Hinduism

beginning of human civilization in india

-50,000BCE : stone age culture arises in subcontinent. first wves of migration out of Africa were into Southern Asia, and migrants came in/out ever since -depictions of cave paintings, horses, warfare, elephants, technologies like spears and tents -Madhya Pradesh -pastoral and agri settlements started from West Pakistan area / became language and nomatic societies

Tantra

-a system of yoga that inverts the traditional yogic emphasis on turning away fro senses and bodily impulses like sexuality -like bhakti, origins are to make liberation attainable for anyone -based on premise that one can utilize the senses in order to transcend the senses. -its most extreme says that the norms of purity are incorrect, and that if all is brahman, then purity and impurity are effects of a false, dualistic consciousness that tries to divide the unity of existence. -practitioners would meditate in cremation grounds, utilize skulls as begging bowls, and other rituals are overtly sexual, using images of deities, geometric forms of a deity, etc. -same with bhakti that brahminical tradition has assimilated these forms of worship. the entire structure of temple ritual is based on tantric principles, and use of mantras is part of training brahmins. -this is all around first millennium of CE

Hinduism and Islam era

-as first millenium ends, and second begins, India began to experience icnursions fro outside powers: Arabs, Turks, Mughals. -w/ the coming of Islam, at first brought peacefully thru trade and then militarily, hinduism entered a period of 1) insecurity, and 2) creativity. 1) -ancient texts suggest that caste system became more rigid in practice than earlier priods, intensified under british raj -brahamanical texts indicate a preoccupation w/ preservation of society coupled with a sense of impending doom -many temples and institutions were destroyed, and major blows to indic traditions -buddhism just about died out in india, but thankfully spread already across asia. it effectively ceased in india by 1300. -hindu traditions survived b/c its the practices, stories, and beliefs making up hindu ethos, not on institutions. powerful hindu dynasties like Vijayanagara thrived in south until 16th century, but then got under attack 2) islam became a part of indic religious landscape, and bhakti movements and sufis of islam began to see each others traditions are repositories of deep spiritual wisdom and of practices that each could be appropriate for attaining salvation. hindus adopted sufi spiritual guides or teachers, and muslims were drawn towards hindu spiritual figures. kabir is claimed by both as a teacher of wisdom.

Swami Vivekanada

-changed the perspection that hinduism was confined to the indian subcontinent into a global religion -it was already at his time that westerners were drawn to hindu traditions (transcendalists of new england and theosophists who came to south asia as reverse missionaries to instill pride among hindus and buddhists. -he initiated westerns into a hindu monastic order for the first time -his speech in chicago in 1893 is seen as marking of arrival of hinduism on world stage -gave way to a plethora of gurus who similarly tried to combine western and vedic traditions in movements in the west

dhyana yoga

-discipline of meditation, practice that coexisted with vedic rituals, vedantic contemplation, and theistic devotion for millenium. said to have been an inheritance of the indus valley civilization. -cultivated by renouncer traditions, both vedic and nonvedic (jain and buddhist traditions), in first millenium before CE, and is theme of upanishads. -its goal is direct realization of brahman not as object of knowledge or devotion, but through absorption of consciousness in brahman to the degree where distinction btwn subject and object that characterizes most experiences disappears (samadhi)

bhakti and sufism / acceptance

-in medieval india, hindus and muslims truly did live together and focus on their shared sense of the ubiquity of the divine presence an its availability to all those who approach it with devotion and a sincere and humble heart. sufi saints incorporated names of hindu deities into their litanies of many names of allah,a nd hindu devotes chanted verses from qur'an and make pilgramages to the tombs of sufi saints. sharing of holy days still exist today. sufis and bhaktis could hang, since they both were on the search for authentic experiences as opposed to the dry formality of the "official" exponents of their respective traditions. -process of popular mutual assimilation was facilitated at the level of the state. the Mughal emperor Akbar, reigned fro 1556-1605, formally adopted policy of toleration toward all religions, including Christianity taught byt he European missionaries arriving with Portuguese merchant ships on SW india. allowing his hindu wife to build a temple to her diety, krishna, in his palace and even developing his own religion, a synthesis of all the religions of india that he knew, he ran afoul of the exponents of Islamic orthodoxy.

bhakti yoga

-in the later upanishads and post-vedic smrti literature in first mill of common era, another path to liberation was emerged as available to a wider cross of society, not relying on brahmanic priestly ritual or ascetic renouncers. -this was the way of bhakti ygoa, or way of devotion, where basic premise was supreme brahman, the ultimate object of all spiritual aspiration, wasnt an impersonal energy or state of consciousness, but a loving personal deity who desires salvation of beings. -a relationship of loving devotion, or bhakti. form varies within distinct hindu traditions, that orient themselves toawrd visnu, siva, sakti, etc. these theistic traditions centered on a divine have been dominant forms of hinduism from first millenium of CE to present.

Sri Ramakrishna

-known for powerful ecstatic visions, he claimed to hvae experienced samadhi, absorption in the divine, by practicing all of major hindu spiritual paths, as well as christianity and islam. he concluded that all religions are paths to the divine. though barely literate, he could discuss finer points of hindu philosphy with highly learned scholars on basis of his direct experience of spiritual realities. -western educated elites of bengali society, including those of brahmmo samaj, were captivated and based he based his teaching on direct expeirence and not interpretation of scripture, his pathw as seen as open to scientific verification and modern sensibility. -yet his path of accepting all religions was not cool w/ those rejecting images in prayer or highely emotionally charged devotion. -under swami vivekananda, the ramakrishna mission and its movement had a broader impact

what makes hinduism so unique

-no founder, no pope, no vticn -no test of orthodoxy ro creed upon all hindus must agree to to become a hindu -what makes it succeed/what holds it together then? could be that its teachings nad practices hold insight and wisdom to lives of adherents. or: 1) theres no single figure or structure upon which all hindus agree to, or which hindu belief is traced to. in fact, so many figures who have started structures that communities adhere to. who holds it together is fact that hindu adherence of traditions and orgs ahs a certain fluidity that allows for phenomenon of multiple religious belonging. its rare for a tradition to demand exclusive allegiance of its followers. -despite various differences, there are shared ideals of karma, rebirth, aspiration for liberation, nonviolence, honesty, etc. 2) the caste system, while controversial, hs led to occupations to be passed on through ones family. it also leds to practices to be passed down - shows hinduism has at least as much to do with fam loyalty and preservation of tradition as with religious preoccupations like salvation and nature of existence. absorbed in childhood

Karma yoga

-originated as practice of vedic ritual outlined in early vedic hymes and the Brahmanas (800-600 BCE) -emphasis was correct performance of the ritual of sacrifice, or yajna, seen as essential to upholding and maintaining the world. modeled on repetitions of original sacrifice by which gods created world from body of a primordial being, the cosmic man. these rituals tapped into the power of creation itself, an energy field known as brahman (means that which is expansive). the vedic priest, or brahmin, was one who had the knowledge of the correct performance of the sacrifice and was thus able to tap into this power to ensure health and prosperity of the community.

The Later Vedic Period

-picture of hinduism is much clearer in first millenium bce through the later vedic texts: Brahmanas (priestly texts), aranyakas (forest texts) and upanishads (esoteric teachings) -can trace development of vedic thought from series of reflections on rituals to a grand cosmological vision of the oneness of existence. -spiritual practice of four distinct disciplines, or yogas, or paths: karma yoga (way of action), jnana yoga (way of wisdom), bhakti yoga (way of devotion), and dhyana yoga (meditation). each of these represents a distinct historical trend or movement within the history of the tradition -to note: the above four are rarely practiced in silo, but rather are threads of a tapestry that interwave and make up the total way of life that is hinduism.

hindu nationalism vs. visionary hinduism

-subsequent history of hinduism after gandhi results in tensions between hindu nationalism, seeing hinduism and indi under constant attack by opposing movements like islam, christianity, secularism -this is opposed by visionary hinduism of gandhi and ramakrishna, seeing all religions as part of a greater harony that india can embody as an inspiration for the rest of the world to follow. its a history that has been punctuated by violence, like hindu-sikh riots and hindu-muslim riots -this stands out against routine background of relative peace and harony, where everyoen celebrates each others holidays, make pilgrammages to one others places of worship, and elect members of minority to high public office.

jnana yoga

-the aranyakas and upanisads shifted the emphasis from performance of rituals to the transformative power of the knowledge that made such ritual action effective. -knowledge came to be seen as the true and final purpose, or end, of the veda, of which ritual was just an outwrd expression or manifestation. -knoweldge that brahman, the ground of being, and one's innermost self, atman, were one and the same. -extending the ritual of sacrifice to encompss all of life was exemplified in this yoga. a ritual act, karma, cme to refer to leading to a desired effect if performed well, and opposite if perfored poorly, to all aspects of life. it began to take an ethical tone, referring to morally good or evil action, along with inevitable effects of such actions. -b/c one did not experience all the good and bad effects of one's actions in a single lifetime, it was deduced that one would be reborn to experience them in future lifetimes. -similarly, the unequal living of beings came to be understood as due to karma in previous lives. the goal of the way of wisdom is to become free from this cycle of action and reaction: to achieve a true and lasting peace and escape the inevitable loss and suffering characterizing life in rebirth cycle. -way of wisdom is seen as difficult, requiring separation from worldly affairs and requiring a renunciation (rejection) of society

Early Vedic Period

1900 BCE: next phase started with arrival of small waves of migrants from Central Asia into NW subcontinent. Spoke an Indo-European language and used small, light chariots developed in southern Russia. Settled in india and became a part of the indigenous population - languge and cultural practices are preserved in Vedas, oldest texts of Hinduism. 4 collections: Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva (1700 BCE). Points of reference from Vedas suggest composed in NW region of continent (Punjab) and doesn't refer to themselves as newcomers to region or haven migrated. Vedik Sanskrit is language used, and shows evidence of multilingual communities in area, interactions with other language groups. Vedas: product of long process of cultural hybridization of Indo-Euro and non-Indo-Euro elements already underway for at least 2 centuries (given that it mentions Indus Valley which was a thing before indo-europeans came). Scholars point to indo-europeans even assisting in preserving the indus culture through vedas.

Hinduism and the West

-the euro and esp the british colonization of india in 18th cent. marked another occasion for great insecurity adn creativity for hindu traditions -some responded w/ indifference, particularly from orthodox brahmins who saw foreigners are barbarians with nothing of great interest to say religiously or philosphically, and others found their cultural superior to their own. -the most creative response came from hindus who found much to dmire in british culture, accepting their critiques of hinduism, but were also critical of western materialism and lack of spiritual depth in texts and systems of thought -first hindu reformer (father of modern hinduism) was Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), founding reform organization called brahmo samaj, community of brahman. translating upanisads to vernacular languages and lobying british to ban practice of sati, or widow immolation, roy interpreted hinduism in monothesitic terms and critical of aspects of hinduism/christianity that appeared nonrational. -also critical was swami dayananda sarasvati, 1824-1883, and established arya samaj, northern india's response to brahmo samaj. focused not on upanishads but vedic samhitas as wellspring of authentic hindu practice. he revived practice of worship centered on sacred fire, as opposed to use of images, saying that's pure vedic worship. -both of these failed to capture imagination of hindu community as a whole, mainly because of rejection of use of images in worship, which was a thing for centuries. true success in area of hindu reform came with vedanta movement inspired by sri ramakrishna and his disciple swami viveknanda.

the classical period: from elite brahmanism to popular hinduism

-the path of action exemplified in vedas came to encompass all of society and life in form of dharma, or duty. -the dharma sastras, or legal texts composed from 300bce-100ce, set out comp vision of both society and life of the individual, with former being encompassed by system of castes, or varnas, and latter of series of four asramas, or stages of life. -path of wisdom were written out in sutra literature of six systems of philosophy. both dharma sastras and this were composed in sanskrit by brahminas and orietn themselves in terms of authority of vedas, where vedic systems are regarded as orthodox, and nonvedic as unorthodox. -path of devotion though found expression not just in elite literature and schools of thought, but in ecstatic poetry of devotees hailing from all parts of society, including women, in vernacular languages: tamil, bengali, hindi -bhakti movement didn't overturn the bhramanical social order but rendered it irrelevant in attaining moksha, regardless of caste or gender. movement was so popular that it caused tension between the two (still there today), with orthodox brahmins emphsizing formal ritual, denying entry into templates to those impure, and others (brahmin and non) emphasizing sincerity of devotion as evidenced in one's character and personal qualities being a more important measure of spiritual attainment than caste or social status. -sages of upanishads (ascetics of sramana movement) really emphasized all this, downplaying vedic rituals, emphasizing moral qualities of honesty, etc., saying sacrifice of animals leads to bad karma -sramana traditions are now seen as distinct traditions from hinduism (vedic traditions), which means buddhism and jainism: but though seen as diff religions, they had enormous impact on practice of hinduism, with animal sacrifice being largely abandoned by orthodox brahins and replaced by vegetarian substitutes. -another rejection of vedic tradition is tantric traditions

Sikhism

-the sant, or saint, movement of the sufi/bhakti movement consisted of figures of hindu and islamic origins, like khabir -guru nanak, lived from 1469-1539, taught "theres no hindu, no muslim" -taught a third new tradition, a religion distinct from hinduism and islam but contains elements of both practices and doctrines -there were reactions against this widespread spirit of mutual synthesis and accommodation. the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, 1658-1707, sought the forcible conversion of hindus and sikhs to islam, returning to destroying temples, torturing, slaughtering those who refused. -memory of the wounds were used even later in history, by british and political parties of india and pakistan, to exploit fears of both counities for sake of political gain. such division and suspicion occurs against a wider backdrop of toleration, mutual respect, and assimilation established in enlightened period that characterized the rise of sikhism. larger environment of tolerance and pluralism is endangered by militancy and negative attitudes driven at least as such by aspirations of political orgs as authentically religious concerns.

Gandhi and Hinduism

-took hindu ideals in the political and social reform arena -ahimsa, nonviolence, satyagrahama, inherent power of truth, and hte divity of all beings, he led movement against british rule that inspired movements for jsocial justice around the world -his successes particualrly in areas of cste and hindu muslim relations unleashed reactionary forces that led to assassination -attempts to abolish untouchability met with both resistnce of conservative hindus and scorn of leaders within dalit, or lower caste, community who believed he didnt go far enough. -unable to prevent partition (many blame him for this smh) -assassinated by nathuram godse, adherent of hindu nationalism

Indus River Valley Civilization

2600 BCE: one of the first urbanized civilizations in the world. Surrounded the Indus and Sarasvati River, and was a civilization to introduce irrigation, sanitation (reverance for water, bathing). Depictions on pottery indicated some of earliest reminences of yoga, Siva and Sakti, palms. They had a system of weights and measures, and a social organization with some semblance to caste -- however, no differences in living, and had equal footing divisions. Demise of society happened after Sarasvati River dried up (due to earthquakes and tectonic shifts changing course of Indus), causing a disruption to their economy and mass migrations

Potential date of Mahabaratha

950 BCE

diff btwn hinduism and islam

islam: -monothesitic, regarding images of divine as corrupt and reminiscent of pre-islamic arabia where wealthy priests determined who could see the gods and who didnt, charging money: pagan era -insistent that theres only one way to salvation: obeying injunctions of god as conveyed by prophet; this is stark contrast from pluralism of yogas and forms of the divine as objects of devotion in hinduism. -islam is inherently n actively proselytizing (converting) tradition, while most hindu traditions arent

origin / meaning of Hindu

origin: derived from Persian mispronounciation of "Sindhu", Greek name for the Indus River. Persians used the term to describe the people who lived on the other side of that river. Originally, it just meant "Indian," and was continued to be used in British Raj, who then coined term "Hinduiism" to describe the religious beliefs and practices native to India Hinduism later came to refer to the traditions that observed the sanctity of an ancient set of religious texts called the Vedas -- distinguishing Hinduism from Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism