children can learn from this practice is that the order of the numbers doesnt matter when adding

social and self evaluation

kids notice stereotypes early -toddlers apply cultural norms about gender (who feeds babies? who is a firefighter) -4 year olds expect wealthier kids to be better students -elementary school age kids are familiar with negative racial stereotypes stereotype threat

content knowledge

knowing more about the world helps memory children can have better memories than adults for subjects they are expert in ex. chess study -kid chess experts are better at memory in the game than adults non experts (if chess pieces random, no advantage) -for digit test, adults were better at memory than kid chess experts

testing the critical period with no first language

late sign language learners -deaf, used ASL for 30yrs, first exposure to ASL age 0-25 test of syntax & morphology -> same pattern as learning a 2nd spoken language

brain damage and language: which hemisphere is specialized for language

left hemisphere -adults with left hemisphere damage-> severe language problems, possibly irreversible -infants with left hemisphere damage: early delays in producing words and sentences; but by age 7, language is near typical

surface dyslexia

less common, difficulty with visually-based retrieval -being able to look at words on the page and activate what they mean Hard to read exception words usually retrieved from memory, unusual letter-sound combos -(pint, yacht, caught)

chronotopic constraints (or chronotopic innateness)

limitations on developmental timing. Areas most receptive to experience at specific times. Basis for critical or sensitive periods ex. language- the timing of exposure to language is important for children to have language development When input isn't available (visual deprivation), synaptogenesis & pruning won't be typical ex. : Biological basis for timing of synapse formation and pruning

Alison Gopnik (UC berkeley) ted talk What is the significance of the long childhood of humans relative to other species? (bird section) What is the blicket detector task? What does it suggest about children's reasoning? What kind of attention are kids good at? What kinds are they bad at?

long childhood is connected to learning -all we have to do is learn as a child and then as an adult we can use this information -there is time dedicated to learning so the brain can adapt to the environment and become flexible the blicket detector: lights up when you put some things on but not others -told the kids to make the detector light up -kids did a series of experiments to figure out why it was lighting up -shows that kids are hypothesis testers and will try different things that adults wouldnt try because kids are more open minded bad at narrowing down one thing but good at looking at many things at one time -bad at NOT paying attention

Infants______ the ability to discriminate between ____________ speech sounds. Perception is _______ to relevant experience

lose; non-native tuning (perceptual narrowing) -its domain general because it happens in more than one domain in development

stability

maintaining same rank among peers over Infants who process information quickly tend to have higher childhood IQ

errors in source monitoring what is the mousetrap study

make kids believe they experienced an event when they didnt kids have a difficult time remembering the difference between things they imagined versus things that actually happened they can plant an idea of an event due to the repeated exposure to questions and given the child a chance to remember it or think through the event

arithmetic

manipulating numbers: add, subtract, multiply, divide

Difference in learning by observing US kids vs. Maya kids? Rogoff STUDY

mayan: more attentive -used to learning by . watching what people are doing -they take advantage of the opportunity to learn US: less attentive -used to paying attention only when someone tells them to

memory for stressful situations

medical exam 1. age predicts children's memory accuracy -older kids remember more 2. emotionally unavailability and anxious parents were less likely to talk about the event, had kids with higher distress and kids with more memory errors

memory retrieval

memory involves reconstruction every time we access a memory it can be changed

hippocampal development is important for

memory of events -bigger and more connections-> better formation and retrieval of memories -rapid neurogenesis in infants means fast memory formation, but w/ new neurons and new connections (synapses) also memories "overwritten" because there is so many new formations happening

Alternative explanations for age of theory of mind

memory: when asking kids questions (what do you think is in the box) they remember what they used to think compared to what they think now -interference; hard for kids to remember past beliefs representational deficit: younger kids cannot hold in their mind ideas that conflict with each other (i thought it was crayons but now i think its candles- inconsistencies do not make sense yet) - cant hold 2 contradicting idea language: may not be able to fully process the question right -the language is too complex - 15 moth olds in violation of expectation task

How does the mean monkey task demonstrate theory of mind

monkey takes sticker that they want 3yrs dont know to lie to get the sticker they want 5yrs know to lie to get sticker they want

locating objects

monocular cues -visual expansion; object moves toward you, takes up more of visual field -occlusion: object moves in front of other, occluded is farther (before 6-7 months, cant use cues without motion -pictorial depth cues: bigger on retina= closer, more texture = closer

Phonological dyslexia

more common, difficulty sounding out/decoding, phonemic awareness Hard to read nonsense words (naichovabe)

language learning debate: origins of language skills

most complicated system you'll ever learn babies are born knowing very little learn in first few years of life best language learners are children

theories of language acquisition: learning stance

must be something innate about how humans learn, but patterns in the input are essential -children are good at detecting patterns (statistical learning) -emphasis on role of child as active learner

core-knowledge theories

nativist perspective -babies are smart because they are born with basic understanding of how the world works -children have innate specialized knowledge systems for specific domains

core knowledge is a _______ theory and a _______ _______ theory

nativist theory and a domain specific theory -knowledge systems for specific processes for specific domains

neurogenesis/proliferation

neurons created from stem cells (where neurons are formed) mostly occurs prenatally cell division

what do newborns know about language?

newborns can store info about language -ex. prenatal exposure to cat in the hat. Mom read story repeatedly while pregnant and tested at 3 days old - babies recognized the cat in the hat story rather than the control. -rhythm is stored even before they born Maternal language (based on rhythm) - newborns differentiate native (maternal) language vs different language if rhythm is different -ex. english vs dutch vs japanese. english and dutch sound similar but english and japanese sound different -they cant differentiate between . speech sounds, only rhythm newborns distinguish phoneme categories: speech sounds that . make meaningful distinctions -ex. pa vs ba, ba vs ga and E vs A -not specific to humans (pigeons and chinchillas understand difference too)

auditory localization

newborns turn head to sound location developmental change: U shaped function newborns are good at sound localization but it gets worse at 2 months but then gets better after that again -change in the system that is in charge of sound localization -1st localization is subcortical (basic), later is cortical (more complex higher level processing), poor localization during the transition

does unequal "own race preference" occur because of familiarity with the majority group? what is the evidence

no majority explanation; they are aware that this is the group that has more money or power -kids from majority group is not showing their own race preference

is developmental timing for mutual exclusivity universal?

no. -ex of monolingual assumptoon in language development -majority of the world, people know more than one language -testing diverse samples matters for understanding how development works

Did black south african children show an own race preference in the predominantly black environments?

no; cape town- all races preferred white and multiracial pictures; aligns with wealth. education, opportunity langa and cape town: bias against foreign black africans BUT- no preference for males over females, INSTEAD PREFER OWN GENDER; males earn more and more educated other research: sensitivity to wealth by 4; wealthy=good

spatial reasoning and Williams syndrome

not good at spatial reasoning ex. copying drawings- copying individual features, but not understanding the overall spatial features

piaget's concept of infant object permanence

objects exist when out of view - Simple beginnings for all mental representation, the basic foundation for all symbols, like words, pretending, and maps - Infants lack mental representations, as demonstrated by failure in object permanence tasks (search task, A not B task)

why is a faulty lens (cataract) a bigger problem for infants versus older adults?

older adults have had a chance to process visual input but infants have not had a chance to make these connections yet

syntax

ordering of words in sentences -dog bites man vs man bites dog: both sentences, but have very different meanings

experience-expectant processes

our brains are organized in certain ways because they assume certain information will be available in our environment -synapses are formed & kept when species-typical experience occurs -We evolved in a world with certain structure (3- dimensional visual input, faces, language, gravity). -contribute to why there is similarity in brains of species from architecture, but also consistent experiences. -Without EXPERIENCE, can't develop typically. Brain "expects" gestation timing Brain "expects" perceptual input

infants remember

over long periods; older babies remember longer

what predicts children's reading?

parent's interest in reading parent-child book reading books in home vocabulary size phonemic awareness -the ability to think about how words decompose into sounds and sounds decompose to letters read to kids to encourage love of reading-even kids who can read independently

how can caregivrs facilitate vocabulary development

parental sensitivity matters: -following attention/ Joint attention-> better opportunities for learning - following and expanding on whateever the child is attending to parental input: infants who hear more words know more words preschoolers who hear more complex sentences use and understand more complex sentences genetic? no. -link between grammar and teachers' input and parent input

understanding social groups

part of social cognition: understanding your group for better or worse, humans have strong in group affiliations -evolutionary argument: importance of groups for human survival

interpretation, significance and implications of kuhl 2003

perception doesnt act alone: interaction social and perceptual processing raw auditory input isn't enough: SOCIAL CUES are key for learning -language is supposed to be social-> best learning is social support for perceptual narrowing as a general developmental function that occurs with specialization social info can effect perception we see perceptual narrowing but it is malleable early in development (first year) -similar to conclusions of scott and monnesson article (ex. how is social interaction important between both studies)

two strategies for identifying words

phonological recoding: translate visual forms to sounds, sounds linked to meanings (vocab knowledge) -visual + sounds route, sounding out letters (takes advantage of grapheme-phoneme links) visually based retrieval: visual form to meaning -letters & contexts to access meaning

core knowledge involves what 3 specific domains

physics: object properties, number biology: animate/inanimate distinction psychology: intentionality, goal directness

evidence for core object knowledge -piaget vs baillargeon views of object permanence

piaget: infants dont search until around 8-9 months baillargeon: infants have object permanence, but piagets task doesn't capture it. -infants fail because they cannot coordinate their actions until 9 months of age =

cognitive limitation in problem-solving: Planning challenges

planning requires inhibition of tendency to act immediately kids are overoptimistic about their plans -they dont think all the steps through parents save from negative effects of not planning -remind kids to turn int heir homework or putting their homework in their backpack for them makes children not able to learn to plan effectively

Humans have brains with a typical structure and organization, but development is marked by _________

plasticity brain's ability to organize or reorganize in response to experience

cataracts is an example of

plasticity -ability of brain to organize or reorganize neural pathways in response to experience

promoting attention in adults

practice paying attention to one thing at a time as much of the time as possible -plan to minimize distractions -use timers, make lists meditation aerobic exercise sleep

basic level process: executive function or executive control

processes involved in regulating attention and determining how to act on new information or stored information

stereotype threat in cognition and education

produces underperformance -equal preparation, one group expects to not do as well, dont perform well -activate/inhibit the stereotype-> see casual effects on performance -race, religion, gender, age, geography, income -contribute to achievement differences study: -"usually boys do better than girls"- then that effect happens -but if you say that girls and boys do the same, then they will do the same

A not B task

put object in place A first and the baby searches for the toy in that place every time even when it is placed in place B -infants make A not B error until around 12-18 months -Object permanence is precursor to internal mental representations--basis for symbolic representations, language, pretending. -Sets up infants for next stage, preoperational stage (around 2 yrs)

auditory threshold

quietest sound can detect -infants higher threshold (need sounds louder) -close to adultlike at 6 months. adult-like at school age -early threshold lower for high pitch than low pitch

theories of language acquisition: nativist explanation

rapid grammatical development innate grammatical knowledge -children are good at learning language -language is computationally too complex to learn from input. kids don't usually get told what cant be said conclusion: children have a language instinct -children figure out correct syntactic systems because . of innate knowledge of some parts of grammar (universal grammar)

Object representation

reasoning about the inanimate world (gravity, continuity, contact) object cohesion and continuity, and object permanence

intermodal matching

recognizing an object in one modality when it appears in another modality -ex. babies hold red cylinder but didnt get to see it. showed cylinder or bumpy cylinder and infants showed longer looking toward the ones that had a different texture

what kind of innate is core knowledge theory?

representational innateness -says that babies have innateness and is not based on experience NOT architectural innateness- innate factors in basic brain organization, but experience

Problem solving

requires integrating basic cognitive functions like attention, inhibition, short- and long-term memory but with limited memory, limited processing capacity and speed, limited prior experience, limited conceptual understanding kids have disadvantages based on their experience and what they can think about at a given time

brain damage and plasticity: early brain damage vs later brain damage and the early vulnerability hypothesis

results concerning age of brain damage and the likelihood of recovery, with some studies documenting greater recovery of function when brain damage occurs early versus later in life, and others showing just the opposite pattern The early plasticity view contends that the brains of infants and young children are highly plastic, or flexible, relative to the brains of older children and adults, and as a result they are better able to overcome the adverse effects of brain damage some types of brain damage producing more long-lasting and negative consequences when experienced earlier rather than later in life, supporting the early vulnerability hypothesis. From this perspective, because the brains of infants and young children are becoming increasingly specialized with experience, early damage can alter the typical course of development resulting in serious disruptions of normal neural organization and functioning.

phonemic awareness: learning activities

rhyming books -helpful because you are emphasizing rhyme and what can change in words when rhyming -by seeing whats consistent and what changes, you can see how to make rhymes children's programs the goal of phonemic awareness is to give kids strategies to be able to recognize words on a page

Native language Narrowing Kuhl (2003)

role of neural commitment to native language acoustic properties in language learning -as native language perception improves, foreign language perception declines

socio cultural theories

says that cognitive development occurs in social interaction -Can't separate social environment from individual Vygotsky- founder of socio-cultural framework

why do we care about kids' executive function skills? why are they important

school, learning, social skills are impacted

migration

second stage in neuronal development Once produced, the cells migrate, or move, to what will be their permanent position in the brain, where they collect with other cells to form the major parts of the brain Not all cells migrate at the same time, but most cells have arrived at the final position in the brain by 7 months after conception

children separated from families at the border

separating families has long term damaging psychological and health consequences for children, families, and communities

toxic stress

severe, persistent stress -poverty, abuse, neglect, racism -fight or flight response that is activated at high rates affects brain, hormones, immune system which then affects cognition, health, and life expectancy brain: areas affected have big roles in fear (amygdala), impulse control and planning (prefrontal cortex), memory (hippocampus) and stress regulation (all 3 regions) experience "gets under the skin"

social communication in word learning: joint attention

shared attention with another person, shared awareness of attention early skills -around 9 months: following points, checking attention -around 12 months: directing attention following attention -18 months: follow gaze and use as clue to word meaning when there are multiple objects. (look at modi, says theres the modi and child looks at modi and can hand it to them)

search task

show infants under 8 months a rattle, cover the rattle and they do not search for it -failure in object permanence tasks during sensorimotor stage processing based on now, physical experience

Shutts et al: methods

showed different combinations of faces -male and female faces -who would you like to play with -who do you like showing pairs of faces that are Xhosa (predominant Black S african group), white, multiracial, or foreign black african conditions: -english, white female tester -xhosa tester in xhosa language

importance of going beyond WEIRD

shutts et al's study illustrates a limit of only studying white upper middle class-english speaking-american children: CONTEXT MATTERS, not universal "own race preference"

Whole-word approach

skilled readers don't sound out to identify words, so kids shouldn't if don't recognize a word, use pictures & context, reading for meaning is more enjoyable Emphasis on visual based retrieval strategy dont focus on sounds

1. What brain regions differ across kids with different SES (socioeconomic status) and what do these regions do? 2. Could the differences be genetic? 3. What are possible origins of wealth differences in brain development?

slower growth of hippocampus- learning, memory and stress regulation, prefrontal cortex- perception, memory and motor control not genetics because this is not present at birth, lack of mental stimulation and the stresses of poverty wealthier get more cognitive stimulation- being read to, talked to etc.- promoting brain development both brain areas are affected by stress -growth in these areas predict academic success

critical/sensitive period for language: why limited timing?

specialization: ability to learn any language decreases, but specific language skills improve dramatically if remain open to learning forever, knowledge never has change to get established -brain is shaped by experience available

Ellen Bialystok: experience affects executive function and bilingual kids

stroop test: show words written in different colors than the words and tell them to say the color of the word day night task: when there is a sun say night and when you see a moon say day card sort task: sorting cards by color then by shape when you are bilingual you are activating knowledge of one language and inhibit another language

forensic interviews

structured conversation, to get information about experience or witnessing events -criminal investigations -child's safety

tuning perception to the native language- when do we tune into . our native language

study -language comparison -method: conditioned head turn procedure: visually reinforced infant speech discrimination -teach baby to turn head in anticipation of the change in sound with a stuffed animal

what are the multiple waves of synaptogenesis and pruning?

synapse formation happens rapidly after birth but pruning happens at the same time ex. prefrontal cortex pruning extends for a long period of time and continues to develop throughout adolescence they happen at different time scales depending on the brain region

synaptic pruning

synapses that aren't used are pruned away happens at infancy through adulthood

experience dependent processes

synaptic connections reflect our own individual experience -ex. Rats from simple cages have fewer synapses than rats with playgrounds -ex. Taxi drivers in London have larger hippocampi -ex. Volleyball players have larger areas of the brain for controlling muscles in forearm vs. runners. Coordination & muscle learning

morphology

system for combining units of meaning morphemes: smallest units of meaning i walkED to class -ED is a morpheme

Parenting and memory: encoding and retrieval

talking about memories influences how memories are encoded and remembered -parents who ask a lot of questions and elaborate have kids with better memories scaffolding: what did you and daddy do? did you go to the park? did you swing? -informative: these are things to remember about events (who, what, when, where); organizes memory

Method of Lillard and peterson

tested 4 year olds WEIRD sample What's the idea behind conditions of Spongebob & Caillou (realistic educational cartoon) vs. drawing? -spongebob is not realistic but caillou is real world situations -spongebob is more fast paced than caillou -drawing is more calm Backwards digit span: tell series of numbers and report back in backwards order (5,2, 4 -> 4,2,5) -working memory Head toes knees shoulder: when they say to touch your head, touch your shoulders -inhibition Delay of gratification: marshmallow task -self regulation Tower of Hanoi: cant put bigger disks on top of smaller one but have to get all disks on ring C -cognitive flexibility

object permanence

that objects are permanent in time and space, whether we are perceiving them or not; that is, objects continue to exist even if they are out of our sight.

architectural innateness or architectural constraints refer to

the idea that the brain is typically set up in a particular way, with some characteristics that are strongly predetermined "some brain plans are privileged" further specialization occurs with experience ex. directed neuron migration; axons have preferred targets across regions; neurons have many vs few connections with other neurons; inhibitory vs excitatory activation perceptual input and experience result in specialization

object constancy

the knowledge that an object remains the same despite changes in how it is viewed. ex. As we move away from the table, that image on the back of our eyes gets smaller, but we continue to perceive the table as maintaining a constant size and shape.

structure

the mental knowledge that underlies intelligence Some hypothetical mental construct, faculty, or ability that frames knowledge and changes with age The structures in contact with the external world is responsible for its development

measuring memory in infants

the mobile task -laying on back and kicking -baseline: string is attached to foot but it is not attached to the mobile -learning phase: infants learn the contingency (9 min; sometimes repeated) -what happens to kicking rate -test phase: infant returns to the crib, under the mobile (but not tied) -if they remember, what will they do? -at 3 months old, remembered 1 week later train task -baseline: presses w/ deactived -training (presses w/activated) retention test (press w/ deactivated)

Modularity

the notion that certain cognitive processes (or regions of the brain) are restricted in the type of information they process

limited capacity system

theres a limit to the amount of information that can be processed at one time -limit on speed, mental space effects depends on how automatic or how effortful the process is

african american vernacular english

they allright -omission of "are" they be goin to school every day be= habitual action, not= "are" she been knowing him forever -distant time treated as incorrect but to native speakers, it is just as correct as other languages

how is the baillargeon test good for young infants

they dont have to touch anything and doesnt require coordinated motor movements

Shutt's et al: how might the experimenters race and language matter?

they might be activating knowledge that is consistent with the experimenters race -white experimenter with english, they might feel pressured to say they like the white person more (and same for xhosa)

social cognition

thinking about oneself, other people, and the social world. -theory of mind

Wug test

this is a wug now there is another one there two of them now there are two ______ evidence that children don't just copy, they learn structure

what characteristic of forensic interviews might affect reporting and or memory accuracy

time: questioning long after even planted suggestions, misinformation, interviewers' expectations, bribes/threats types of questions: leading questions, open ended, yes/no repeated questions -can improve memory but also can distort memory stress/trauma of the event questions in stressful situations, maybe embarrassing

the goal of development in a social context is

to be competent in a specific society -affects how and what kids learn (schooling, observation, tools)

baillargeon STUDY purpose

to identify when infants display object permanence. -The findings will affect understanding of the origins of infants' object knowledge

numerosity

to the ability to determine quickly the number of items in a set without counting

activities that promote EF

toddlers (under 3): follow the leader; freeze dance little kids (3-5 yrs) imaginary play; puzzles; cooking 5-7 yrs: board games that required planning (checkers); duck duck goose; simon says musical training; yoga, martial arts- include mindfulness (what am I doing? what should I be doing?); stress bad for EF

infants as emulators

toddlers 2 yrs old and younger engage in emulation -understanding the goal of the model, but using alternative behaviors to achieve that goal they imitate what adults do and emulate

joint attention

two people are involved in interaction and they are looking at the same thing and know that they are both looking at the same thing

Learning the past tense: U shaped curve over-regularization

use regular verb (add -ed) to form past of irregular verbs walk-> walked; play-> played; run-> runned; eat-> eated; go-> goed 2yrs- good 4yrs- poor 6yrs- good -aka U shaped graph 2yrs- shows that they know how words work, but they dont know the rules yet. 4yrs- they show that they know how the rules work but they over-regularize 6yrs- they hear their parents use exceptions to the rule so they learn the correct forms over-regularization can occur for nouns too -child; childs -goose; gooses not the same as overgeneralization

phonics approach

use sounds, letters, & words kids already know; link together previous knowledge for support. Quick visual retrieval will come with practice Emphasis on phonological recoding strategy Research support for phonics (with some word recognition, use of context)

dual representations

viewing a symbol as an independent entity and as a representation of what it symbolizes

visual acuity

vision for detail -can also be affected by experience (cataracts) -experience EXPECTANT

how are the limitations in early vision beneficial

visual input is unavailable -brain works around that and looks for input that is there

weird samples

w= western e= educated i= industrialized r= rich d= democratic

measure of executive function: dimensional card sort task

what do kids do in the card sort task? -shape game first -color game second -then shape game -when told to switch back to the color game, they cannot do it because of what game they learned first shows attentional inertia

balancing strategies

when difficulty of problems go up then the use of back of strategies goes up but there are also individual differences in the use of back up strategies -6 year olds grouped by strategy choice not so good students -Some retrieval (even for non-memorized items); back-ups, but inefficient -Slow & least accurate good students -Most retrieval (& correct) back-ups for hard problems -quick and highly accurate perfectionists -Least retrieval, use back-ups for hard & easy (even for memorized items) -Highly accurate (= good), fairly fast

the greatest effect of cataracts on life

when infants have cataracts -visual development cant proceed on typical course if cataracts is present

Role of experience: Parental input What's the connection between parent spatial language, child language, and nonverbal spatial skills?

when parents use spatial terms a lot, their kids use spatial language a lot -ex. talking about what shapes they are putting in the shape sorter these kids then had better spatial reasoning in spatial rotation tasks -evidence that early on, the way we talk to kids about their toys can highlight these features and sets kids up to analyze their environments in different ways

False belief task: Sally Anne task

where will sally look for the marble 3 year old children fail 5 year old children pass

Shutts et all (2011) Imbalance in race preference

white children have a bigger own race preference than minority race children -minorities show weaker own-race preference, no preference, or white-race preference -tested in white majority countries (US, Canada)

knowledge: scripts

with age-more scripts usually helpful for memory can produce errors, based on typical events (did I lock my door?) -you usually do it, so its hard to remember if you did it at that specific time help to rule out possible events: did the doctor lick your knee? -3 yrs: said yes, esp if asked months later -7 yrs: unlikely

components of executive function

working memory: info held in short term store, what you can think about at once inhibition of responses and resistance to interference: you are able to NOT do what comes to mind in a given moment -ex. hearing phone ring and you dont look at it selective attention to what's relevant: paying attention to whats relevant in the given moment cognitive flexibility: ability to shift different tasks or sets of rules self regulation and delay of gratification: control responses in a situation and wait for something that you want

how does the baillargeon study test object knowledge

you have to know that the object is there for you to believe that the event is impossible

implications/interpretation of Baillaregeons study

baillargeons possible explanations for origins of object permanence in young infants 1. innate object knowledge: core knowledge - objects are spatially bounded, move continuously in space & time; innate representation 2. powerful learning: mechanism - little experience required - reaching attempts, holding objects = practice with occlusion

consequences of source monitoring errors

errors happen at all ages reinforcement from police officers

development involves both ______ and ______ over time

stability and plasticity

how do young children learn words so rapidly

strategies -mutual exclusivity -kind specific generalization -help from people -cross situational statistical learning insights start around 18 months, around vocabulary spurt

Face preference: Effects on development? early development:

Early development: newborns 12-36 hours old prefer momʼs face vs. female stranger -Likely using external features (face shape and hairline, high contrast) to distinguish

domain specific abilities

cognitive abilities specific to one cognitive domain under control of a specific mind/brain function hypothesize a certain degree of modularity in brain functions

kids with low SES backgrounds have _____ advanced vocab and grammar vs kids with high SES

less -by age 3 lowest SEES children have heard as many as 30 million fewer words than high SES

habituation occurs when

you are less interested in something

representational innateness

information hard-wired; innate knowledge. Brains built with knowledge. -Grammar, humans, object knowledge, simple math

acuity (vision for detail) in newborns

18 inches away can see eyes 6 feet away- cant see eyes

vocabulary spurt around

18 months -3 years: 1000 words -6yrs: 2600 words but can understand 10,000 words

stereotype threat

anxiety about being judged based on negative stereotype about your identity; disruptive

initial state of babies and sounds

babies can discriminate sounds from languages they have never heard

how does mutual exclusivity apply to bilinguals

dont start to show mutual exclusivity until later

spatial skills

spatial reasoning object location role of experience