Hinduism Midterm Terms

Kali Yuga

"the age of kali" - the last of the cycle of the four yugas that the world goes through; the age we're living in now. It is considered a bad or Dark Age, full of discord and strife (since Kali is a demon, not to be confused with the goddess). It is thought to have begun with Krishna's departure from Earth. The Bhagavad Gita is composed at the time Krishna ushers us into Kali Yuga, around the turn of the Common Era. See lecture 2/18, 2/8 about the Gita, and the Bhagavad Gita. Addendum: the age of kali yuga is characterized by a focus on wealth and material things over spirituality and virtue; political inequality, famine, and poverty; shortened lifespans; jealousy and a decline in filial love; and hypocrisy and falsehood in religion (https://www.indiadivine.org/15-most-amazing-predictions-for-kali-yuga-from-the-bhagavata-purana/).

linga

(also known as a shiva linga) An aniconic, phallic object of devotion (a murti) that symbolizes the energy of Shiva. Is often found resting on a yoni to represent the moment of sexual union. Aniconic symbols such as lingas tend toward saguna worship, because any sort of murti has qualities. The yoni/linga dyad can be related to another of Shiva's forms, in which he and Parvati form two halves (one male, one female) of an androgynous whole being. See lecture notes from guest lecture of 2/13 (definition + story of devotee plucking out eye to fix linga), Flood's intro.

bhajan

A bhajan is a devotional song to God. It means adoration and refers to devotional hymns, usually sung in small groups. When combined with Kirtan which is the repetition of mantras, bhajans and Kirtan become central to the bhakti movement. Bhajans are typically lyrical and convey love for the Divine. They are significant in Hinduism because they help ordinary people to turn the direction of senses inwards to attain higher level of meditation. It gives Hindus a sense of feeling closer to God. The term bhajan relates to this course as we witnessed bhajans at the Ganesh temple during arati. Sources: https://iskconeducationalservices.org/HoH/practice/311.htm https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/5544/bhajan

ārti/ ārati

A ceremony in which light or fire is offered to a deity (thought to have originated with the sacrificial fires mentioned in the Vedas). Is derived from Sanskrit, meaning "removes darkness." It occurs at the end of most ceremonies. Devotees sing songs in praise of the deity, cup the flame, and touch it to their foreheads to transfer the blessing from the flame. See lecture notes from 1/30 (discussing temple visits), Eck's Darsan.

Krishna/ Kṛṣna

A major deity of Hinduism, who, depending on which current of Hinduism one follows is worshipped either as the Supreme Being or as the eighth avatar of Vishnu the Preserver (of Trimurti fame). He is a popular deity in Hinduism, and, given his links to Vishnu, is prominent particularly in Vaishnavism and the later stages of the Vedic corpus. He is portrayed in different manners, including a ruddy baby, a flute-playing adolescent and a militant charioteer. The Bhagavad Gita in its entirety is a dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna (here in his militant incarnation). Hence it is the best source, we believe, for furthering one's knowledge about him.

mūrti

A symbolic (typically a statue or image) object of devotion; if there's a murti, it's saguna worship because it has qualities/attributes. There is a classic question of debate as to whether the murti itself is God or stands for God. Can be found either in temples or in people's homes; murtis are treated as honored guests and taken care of (woken up in the morning, bathed, anointed, etc) by devotees. Murtis can be either aniconic (not representing people, eg lingas representing Shiva) or iconic (representing people). See lecture notes from 1/25, Eck's Darsan intro.

Gangā

Ganga refers to the Ganges River, a river in northern India bordering Nepal. The Ganges River is considered a very sacred river within Hinduism, with multiple major kingdoms forming on the Ganges Basin in the 5th century BCE. Ganga becomes very important in understanding Hinduism for two reasons. The first reason is that multiple ancient Hindu kingdoms formed around the Ganges. Thus, understanding the relationship these kingdoms had with the Ganges can further help one understand these kingdoms better. More importantly however, the Ganges play an important role within Hindu religious beliefs. With the Ganga either being associated with gods like Shiva, or literally being a god in its own right.

Gārgī

Gargi is a knowledgeable female philosopher at King Janaka's court who challenges Yajnavalkya (Brahmin scholar) to a public debate: "If he can give me answers then none of you will be able to defeat him in a theological debate." She questions, "the things above the sky, below sky, between earth and sky, on what are all these woven back and forth?" Yajnavalkya answers, "On space, the imperishable" (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad). Gargi is significant because a woman at the time of the Upanishads being regarded with knowledge seems unprecedented. Gargi relates to our Hinduism course in that she questions the idea of creation which the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad is all about.

holī

Holi is a Hindu spring festival that celebrates the life of Krishna. It is also known as the Festival of Colors. The rituals associated with Holi may differ globally and regionally within India. However, the throwing of dye and powders (usually in vermillion, red, and yellow) is a universal tradition that denotes the Holi festival. The throwing of dyes derives from older tales of grooms who would enter their bride's courtyards before they were married. Gopis in the women's village would throw dyes and rolling pins at the men (Life of Hinduism 105). Another ritual that occurs during Holi is a celebratory bonfire. The bonfire celebrates the death of a demon named Holika. Holika was immolated in the midst of a plot to destroy her brother, Prahlada, for devoting his life to Rama (Life of Hinduism 99). Lath mar Holi is celebrated during holi, women beat visiting men with stick to reenact the legend that has it that Lord Krishna visited his beloved Radha's village on this day and playfully teased her and her friends. Taking offence at this, the women of Barsana chased him away

ISKCON

ISKCON is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. For the course, many of the students visited the Bhakti Center, which belongs to ISKCON. The Bhakti Center is a temple and community center founded and operated on the practice of Bhakti Yoga, which is "devotion". The center provides religious ceremonies, activities, and education to its members. The significance here is the way in which modern Hinduism is practiced, and Hinduism that specifically practices according to Krishna (BG). ISKCON stands for International Society for Krishna Consciousness Founded in 1966 Part of the Hare Krishna Movement. First location was the one in NYC Main deity is Krishna. Unlike the Ganesha temple, there is only this one deity at the temple. Traces its lineage back to the Bengali ecstatic chaitanya (life of hinduism, pg 2) ISKCON started when Abhay Charan De, also known as Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada came to the Lower East Side and attracted a following. ISKCON Temples quickly became east/west space; meaning, they helped connect the two cultures of the east and the west. Hare Krishna hill was established in the east to connect the east to the west (supposed to mirror ISKCON)

Yājñavalkya

One of the main characters in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, Yajnavalkya is a Brahmin scholar/sage, who comes to King Janaka's court and has debates with many scholars on matters of philosophy of the universe. It is here that he expounds the philosophy of nirguna worship with the idea of "Neti neti". He is considered by many as the initiator of monism/advaita philosophy in the Hindu tradition. He also goes on to teach his ideas to King Janaka.

piṇḍapradāna

Piṇḍapradāna is a death ritual that involves preparing balls of rice as an offering to newly deceased family member after the funeral. On the day of cremation, the balls of rice are cooked by the family and placed in different places relating to the corpse (the place of death, cremation ground, on the belly of the deceased, etc.). On the 12th of the 13th days of mourning a small ball of rice is lumped with a larger ball to aide the newly dead family member in their journey to join their ancestors.

prasād/ prasāda

Prasad is a material substance (usually food) that is used as a religious offering to Gods during puja. It literally means "gracious gift". It is usually considered that ordinary food given as prasad, during puja is first eaten by the deity and blessed, and then shared by the devotees. Many Gods have specific food items that are considered their preference and that is usually used as Prasad for their worship. Eg, Ganesha has laddoos and Krishna has pedas.

pūjā

Puja refers to the worship and praise of God. It involves conventions of hospitality such as the giving of food to God. Performing Puja is to express bhakti, or love and devotion, to a deity (Flood, 103). Worships can be both temporal and spatial. Temporal worship refers to worship and honoring at festivals whereas spatial worship is worship in temples by images or icons. This term first came up in our 1/25 lecture notes on central actions and moods. Puja is significant because the act of worship is central to the practice of Hinduism and ingrained in Hindu culture and everyday life.

Shvetaketu/ Śvetaketu

S'vetaketu is an important character within the Upanishads. He is the son of Uddalaka, and represents the ignorant knowledge seeker who eventually becomes enlightened. In fact, much of the Upanishads are devoted to S'vetaketu's journey to enlightenment. S'vetaketu is important for a multitude of reasons. The first is that he is a conduit for the reader to express questions and doubts within the Upanishads. Thus in order to understand the Upanishads readers must become familiar with S'vetaketu. Moreover, he also represents an important knowledge seeking tradition within Hinduism. The great scholar Shankara also took a similar knowledge-seeking journey around India. S'vetaketu no doubt inspired him.

saṃskāra/ sanskar

Samskara refers to a ritual or rite of major importance in life. Samskara was discussed in detail in our 2/22 lecture notes and defined as "life-cycle rituals" by Flood (Flood, 64). It is not to be confused with samsara, which is the reincarnation of the soul in an endless and circular existence. Childhood samskaras involve two prenatal rites (pumsavana- getting a son and simantonnayana- parting the hair), two infancy rites (jatakarman-birth-rite and namakarana-naming), first feeding (annaprasana), tonsure, and the onset of education (vidyarambha). Other samskaras include gender-specific rituals, marriage/wedding, and those relating to death. Such rituals help define to Hindu religious practice and are essential to people's major lifetime milestones.

Sanskrit (saṃskṛta)

Sanskrit is an incredibly old Indic language, which was spoken several thousand years ago within the North West corners of India. The Vedas and the Smriti are written in Sanskrit, and the language is considered sacred within Hinduism. Sanskrit becomes very important when studying Hinduism due to the fact that it underlies all the fundamental texts of Hinduism. Thus by understanding key Sanskrit phrases, one can have a clearer understanding of key Hindu cultural and religious ideas.

śakti/ shakti/ Shakti

Shakti is loosely translated as "power" or "divine power". Shakti can be described as the energy that flows through deities and the cosmos (Flood 68). It is known as the primary energy responsible for creation and destruction of the universe. Since shakti resides within god, it can be known to flow through all living things as a result of the cyclical nature of the universe. Shakti is the concept or personification of divine feminine creative power; Shaktism regards Devi (lit., "the Goddess") as the Supreme Brahman itself with all other forms of divinity considered to be merely Her diverse manifestations

Devī

the Great Goddess in the Hindu tradition; she is said to encapsulate both the ferocious and dangerous as well as the auspicious and fertile images of Indian goddesses.. (Flood, 174-5)Devi falls within the trimurti, along with Vishnu and Shiva. (Hawley first lecture) She is central to the Shakta tradition and can be representative of shakti, or female power in the universe in a more general sense. Devi is present in both Vaisnavism and Saivism and plays a large role in Tantric traditions. (Flood, 174-5) Devi is important within the Hindu practice because she can sometimes be looked upon as a model for Hindu women and provides a feminine element to the tradition; Followers of shakta will see devi as apart of trimutri

Veda & Āyurveda

the most ancient Hindu scriptures, written in early Sanskrit and containing hymns, philosophy, and guidance on ritual for the priests of Vedic religion. Believed to have been directly revealed to seers among the early Aryans in India, and preserved by oral tradition, the four chief collections are the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. the traditional Hindu system of medicine, which is based on the idea of balance in bodily systems and uses diet, herbal treatment, and yogic breathing.

Ekam sat, viprā bahudhā vadanti

Truth is one, many ways of saying. This means, there is only one truth, and many will have different variations of this truth. Different individuals may understand things, or practice in a different way, yet there is only once existence, no matter the individuals preference. (CU). This is important in understanding how the different sects of hinduism can be so different. In Rigveda, 1.164.46 In the 'Gita' it was most emphatically stressed when lord Krishna tells Arjuna that the Soul is Immortal, it is fallacy that you can kill anybody or anybody can kill the Soul; therefore soul can neither be killed nor it can kill.

Pandava, Kaurava

Two families (cousins) that fought after Pandavas are exiled from society. This fight is the scene of the Bhagavad-Gita, where Krishna advises Arjuna spiritually. The Pandavas defeat the Kauravas. The moral struggle faced by Arjuna in waging war on members of his family sheds light on many of the teachings of Krishna. (BD) (Flood 106-107) (Lectures 2/6 & 2/8).

Vaiṣṇava/ Vaishnava

Vaishnavas are a sect of Hindus, who believe in Lord Vishnu being the supreme form and worship him and his avatars (primarily Krishna and Rama) as the prime face of the pantheon. Alongwith Shaivas, Shaktas and Smartas, Vaishnavas form the main sects of Hinduism. The philosophy followed and proposed is heavily influenced by the focus on Vishnu. They can be identified by V-shaped tilaks on their forehead. They champion the householder life as opposed to other sects, which are more inviting of ascetic life. The philosopher, Ramanuja was a prominent Vaishnava. (Subsects and details can be found in Gavin Flood.)

Śri Lakśmī

Śri Lakśmī Devi is the Goddess of wealth. She is the consort of Visnu. She is known for protecting her devotees from ill health and adversity. She brings success to hard working and dedicated people who call on her. Though she is the Goddess of wealth, one should not call on her with greed. Fridays are the best day for worshiping Lakshmi. When analyzing her image, it can be seen that she has four hands each representing dharma, karma, artha, and moksha. She wears a red garment that showcases active energy. She sits on a lotus that is symbolic of the seat of the divine truth. Śri Lakśmī is important in our Hinduism course because she is a form of Shakti.

karma

Action and reaction meaning the interaction between things Now perceived more as "what goes around, comes around" Important because the idea of Karma establishes many hindu morals and virtues. BG third teaching

Advaita

Advaita Vedanta is the most famous Indian philosophy. Vedanta is the culmination of the Vedas so this is an important philosophy associated with Shankara. The term advaita means "Non-Dual" and refers to the tradition's absolute monism which, put simply, maintains the reality of the one over that of the many (Flood, 239). Specifically, advaita is a Vedantic doctrine that identifies the individual self (atman) with the ground of reality (brahman). Advaita highlights that the idea that the atman is the same as the highest metaphysical Reality Brahman. Superimposition of the self on what is not the self and what is not the self on the self is the natural propensity of ignorant consciousness. The removal of superposition is the removal of ignorance and the realization of the atman as the witnessing sibetc identical with brahman. Such knowledge leads to moksa (Flood 241). Advaita relates to Hinduism because it is a Hindu philosophy that teaches one that the removal of superimposition is the removal of ignorance and the realization of the self, and such knowledge is moksha.

yoga

An ineffable word with no English equivalents, but that could be construed as an amalgamation of "law", "duty", "way of life" and "obligation". It is a very prominent concept in that it advocates for the assignment of specific roles and obligation to members of society, and whose adherence-to results in fortune and order, culminating finally in liberation of the samsara. It is discussed in CU 2.8 and extensively, perhaps too extensively, in Chapter 3 of Flood's Introduction.

Arjuna

Arjuna is a skilled archer and a Pandava brother who is the main character in the Bhagavad Gita. He is torn between fighting in a war in which he would have to kill his friends and family and not doing so. He seeks advice from Lord Krishna who teaches him to follow his dharma and fight. This term relates to our Hinduism course as the dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna becomes one of the most important texts in Hinduism called the Bhagavad Gita which even Gandhi references during the fight for Indian independence. Krishna responds to Arjuna's doubt about the war and teaches him about jnana, bhakti, and karma and gradually reveals himself as the creator and destroyer of the universe. Arjuna is important because the readers are put into his shoes and we also go through the same decision process as him and the dialogue between him and Krishna (ultimate form of truth) helps us grasp the true values of Hinduism such as following one's dharma according to their caste. In Arjuna's case, he is a Kshetriya so he must fight in the war and should not be attached to people or things.

avatar/ avatāra

Avatar is derived from the Sanskrit words "ava", meaning "down" and "tar" (from "tarati") meaning "to cross over". It literally means "descent". An avatar is an incarnation or a form of a God. This can be in the form of a man, an animal, or any other hybrid as well. Usually avatars are forms taken on by God to salvage the human world from moral decay or tyranny. The most famous avatars are the "Dashavatar" of the god, Vishnu. These are the 10 incarnations, which Vishnu takes in each age as salvation for the universe. Rama, Krishna and the Buddha are all considered avatars of Vishnu. It is an instance of one of the all-to-one reductions in Hinduism, where all these different deities are reduced to being forms of one larger deity.

Varṇa, jāti, and caste

Caste is a classification system, the different levels of a society. There are two ways of determining caste in Hinduism, Varma (class) and Jati, which relates more to birth location, who you eat with, and who you marry. There are 4 Varmas; Sudras (serfs/farmers), Vaishys (merchants), Khaitriya (warriors, to include kings and rulers), and Brahmins (thinkers, intellectuals, philosophers). Varna: The word appears in the Rigveda, where it means "colour, outward appearance, exterior, form, figure or shape". The word means "color, tint, dye or pigment" in the Mahabharata. Varna contextually means "colour, race, tribe, species, kind, sort, nature, character, quality, property" of an object or people in some Vedic and medieval texts. Varna refers to four social classes in the Manusmriti. Jati: is a group of clans, tribes, communities and sub-communities, and religions in India. Each jāti typically has an association with a traditional job function or tribe; innumerable Jatis that straddled two or more Varnas Caste: appeares with combination of the hisotical social groupings called jāti and the theoretical varna. This is important in understanding certain historical aspects of hinduism, such as who married who and why, as well as the culture of hinduism today, as it is not nearly as structured as this. While these formal structures do exist, it is important to note that rarely is it seen in modern day India. Discussed in lecture (1/23). Found in Flood (58-61)

saṃsāra

Directly translates to "The Round" meaning the cycle of birth, death and rebirth It is significant for the study of hinduism because Samsara explains many hindu beliefs regarding death and birth. In addition, it helps in explaining certain rituals surrounding death and birth. They are "Passage" (Darsan) These cycles are thought to be different for men and women (Life of hinduism) The book Life of hinduism discusses Samskaras, which are life cycle ceremonies. This includes marriage, death ceremonies and etc.

Dīvālī/ deepavali

Divali is one of the major Hindu festivals. It is the festival of light and is practiced throughout the Hindu world with lamps palced in windows and around doors or floated down rivers. (Flood, 212)Divali celebrations commemorate the return of Ram, Sita, and Lakshman to Ayodhya after defeating Ravana.Two days before Divali the home must be cleaned, washed, and whitewashed and new utensils are typically purchased. Other essentials are purchased, like candles (diya). Purchase of a Lakshmi and Ganesha figure are particularly important for Divali pujan---Ganesha is worshipped first, as in many pujas. Lakshmi is said to visit everyone on Divali and takes a central role in Divali pujas. The ceremonial side of Divali includes decorating the place of worship with flowers and leaves motifs or geometric designs on the floor. A low stool or leaf is also to be decorated and placed against the wall of the worship space to seat the gods, prompately Ganesha and Lakshmi, along with idols or pictures of Ram, Sita, Lakshman, and Hanuman. (The Life of Hinduism, Chapter 6) The practice of Divali varies regionally throughout India. In parts of India Divali marks the start of a new Hindu year. Govardhan Puja:devotees prepare and offer a large variety of vegetarian food to the murtis of Paramatma(God) as a mark of gratitude

Ganeśa/ Ganesh/ Gaṇapati

Ganesha is Shiva's elephant-headed son, he is known as the god of new beginnings and remove of obstacles. He is often honored at the start of rites and ceremonies. With Shiva as his father, Ganesha plays a large role in the Saiva tradition. In temples, Ganesha is normally placed at the doorway--referring to his place at the beginning of most pujas as well as to the story of Shiva removing his (Ganesha's )head for guarding Parvati's door. son of Shiva and Parvati his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya; vahana (mount/vehicle) is a mouse/rat

Indus Valley

Indus River Valley civilization 3500 - 1700 BCE Located in Mohenjodaro, Harappa The first image of siva is said to be from here (Shiva Pashupati seal) The unicorn comes up on a lot of Indus seals (this is in the handout given in class on 01/25/18).

Mount Govardhan

It is a sacred Hindu site in the Mathurda District of Uttar Pradesh, India, on an 8k long hill located in the area of Govardhan and Radha Kund. It is considered a sacred site because it is believed to be the natural form of the Lord Krishna himself. Mount Govardhan is also the setting of many legends relating to Lord Krishna.

Śaiva/ Shaiva

It is one of the major traditions that revered Lord Shiva as the Supreme Being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temple. Shaivism motivates you to treat people from all backgrounds with sameness. The story of Siva destroying the sacrifice which Daksa started shows that Siva was originally excluded from the vedic sacrifice, he is a deity originally from the outside but who came to be accepted as one of the gods. By destroying the sacrifice with fire, he is fulfilling it and ensuring that the sacrifice is his. This can be seen as an analogue for the development of Saivism since some of the traditions of Saivism are outside the vedic fold. The popular worship of Siva comes from Puranic Saivism. While the Saiva initiate hoped for liberation, he would at death be taken to Siva's heaven (Siva loka) at the top of the world egg (where vaikuntha would be for puranic Vaisnava).

brahman/Brahman

It is the unity behind the multitude of beings in the universe, a law/presence omnipresent within all that exists, immutable and yet that which effectuates change in the universe. Attaining, or rather more accurately "finding", the Brahman within the self is one of the highest ideals in Hinduism. It is extensively debated within the Upanishads, particularly the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, for instance in passages 1.4.9, 2.3 and chapter 5 ("I am Brahman"). It is not to be confused with the similarly worded 'brahman' which indicates religious chants and utterances, or Brahma the Creator of the Trimurti. (Mantras?)

tīrtha

Literally it means a road, crossing or ford, but figuratively it indicates a sacred, holy object, whether a book, person or place. And added complication to the latter is that the term is used mostly in conjunction with Tirtha-yurga (yatra-journey) to designate pilgrimages to holy places, journeys of self-discovery intended to erase sins, alleviate remorse and improve one's prospects and fortunes. Such holy places include not only temples and cities, but also forests, rivers and mountains. can also be a metaphorical term referring to meditation where the person travels to an intellectual sacred mind state such as of "truth, forgiveness, kindness, simplicity and such". In the Upanishads, states Diana L. Eck, the "crossing over" refers to the "spiritual transition and transformation from this world to the world of Brahman, the Supreme, the world illumined by the light of knowledge"

Hindu Temple Society/ Sri Maha Ganapati Vallabha

Located in Flushing, Queens Main deity is Ganesha Ganesha is located at the center and the other deities surround him Usually, Ganesha is seen at doorways of places so it is quite out of the ordinary to have a temple dedicated to him where he is at the center.

navagraha

Nine planetary gods in hinduism The Sun which is usually positioned in the middle The moon Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Rahu Ketu Graha means to cease or grasp. In the context of astrology, grasping or ceasing makes a lot of sense because these navagrahas are influential. People are subjected to their influences. So for these reasons, people take caution on certain days which are associated with certain planets that are considered bad. People take caution on tuesdays and saturdays. Ragu and Ketu are also considered a little dangerous. These correspond to the eclipses of the moon.

OM

OM is a sacerd, Hindu mantra, a sound, syllable, word, or phrase written in Sanskrit which is denoted with a spiritual meaning and power. Found in the beginning of sacred, ancient and medieval texts such as the Upanishads and Vedas, OM signifies the self and soul (atman) and the totally of the universe and its truth (Brahman). OM is extremely prevalent in both ancient texts and current practiced of Hinduism. It is chanted in the telling of sacred texts, during prayer (puja), rituals and meditation. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.13 to 1.16, states that to know God, look within, know your Atman (Soul, Self). It suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent churning of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within.; Chāndogya Upanisad 1.1.1 Pg. 98, begins the Upanisad; Mandukya Upanishad Pg. 289, begins Upanisad; The Bhagavad Gita chapters 9 and 17.

Swaminarayan

Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, New York City Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, established temples, known as mandirs, as part of his philosophy of theism and deity worship. These mandirs are known as Swaminarayan Hindu temples. One of the most prominent features of the heritage of Swaminarayan is temple architecture. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan are the evidence of the priority of Krishna. Born Ganshyam Pande in 1781, and later Sahajanand Swami, was a yogi/ Hindu ascetic who practiced renunciation traditions and was largely responsible for re-igniting interest in said practices. He came to be known as Swaminarayan after he composed an eponymous mantra. His sect was known for practicing abnegation of the self, denying one's social obligations in pursuit of moksha and liberation. Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots. He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples. Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals.Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes. Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma, bhakti (devotion), gnana (knowledge) and vairagya (detachment). He authored the Shikshapatri.

śruti/ shruti and smṛti

Shruti: "that which is heard"; Smrti: "that which is remembered", both are comprised of authored and authorless texts that hold importance in Hinduism. Shruti/Sruti - The Sruti texts are "authorless" authoritative, religious texts that include the four types of texts with in the four Vedas: the Brahmanas, the early Upanishads the Samhitas, and the Aranyakas. Smrti - The Smrti texts are accredited to an author. They have been constantly revised and are generally seen to hold less authoritative power than the Sruti. Smrti texts includes a diverse range of works from authors in the ancient and medieval Hindu history. These texts are seen as authoritative to Hindu tradition and law and therefore contribute heavily are to hindu religion and society. They consists of major texts in the faith that lay out rituals, traditions, and ideologies that remain key concepts to this day. Srutis were passed down orally between generations, unchanged with a high level of accuracy. The Smrtis, however, were written down. The Smrtis are seen as the by-product and secondary work of and responses to the Srutis. The early Upanishads are considered Sruti; The Bhagavad-Gita found within the Epic, Mahābhārata, is considered Smrti.

aniconic

Symbols or objects that refer to a deity yet do not attempt to display the form or "likeness" of the deity. Some examples of this would be natural objects (stones, trees, etc.) that are not pictures or statues of deities, yet represent them nonetheless. It is important to understand the different ways Hinduism has represented its deities over time, and to understand the way in which it was, and is currently practiced (Eck 32-38). Additionally, iconic symbols or object represent the from of the deity.

ārya/ Aryan

The Aryan culture is one of the ancient roots of Hinduism. Hinduism originated in two ancient cultures: the Indus valley civilization and the Aryan. There is a competing view that the Aryan culture is in fact a development from the Indus valley civilization rather than another outside influence (Flood, 23). Understand the origin of Hinduism in Aryan development is critical to understanding the evolution of Hinduism.

trimūrti

The Hindu "Trinity", although this designation is often controversial. It is composed of three deities of great significance: Brahma the Creator, Shiva the Destroyer and Vishnu the Preserver. All three are deities and are worshipped within certain sectarian strains. Collectively the Trimurti are personified by avatar Dattatreya . The Trimurti as a theological idea grew in prominence during the Puranic period. Passages that make mention of it include 1.6 and 1.9 of the Kurma Purana.

Mahābhārata

The Mahabharata is the "Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty" and tells the story of the Kuruksetra War, a war between the Kaurava and the Pandava princes. The Bhagavad Gita, "Song of the Lord" is a 700 verse Sanskrit scripture that is a part of the greater Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, and is the story of a dialouge between Pandava prince and warrior Arjuna (archerer)) and Krishna. Lecture notes for 2/8 contains a detailed breakdown of the conflict narrated by the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita. The Mahabharata is one of the most important Sanskrit poems in Hinduism, along with the Ramayana, and is of critical importance since it contains the Bhagavad Gita and other teachings on some of the most important Hindu concepts such as the 3 kinds of yoga (knowledge (jnana), action (karma), and love (bhakti)) (Flood, 96). Narrator of BG is Sanjaya.

Tat tvam asi

The Sanskrit term literally translates to "That thou are" and appears in the Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7. Within the context of the Upanishads, the phrase comes up when Uddalaka Aruni is teaching his son about existence itself. He begins by explaining why an individual should look to the "root" or existence for understanding. He then explains that the root or essence of the world (which also is synonymous with existence and truth here) is the self. And famously ends it by saying "That thou are". The reason this phrase becomes so important in studying Hinduism is that it informs and inspires several other major Hindu scholars and philosophers afterwards. Most notably, Shankara took this phrase literally and espoused Monism (non-dualism) (self and universe are one). Thus this phrase becomes very important if one wishes to understand the Dualist and Monist divide within Hinduism.

darśan/ darshan/ darśana

The auspicious sight of anything holy. Darshan is one of the central ideas in Hinduism, the focus on which makes it different from most other religions. The viewing of a deity or even a holy/respectable person or an object is considered a transference of their holiness onto the viewer. Sometimes, this "beholding" becomes equivalent to "holding" as well. The contact is established through the eyes. It is this darshan that establishes aniconic entities and even images as holy or auspicious. Understanding the concept of darshan and its importance is key to understanding the behavior and ideology of Hindus. Diana Eck has written a lovely book dedicated exclusively to darshan.

nirguṇa & saguṇa

The term "guna" refers to attributes or qualities (property of existence). Nirguna means "without attributes" and Saguna means "with attributes". Both can be used to categorize types of worships, where worships of the brahman is nirguna, since the brahman is indescribable by worldly characteristics and eternal. The terms nirguna and saguna first came up in our 1/30 and 2/1 lecture notes on the Upanisads. The Isa Upanisad and the Chandogya Upanisad are considered saguna while the Mandukya Upanisad and the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad are considered nirguna. This is because the IU and CU discuss positive cosmology and the formulation of the beginning of beings, which are all describable by qualities and attributes of existence. The MU and BU on the other hand are regressive searches for origins discussing asceticism and focusing on the atman-brahman identity, which are inherently nirguna since they are unknowable and without qualities ("neti, neti") (BU 4.3.23-30). Addendum: The three gunas respectively are sattva (good, orderly, constructive), rajas (active, passion,confused) and tamas (dark, destructive, chaotic). Hindu philosophy purports that EVERY being has the three gunas, albeit in different proportions, and it is these proportions that determine a person's proclivities and propensities, ie. nature. Three gunas: sattva ("lucidity") (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas ("passion") (active, confused), and tamas ("Inertia") (darkness, destructive, chaotic)

Varṇāśrama dharma

The term encompasses three different aspects. The first is a notion of duty, which everyone is bound to (Dharma). The second is one's life stage (asrama) and the third is one's cast (varna). Incorporating all three, Varnasrama Dharma is a philosophical/social theory that each individual must perform one's duty in accordance with their age and caste in order for society to function properly. The term becomes very important to Hinduism since it underlies much of the life philosophy provided within Hinduism. For example, a notion of Varnasrama Dharma is advocated in the Bhagavad Gita when Krishna urges Arjuna into war. Moreover, Varnasrama Dharma also solidifies important roles and traditions within Hinduism like the role of a renouncer. While a young man cannot be a renouncer (bad for society), older Brahman men can renounce the world. Thus these traditions are codified by Varnasrama Dharma.

Devasthanam

There is a food court at the lower level as well as a temple shop that sells statues of deities. There are oil lamps that can be lit at the back of the temple

Brāhmaṇ/ Brāhmaṇa/ Brahmin

They are the highest class (varna) within the caste system They are the priestly class. They are usually in charge of teaching, learning and performing sacrifices and rites. Name of the priestly and ritual texts in the vedas (Darsan)

Śākta/ Shakta

a term used to describe traditions in Hinduism that are Goddess oriented; also seen as the doctrine of the Goddess. Devotees of Sākta and the Goddess are called Sāktas The Goddess is also referred to as Sakti, a name which conveys the "female 'power' or energy of the universe" (Flood, 175) Within sacred texts, Sākta arises in Smriti, the Upanishads (Devi Upanishad), Devi Mahatmya, and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. Goddess worship may date back to the Indus river valley civilization if the female terracotta figures are taken to denote a female supreme power. Goddess worship is also very popular in local traditions, and local goddesses are seen as manifestations of a single all powerful Goddess. Besides the fact that Sākta is practiced daily by a large section of the Hindu faith and remains a significant sect of the larger religion, Sāktism, in the study of Hinduism from the outside, is a great example of the complexity, diversity, and contradictory aspects of the faith. Local goddesses are often seen as manifestations of "a single Great Goddess or Mahā Devī" (Flood, 174), which on a smaller scale reflects the monotheism of Hinduism, i.e. the many divine forms and deities are seen manifestations of "a single transcendent God" (Flood, 14). The Goddess is often shown with "two natures: on the one hand are 'goddesses of tooth' who are erotic, ferocious and dangerous, on the other are 'goddesses of breast' who are auspicious, bountiful and fertile" (Flood, 174). The dichotomy between these two personalities and the duality which arises when one manifestation of the Goddess carries both natures can be seen as a reflection the contradictory nature of the faith as a whole. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Chapter 8 Pg. 174-197; Hawley and Narayanan, The Life of Hinduism, Part V Chapter 11 Pg. 173-183

antyeṣṭi

literal meaning is "last sacrifice"; a death rite, one of the samskaras. Varies depending on regional traditions and caste but involves the washing of the body and cremation via pyre while someone, traditionally the oldest son, circumambulates the pyre (performance of ceremonial death rites is considered a very important filial duty owed to the father, and with the death of the father the son is metaphorically reborn as the new head of the household). The ceremony also depends on whether the death was "good" (timely) or "bad" (tragic, unexpected, ie that of a child). The death ritual involves gendered roles, at least according to Parry - women wail loudly and refuse to part with the corpse, while men bear the burden stoically and conduct the proper rituals. The death ceremony renders attendees unclean and they enter a period of mourning for usually 10-12 days, depending on caste, before re-integrating into daily life. See readings on Samskaras: Pandey, Flueckiger, notes from lecture 2/27.

mokṣa/ moksha

moksha means release or liberation, in reference to samsara, karma, and the complex interactions of the world. Moksha is often the aim of attainment through the three paths during life, dharma, artha, and kama. (coming from Professor Hawley's lecture and Flood, pg. 13) Moksha can refer to release from ignorance, indicating one has obtained self-realization and self-knowledge; freedom from samsara and the store of karama built up over the other lifetimes (Flood, 86) Discourse on moksha begins in the Upanishads (Flood, 86) Moksha is also a central concept in Buddhism, where ideas of a bodhisattva develop; a bodhisattva is a person who chooses to hold off entering nirvana in favor of helping others achieve moksha, an act of social liberation.

Puruṣa sūkta (Ṛg Veda 10.90)

most commonly used Vedic Sanskrit hymn. It is recited in almost all Vedic rituals and ceremonies. It is often used during the worship of the Deity of Vishnu or Narayana in the temple, installation and fire ceremonies, or during the daily recitation of Sanskrit literature or for one's meditation. Purusha Sukta is an important part of the Rig-veda (10.7.90.1-16), which is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns---also one of the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.

ātman

translated to mean "self"; in Hindu philosophy understanding that the true self, or atman, is identical to the ultimate one, Brahman, is essential for obtaining moksha. This concept is referenced throughout the texts we have studied, notably the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Flood, 84), and the Chandogya Upanishad which provides this "great formulation" that atman=Brahman. We find another look at this relationship in Shankara's theology--Shankara emphasizes ignorance caused by adhyasa, or superimposition, of what is not the self onto the self as preventing the true nature of the atman being identical with Brahman from being seen.

bhakti

translates to "devotion" "attachment" "love" "faith" and more, but it ultimately refers to the devotion of a devotee and follower to a God. "Bhakti comes from a Sanskrit verb which means 'to share,' and bhakti is relational love, shared by both God and the devotee" (Eck, 48) It is present in Upanisads and Bhagavad Gita, bhakti and bhakti yoga (disciplined devotion) appear as a central concept in Hinduism. It refers to overall devotion to the religion and is associated with dharma in that devotion to completing such dharma is necessary for liberation (moksha). Like Jñāna, Bhakti is seen as one path towards liberation (moksha) and is a general feature of the faith as a whole. It is therefore related to dharma, yoga, moksha, karma, and jñāna. Devotion to discipline (yoga), action (karma), and acquiring knowledge (jñāna) is essential to completing one's religious and life obligations (dharma) and reaching liberation (moksha) from the circle of reincarnation (samāra). Svetāsvatara Upanisad, "the term bhakti in the context of one having highest devotion for God and for one;s guru as God, occurs here for the first time" (Flood, 153); The Bhagavad Gita, chapter 12 (though repeatedly emphasized)

jñāna

translates to "knowledge", Jñāna Yoga or disciplined knowledge is one of three ways towards moksha (liberation). Jñāna is very prominent in the Bhagavad-Gita, where it is truly shown as one of the three, along with karma (action) and bhakti (devotion), ways to fulfilling dharma (obligation) and reaching moksha (liberation). Jñāna and Jñāna Yoga are key concepts in Hinduism and are for the most part common and constant among the diversity of the faith. The importance of Jñāna and knowledge relates heavily to other significant elements of the faith such as dharma, disciple, moksha, and gurus. Acquiring Jñāna is one path towards completing one's obligations (dharma) which is necessary to reach liberation (moksha); however, not just any Jñāna can be acquired. The Jñāna obtained in life must be specific to one's purpose (dharma) and caste (varna and jāti) and therefore must be disciplined (yoga). Acquiring Jñāna that does not pertain to oneself, otherwise known as Ajñāna is seen as a deviation of dharma. Finally, which such an importance placed on achieving knowledge to reach liberation, there is a heavy importance placed on teachings and gurus in the faith. Bhagavad-Gita, fourth, seventh and sixteenth chapters; Upanishads, Brhadāranyaka and Chāndogya