HIS 102- Midterm

How did railroads affect the nature of production? - The speed of rail travel required manufacturers to adopt more regularized work routines. Railroads permitted factories to be established anywhere, without concern for access to other resources. The availability of raw materials became more secure, supporting greater investment in machinery. Markets became broader, encouraging manufacturers to create larger factories with more sophisticated machines. Railroads allowed labor to move quickly to fill labor needs in new industries.

Markets became broader, encouraging manufacturers to create larger factories with more sophisticated machines.

How did the new fashion practices demonstrate changes in gender distinctions? - Men increasingly moved away from ostentatious fashions and toward plain dark suits, while women acquired larger and more expensive wardrobes. Men adopted the wide variety of clothing options that consumer society made available, while women retained the conservative dress of the ideal virtuous women. Men increasingly embraced a colorful clothing style to display their wealth, while women adopted a practical garb appropriate for managing the household. Men increasingly embraced a military style of clothing with a conservative design but many ribbons and sashes, while women embraced the extravagant, colorful clothing design meant to draw attention to the wearer. Men increasingly emulated court dress in order to demonstrate their social assent, while women adopted religious clothing to demonstrate their piety.

Men increasingly moved away from ostentatious fashions and toward plain dark suits, while women acquired larger and more expensive wardrobes.

Which of the following best characterizes the British economy between 1780 and 1851? - Much of the growth of the gross national product was eaten up by population growth. The large increase in wages resulted in a vast increase in personal consumption. Average consumption per person decreased as industrial work drove down wages. The large growth in population caused the gross national product to remain stagnant. The expansion of the gross national product was only possible as average consumption diminished.

Much of the growth of the gross national product was eaten up by population growth.

Which of the following best describes the political system of Napoleon? - Napoleon embraced the idea of liberties proposed by the Revolution but also retained power in the military should he need to suppress dissent. Napoleon remained so widely popular due to his reforms that he did not need to challenge the civil liberties that French men and women had come to expect. Napoleon imposed a harsh military rule under martial law that permitted no expression of dissent. Napoleon frequently violated civil liberties by censoring newspapers, creating a spy system, and holding political suspects in state prisons. Napoleon largely ignored organized political operations, choosing to act by whim and inspiration.

Napoleon frequently violated civil liberties by censoring newspapers, creating a spy system, and holding political suspects in state prisons.

During the Hundred Days, - the sans-culottes committed the September Massacres. Napoleon was driven from Russia. Napoleon returned from exile to rule France briefly. the Reign of Terror executed 30,000 people. the National Assembly wrote France's first constitution.

Napoleon returned from exile to rule France briefly.

How did Isaac Newton's law of gravity bring the Scientific Revolution to maturity? - Newton demonstrated that the biological and physical properties of nature operated by different principles. Newton proved that the workings of nature could be understood without reference of God. Newton showed that the investigation of nature had significant limits as a form of knowledge. Newton synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system. Newton provided bodies of evidence that proved the existence of God.

Newton synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system.

Which of the following best characterizes the condition of the peasants in western Europe in the eighteenth century? - Peasants were bound to a lord's feudal manor and worked the lord's land as part of a long series of feudal obligations. Peasants were technically free but suffered under a system of debt obligation to feudal lords that prevented the peasant from owning his own land. Peasants were free to own small plots of land but never enough to fully support themselves, requiring them to continue to work the land of the local lord, who owned a vast majority of it. A peasant was free to own land, but that land reverted to the noble lord upon the peasant's death. Peasants were generally free from serfdom and owned land that they could pass on to their children.

Peasants were generally free from serfdom and owned land that they could pass on to their children.

What was the religious sensibility of Pietism? - Pietism promoted a strict legal code for Christian obedience. Pietism praised a stern moralism that imposed guilt on the believer. Pietism called for a warm, emotional religion that everyone could experience. Pietism focused on an intensely intellectual approach to faith and belief. Pietism embraced a mystical, irrational exuberance.

Pietism called for a warm, emotional religion that everyone could experience.

Copernicus's theory of the universe

Postulated a sun-centered view of the universe

Why did scientists find that Protestant countries were more conducive to their work, especially after 1640? - Protestant countries generally lacked a strong religious authority capable of censoring or suppressing scientific work that challenged religious doctrine. Protestant countries embraced the idea of science because it was seen as challenging the doctrines of the Catholic Church. Protestant countries increasingly turned toward secular approaches to knowledge. Protestant countries were more influenced by Enlightenment thought. Protestant countries rejected literal interpretations of scripture that inhibited scientific progress.

Protestant countries generally lacked a strong religious authority capable of censoring or suppressing scientific work that challenged religious doctrine.

Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century? Prussia, Russia, and Austria The Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Prussia Italy, Austria, and Russia Sweden, Prussia, and Russia Sweden, Saxony, and Austria

Prussia, Russia, and Austria

Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as

Rococo

Which of the following best characterizes education for children outside the home in the early modern era? - As a consequence of the Reformation, the number of schools for common people declined. Under the absolute monarchies, national school systems were created to educate nearly all of the children of commoners. Schools remained largely unpopular because of their requirements that all children learn Latin. Schools for the children of common people taught basic literacy, religion, and some arithmetic for boys and needlework for girls, Schooling generally began for children around age twelve.

Schools for the children of common people taught basic literacy, religion, and some arithmetic for boys and needlework for girls,

Who forced the king and the royal family to abandon Versailles and return to Paris? - The peasants of the Great Fear Several thousand Parisian women The rioters of the Bastille The National Assembly The Parliament

Several thousand Parisian women

How did the governments respond to the new science? - States viewed new scientific communities as a threat to their control of knowledge. States rejected the new science as a threat to their religious foundations. States established academies of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research. States supported and defended the complete freedom of the scientist against religious officials. States challenged scientists to demonstrate the value of their research.

States established academies of science to support and sometimes direct scientific research.

How did the Concordat resolve the crisis over Catholicism in France? - In France the Catholic Church was again recognized as the state religion, which all citizens had to embrace or face prosecution under the law. The Catholic Church reclaimed full authority over the appointment of church officials, while the French state gained the right to oversee church finances. The Catholic Church gained the right to practice religion freely, while the French state gained greater control over the nomination of church officers and church activities. The Catholic Church gained the right to punish priests who had abandoned the Church during the Revolution, while the French state agreed to reimburse the Church for land lost during the Revolution. The Catholic Church promised to promote French nationalism, while the French state agreed to abandon efforts to control church doctrine.

The Catholic Church gained the right to practice religion freely, while the French state gained greater control over the nomination of church officers and church activities.

Why did the Dutch fail to maintain their dominance in Asia? - The Dutch East India Company failed to diversify its trade to meet changing consumption patterns in Europe. The Dutch government found that sustaining the colonies in Asia cost more than the profits that could be made and withdrew military protection. The Dutch Reformed Church took a position condemning colonialism as sinful, undercutting popular support for the Asian colonies. The Dutch economy was devastated by wars with Great Britain and France and lacked capital for continued colonization. The Dutch missionaries forcefully pressed Christianity onto local leaders, leading to successful rebellions against the colonies.

The Dutch East India Company failed to diversify its trade to meet changing consumption patterns in Europe.

How did the French armies offer a mixed message to the people whom they conquered? - The armies presented themselves as liberators to the peasants and middle class, but also lived off of the land, requisitioning food and supplies and plundering local treasure. The armies promised to retain local tradition and institutions, but removed all of the older nobility and eliminated the power of the Catholic Church. The armies spoke of peace and prosperity, but instituted harsh purges of all political opponents and high new taxes to pay for the army. The armies promised to defend the property and privileges of all of the nobility, but instituted a "Great Fear" in the provinces to abolish feudalism. The armies chose not to seize territory permanently for France, but began to appoint French military commanders as new nobles in conquered lands.

The armies presented themselves as liberators to the peasants and middle class, but also lived off of the land, requisitioning food and supplies and plundering local treasure.

By July 1794, how had the central government in Paris managed to reassert control over the provinces and gain momentum against the First Coalition? - The central government used its control over bread supplies to starve the provinces into obedience. The central government used the threat of a British invasion to rally all of the French provinces to its side. The central government bribed local officials by placing them into high government offices. The central government harnessed the explosive forces of a planned economy, revolutionary terror, and modern nationalism into a total war effort. The central government negotiated peace arrangements with all of the provinces, offering them control over conquered foreign territories.

The central government harnessed the explosive forces of a planned economy, revolutionary terror, and modern nationalism into a total war effort.

How did the problem of food shortages change in western Europe in the eighteenth century? - The considerable road and canal building of the eighteenth century permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local crop failure and famine. The decline in warfare meant that armies no longer drained regions of their food supplies as they passed through, and no longer destroyed many crops. The advances in agricultural methods produced abundant food that overcame the possibility of famine. The free grain markets introduced throughout the eighteenth century evened out food distribution to prevent food shortages without government involvement. The European colonies became an alternate source for food that could be used to overcome poor harvests.

The considerable road and canal building of the eighteenth century permitted food to be more easily transported to regions with local crop failure and famine.

Which of the following best describes the treatment of children in the seventeenth and early eighteenth century? - Children were seen as Jesus' beloved and not to be harshly rebuked. The disciplining of children was often severe in order to conquer the child's will. Children were largely undisciplined until they reached the age of education, around seven years of age. Both Protestant and Catholic church law forbade striking a child for any cause. Children were often raised by people other than their parents, and these individuals beat children fiercely.

The disciplining of children was often severe in order to conquer the child's will.

Which of the following correctly characterizes the transformation of the English and Scottish countryside in the enclosure era? - Land was owned largely by middle-sized farmers who hired the poor as occasional farmers. Forced to sell their land following enclosures, most of the nobility left the countryside and moved to the cities. The large pools of urban laborers were forced to work in the countryside, for the growing agricultural innovations required more workers for the land. The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landless wage earners. While enclosure affected some land usage, most land remained deeply tied to traditional feudal structures

The elimination of common rights and access to land turned small peasant farmers into landless wage earners

What two fundamental principles of the Revolution were codified into the Napoleonic Code? - The ideal of nationalism and the guarantee of civil rights to all people The rejection of monarchy and the adoption of republicanism The equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property The abolition of slavery and the recognition of freedom of religion The right of women to vote and hold public offices and the guarantee of education

The equality of all male citizens before the law and the absolute security of wealth and private property

What was the political effect of the attack on the Bastille? - The king's plans to reassert his authority was forestalled, permitting the National Assembly to continue its work. The National Assembly dissolved the monarchy and arrested the king for treason against the nation. The peasantry revolted in the Great Fear and attacked noble manors across France. The Parlement dissolved the National Assembly until the people of Paris returned the Bastille to royal control. The Church ordered all of the First Estate to withdraw from the National Assembly and return to their parishes.

The king's plans to reassert his authority was forestalled, permitting the National Assembly to continue its work.

Which of the following best describes the open-field system of the Middle Ages? - The land was divided into long, narrow strips that were not enclosed by fences or hedges. The land was not divided but worked communally as villages labored in large fields side-by-side. The land was divided into small, rectangular plots bounded by small walls or fences to keep out animals. The land was divided into large, square plots that permitted individual families to retain control over their own crops. The land was not divided, so the lord of the manor could directly control agricultural techniques and introduce farming innovations.

The land was divided into long, narrow strips that were not enclosed by fences or hedges.

What core concept of the Enlightenment was the most important and original? - The methods of natural science should be used to examine all aspects of life. The scientific method could discover the laws of human society. Human beings could create better societies and better people. God has no role in the workings of the universe. Reason involved logical patterns of thoughts that could lead one to deduce truths.

The methods of natural science should be used to examine all aspects of life.

Why did the conflict between the monarchy and the Parlement re-emerge after the Seven Years' War? - The Parlement claimed authority over the military in order to weaken the king's authority. The monarchy sought to retain emergency taxes after the war ended. The Parlement attempted to implement religious toleration for Protestants in opposition to the king's wishes. The monarchy adopted legal reforms that removed the Parlement's right to review royal edicts. The Parlement publicly criticized the monarchy's handling of the war and the loss of the North American colonies.

The monarchy sought to retain emergency taxes after the war ended.

How did the scientific revolution affect the economy in the seventeenth century? - The new science led to a wide expansion in the use of machinery in manufacturing. The new science had few practical economic applications. The new science expanded living standards by creating greater wealth. Improved medical knowledge allowed for a healthier, more productive work force. The scientific method was applied to manufacturing to create more efficient manufacturing techniques.

The new science had few practical economic applications.

In Persian Letters, what did the Baron de Montesquieu use to symbolize Eastern political tyranny? - A galley ship in the Mediterranean A slave plantation in the Caribbean The oppression of women in a Persian harem Native Americans forced off of their land Eunuchs at the Chinese imperial court

The oppression of women in a Persian harem

In the eighteenth century, what was the focal point of community cohesion? - The lord's manor The marketplace The tavern The parish church The law court

The parish church

From 1701 to 1763, what was at stake in the warfare between Great Britain and France? - The position as Europe's leading maritime power with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion The ability of each to establish effective systems to supply expanding militaries The pre-eminent position in continental Europe with the ability to shape domestic policy in many nations The control over slave trade routes to support colonial development in the Caribbean The establishment of either absolutism or constitutional monarchy as the principle political model in Europe

The position as Europe's leading maritime power with the ability to claim profits from Europe's overseas expansion

Which of the following best explains David Ricardo's Iron Law of Wages? - Wages always move in proportion to productivity in the workplace. The pressure of population growth would always sink wages to subsistence level. Wages of the working class always rise as a percentage of the wages of the upper classes, ensuring that prosperity also produces greater wage inequality. Population growth is inversely related to wages because greater population creates more highly talented people who produce greater profits. Wages are a product of profit produced and not of hours worked.

The pressure of population growth would always sink wages to subsistence level.

Why did European slave traders in Africa adopt the "shore method" of trading in the eighteenth century? - The shore method secured for Europeans the supply of slaves by establishing fortifications on the coast, thus preventing wasted days at sea looking for slaves to purchase. The shore method gave Europeans more control over the slave trade by sending ashore slave-hunting teams to seize slaves and force them aboard. The shore method relieved Europeans of the moral difficulty of separating families by having all slaves separated into unrelated groups of fifteen before the ships captains purchased them. The shore method permitted Europeans to move easily along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas. The shore method passed most of the cost of slave trading to the African merchants who obtained the slaves.

The shore method permitted Europeans to move easily along the coast, obtaining slaves at various slave markets and then departing quickly for the Americas.

How did cotton transform the textile industry? - Cotton provided a more secure source of raw material for textiles than wool since it was less susceptible to yearly changes in weather or environment. Cotton was quite inexpensive, permitting a significant decrease in the cost of new textiles. The spinning jenny allowed cotton to be spun more efficiently, helping to solve the problem of the shortage of thread. Cotton could be produced in far greater quantity than wool because it could be grown in many of the British colonies. Cotton was a more durable material than wool, permitting it to be used in a greater variety of clothing.

The spinning jenny allowed cotton to be spun more efficiently, helping to solve the problem of the shortage of thread.

How did the diet of townspeople compare to that of the peasantry? - The townspeople ate more varied diets, since markets provided choices of meats, vegetables, and fruits. The townspeople ate diets with many more spices and flavor additives. The peasantry ate diets with a far greater quantity of dairy products. The townspeople ate more monotonous diets, since only a few foods could survive the long transport to market in edible condition. The townspeople ate diets loaded with meat and vegetables and in which bread and beans, the diet of the peasants, played a minor role.

The townspeople ate more varied diets, since markets provided choices of meats, vegetables, and fruits.

In the wake of the Great Fear, how did the National Assembly restore order? - They called up army and militia units to suppress the rebellious peasants. They promised to re-establish the control on bread prices. They instituted a system of land redistribution so that the nobles would pass land to the peasants. They reduced taxes on agricultural products. They abolished all of the old noble and church privileges.

They abolished all of the old noble and church privileges.

As the Jacobins gained power, what was their reaction to women's political activity? - They banned all women's political clubs and societies. They permitted women to participate in public debate and gatherings as passive citizens. They permitted women who agreed with Jacobin principles the right to full participation in political life. They permitted women most political rights except the right to vote. They welcomed women as full political actors in their own right and with full civil liberties.

They banned all women's political clubs and societies.

Why did members of the Convention turn against Robespierre on 9 Thermidor? - They believed that Robespierre was soon to proclaim himself the new king of France. They believed that Robespierre intended to extend the ideals of the Revolution so that slaves would be freed and Jews accepted as full citizens. They believed that Robespierre might soon have them arrested and executed. They believed that Robespierre had cowardly withdrawn from confronting the Prussian and Austrian armies. They believed that Robespierre had betrayed the Revolution by accepting bribes from Great Britain.

They believed that Robespierre might soon have them arrested and executed.

How did the evangelicals within the Church of England respond to the rise of Methodism? - They sought to have Methodism outlawed and its practitioners arrested. They copied Methodism's practices in order to appeal to more of the common people. They hired a new collection of younger priests to attract more youth. They required that all parishes must instruct the young in literacy and church doctrine. They eliminated the requirement that all members must tithe to the church.

They copied Methodism's practices in order to appeal to more of the common people.

How did the philosophes evade the work of censors? - They bribed censors to approve publication of their works. They filled their writings with satire and double meanings. They published works and then claimed to have had them approved. They relied on friendly censors to approve publication of their works. They published from monasteries not subject to censorship.

They filled their writings with satire and double meanings.

How did older members of the population seek to control the sexuality of working-class youths? - They supported the establishment of sex-segregated employment. They required women to offer proof of virginity in order to obtain a position in a factory. They established stiff fines and punishments for extramarital sex. They required factory owners to build workers' dormitories with strict curfews and lockdowns. They sought to keep women out of factory employment.

They supported the establishment of sex-segregated employment.

What place did prostitutes generally hold among the common people in towns? - They were social outcasts condemned for their immoral behavior. They were accepted members of the community of the laboring poor. They were seen as spiritually corrupted members of the community who had to be eliminated when identified. They were honored and respected individuals praised for their willingness to challenge conventional standards. They were considered witches.

They were accepted members of the community of the laboring poor.

Why did the French commissioners in Saint-Domingue abolish slavery? - They were required by the Committee of Public Safety to apply the principles of liberty and equality to all French lands. The British and Spanish had already outlawed slavery, and the French commissionaires feared a rebellion if they did not do likewise. They were captured by slave armies and forced to issue the edict abolishing slavery. They believed that Saint-Domingue could only return to profitability with free labor. They were desperate to rally the rebel slaves to the French cause against the Spanish and English forces on the island.

They were desperate to rally the rebel slaves to the French cause against the Spanish and English forces on the island.

Why did Protestant countries take the lead in expanding education to all children? - They sought to challenge Catholic domination of scholarship and knowledge. They were inspired by the Protestant idea that every believer should be able to read the Bible. Protestant states had more control over the educational system than in Catholic nations. Protestants believed Catholicism benefited from ignorance. They sought to counter the appeal of witchcraft to the peasantry.

They were inspired by the Protestant idea that every believer should be able to read the Bible.

How did the delegates to the Legislative Assembly that convened in October 1791 differ from the delegates to the Estates General/National Assembly? - They were more experienced politicians with a strong commitment to reforming the nation. They were younger and less cautious; many of them joined political clubs. They were drawn mostly from the class of lawyers and officeholders. They were drawn mostly from the provinces and rural countryside. They were more well-read and educated in the traditions of the Enlightenment.

They were younger and less cautious; many of them joined political clubs.

What was the primary goal of Galileo's experimental method? - To identify the fundamental laws guiding nature rather than issues of theology To discover what did occur in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur To expose how the workings of nature demonstrate the presence of God To uncover the hidden forces that directed nature and that humans could manipulate To produce benefits for humankind rather than seek abstract knowledge

To discover what did occur in nature rather than to speculate on what should occur

What was the purpose of the raucous public rituals in which young men in a village would publicly humiliate a couple that had experienced adultery or abuse?

To regulate personal behavior and maintain community standards

What was the goal of the Committee of Public Safety

To use dictatorial powers to respond to threats to France from without and within

How were same-sex relations among women regarded in comparison to same-sex relations among men? - Same-sex relations among women were considered a youthful indiscretion that carried no particular stigma or condemnation, while those among men were harshly condemned as an attack on manly virtue. Same-sex relations among women were considered more dangerous than those of men because they were believed to lead to witchcraft. Same-sex relations among were encouraged among unmarried women and men as a way to squelch sexual passions. Same-sex relations among men were accepted in imitation of Greek and Roman models, but those among women were harshly condemned as unnatural. While considered unnatural, same-sex relations among women attracted less anxiety and condemnation than those among men.

While considered unnatural, same-sex relations among women attracted less anxiety and condemnation than those among men.

Why did eighteenth-century Britain have a shortage of wood? - Wood was the primary source of heat in all homes in industries. The new industrial pollution began to destroy traditional old-growth forests. The vast expansion of the British navy in the wars against France led to a problem of deforestation. New beetles and diseases from the Americas affected and began to destroy British forests. The widespread building of canals and roads required large amounts of wood and had caused many forests to be cut through.

Wood was the primary source of heat in all homes in industries.

Which of the following best describes the role of women in guilds in the eighteenth century? - Guilds dropped all restrictions that forbade women from serving as maters or laborers. Work in guilds became more accessible to women, by both legally and illegal means. Guilds permitted women to serve as workers but forbade any women from becoming masters. Guilds promoted middle-class ideals about the harm to women of working outside of the home. Guilds reinforced the regulations forbidding all work by and mastership for women.

Work in guilds became more accessible to women, by both legally and illegal means.

How was the life of nonagricultural workers transformed between 1760 and 1830? - Workers prospered most during years of war when their labor was most valuable. Workers' housing improved significantly when they moved into new factory towns. Workers worked in much more dangerous conditions. Workers ate poorer diets when they moved away from the countryside. Workers worked many more days per year.

Workers worked many more days per year.

The new discourse about children that emerged in the 1760s included all of the following except - a call for greater tenderness toward children. a rejection of swaddling babies and using corsets to mold their bones. a closing of foundling hospitals. the creation of loose-fitting clothing that allowed ample movement. an emphasis on women nursing their own children.

a closing of foundling hospitals.

Catherine the Great of Russia came to power in 1762 through - inheritance of the throne from her mother Elizabeth. an invitation from the Russian senate to rule. Frederick II of Prussia's invasion of Russia. a conspiracy led by her lover. election by the boyars.

a conspiracy led by her lover.

The Zollverein was - a customs union between separate German states. the first permanent rail line between London and Birmingham. a Dutch spy network created to steal industrial technology. the first Austrian enterprise to make use of steam engine technology. a Russian steamship that linked Moscow to the Black Sea.

a customs union between separate German states.

The primary cause for the substantial population growth in Europe in the eighteenth century was - an increase in birth rates. improved medical care. improved food supplies. a decline in mortality. the end of major warfare

a decline in mortality.

Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, armies affected population growth in all of the following ways except - soldiers and camp followers passed contagious diseases throughout the countryside. a large number of individuals were killed on the battlefield. armies requisitioned scarce food supplies. armies disrupted the agricultural cycle. battles destroyed precious crops and farmland.

a large number of individuals were killed on the battlefield.

The consumer revolution of the eighteenth century led to - a vast increase in personal indebtedness, as individuals borrowed money in order to purchase consumer items. a new type of society in which people derived their self-identity as much from their consuming practices as from their work lives. a transition away from manufacturing basic goods such as iron and coal to light consumer goods. the development of increasingly stark class distinctions based on consumption. notions of community values and expected norms, since people could now purchase the same consumer items.

a new type of society in which people derived their self-identity as much from their consuming practices as from their work lives.

To move from the laboratory into manufacturing, James Watt's steam engine needed all of the following except - skilled workers. precision parts. a single, distinct industrial use. a large base of capital. skills of salesmanship.

a single, distinct industrial use.

In the Historical and Critical Dictionary, Pierre Bayle demonstrated that - the Bible was a fraudulent document promoted by the Catholic Church. the mind and body are united into one substance. all knowledge can be questioned and doubted. the universe was a deterministic place where good and evil were relative values.. human beliefs are unified in their singular origins from God.

all knowledge can be questioned and doubted.

The key demand of the Chartist movement was that - employers be required to provide basic education for child workers under the age of ten. women be paid equally to men. Britain permit the import of grain without duties attached in order to keep food prices low. all men be given the right to vote. employers give all employees a "workers' charter" that outlined their rights and

all men be given the right to vote.

In the eighteenth century, sugar and tea become commonly consumed products by all social classes for all of the following reasons except - an effort to support colonial expansion by the consumption of colonial products. a steady drop in prices due to the expanded use of colonial slave labor. a desire to emulate the lifestyles of the elite. a quickened pace of work, which created a need for new stimulants. a change in the understanding of daily necessities.

an effort to support colonial expansion by the consumption of colonial products.

William Cockerill was

an english carpenter who built cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium

The idea of the public sphere that emerged during the Enlightenment refers to - a government bureau that regulated the work of the philosophes. an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues. the marketplaces at which peasants gathered to gossip and share news. the spaces in the royal courts where commoners could observe the king and the court hold ceremonies. the practice of legislatures to permit private citizens to make addresses before the gathered deputies.

an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues.

The War of the Austrian Succession could best be described as - a strong Prussian victory and undermine the role of Austria in German affairs. a distinct French victory that forced Britain to abandon its last remaining land claims on the continent. a clear British victory that forced the French to retreat from North America. an Austrian victory that forced Prussia to abandon much to its territory. an inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare.

an inconclusive standoff that set the stage for further warfare.

Friedrich List believed that industrial development should be pursued - as part of a project of economic nationalism led by the state. only in those regions of the nation where natural resources were easily available. through the laissez-faire tradition of free trade and independence from government interference. as a supplement to agricultural development but never as a goal in itself. in colonies, so that the homeland would not be scarred by industrial pollution.

as part of a project of economic nationalism led by the state.

According to the text, the Directory continued French wars of conquest begun by early revolutionary governments - out of an ideological commitment to liberate all of Europe from aristocratic domination. out of fear that without French intervention Russia would dominate the continent. because big, victorious armies kept men employed. because the nationalistic populace demanded this. to prevent the French people from asking questions about the Terror of 1793 to 1794.

because big, victorious armies kept men employed.

The National Assembly that ruled France from 1789 to 1791 passed laws that - eliminated women's right to hold property. made divorce more difficult. banned Catholic priests from marrying couples. broadened women's rights to seek divorce and inherit property. made men and women equal.

broadened women's rights to seek divorce and inherit property.

The greatest achievement of eighteenth-century medical science was the - control of venereal disease. elimination of the bubonic plague. rise of the animistic school of medicine. conquest of smallpox. invention of anesthesia for surgery.

conquest of smallpox.

The reformer Robert Owens sought to - oppose industrial development as contrary to human happiness. create a single large national union for British workers. defend the rights of private property against socialist claims. free laborers from the restrictions of the Factory Acts. form a committee of industrialists to advise the government on industrial policy.

create a single large national union for British workers.

Edward Jenner received financial prizes from the British government for - discovering the first effective method of inoculation against smallpox. discovering that cowpox could be used to vaccinate against smallpox. introducing inoculation against smallpox to western Asia. propounding the microbial theory of disease. inventing improved sewage systems.

discovering that cowpox could be used to vaccinate against smallpox.

The scientific revolution drew on all of the following for its origins except - the establishment of universities and their partial practice of free inquiry. the recovery of ancient texts in the Renaissance. Arabic commentaries on mathematics and studies of nature. efforts to solve problems of navigation. efforts to prevent a recurrence of the Black Death.

efforts to prevent a recurrence of the Black Death.

Francis Bacon formalized the research methods of Tycho Brahe and Galileo into a theory of reasoning known as - dualism. empiricism. occultism. naturalism. materialism.

empiricism.

The key development that allowed continental banks to shed their earlier conservative nature was the - industrialization of the continent. establishment of limited liability investment. replacement of the old managers with young, aggressive investment bankers. recruitment of bank deposits from the landed aristocracy. influx of British investment.

establishment of limited liability investment.

The legal definition of the composition of the prerevolutionary third estate included - everyone who was not a noble or member of the clergy. the clergy. the peasantry. the nobility. businessmen and artisans.

everyone who was not a noble or member of the clergy.

Railroad construction on the continent - was much cheaper than it had been in Britain. featured varying degrees of government involvement. was generally the work of private entrepreneurs. generally followed the British pattern. was actually ahead of British railroad construction.

featured varying degrees of government involvement.

The enlightened policies of Frederick II of Prussia included all of the following except - freeing the Prussian serfs. abolishing the torture of prisoners. permitting scholars wide latitude to publish what they wished. promoting schools. religious toleration.

freeing the Prussian serfs.

The discipline of natural philosophy focused on - specific natural laws that governed all matter in material universe. fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe. the application of ancient philosophy to theological questions. theological principles that can be discovered in the study of nature. the investigation of non-Western philosophy and religion in the context of Christian doctrine.

fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe.

The English Navigation Acts mandated that all English imports and exports be transported on English ships, and they also - restricted English banks from making foreign loans. initiated English involvement in the transatlantic slave trade. gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies. created an alliance with the Dutch against the French. prevented the American colonists from building ships.

gave British merchants a virtual monopoly on trade with British colonies

All of the following correctly characterize a young woman's period as a servant except - both poor and middle-class families often sent their daughters into domestic service. girls worked hard on an endless array of jobs. girls were required to attend weekly religious lessons at the local church. girls were constantly under the eye of the mistress of the house. girls frequently complained of being physically mistreated by their mistresses.

girls were required to attend weekly religious lessons at the local church.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, foundling homes - were closed by governments to force families to care for children. were dissolved by the church to try to force women to refuse premarital sex. received little support from the wealthy, for the wealthy saw the homes as facilitating sin. only accepted children from single women in ill health. had horribly high death rates.

had horribly high death rates.

John Wesley's Methodism was particularly appealing because - he favored overthrowing abusive governments. he advocated tender loving care for children. he refuted the doctrine of predestination, insisting that anyone who earnestly sought salvation could gain it. he decorated his churches with baroque art. he allowed alcohol consumption, which other sects did not.

he refuted the doctrine of predestination, insisting that anyone who earnestly sought salvation could gain it.

Some scholars have argued that the neglectful attitudes toward children in preindustrial Europe were conditioned mostly by - high infant mortality rates. church doctrine. Enlightenment philosophy. the children's low economic value. economic pressure on new migrants to the cities.

high infant mortality rates.

In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John Locke claimed that - sovereign authority rests in the hands of the people. all people are born with certain ideas and ways of thinking. human development is determined by education and social institutions. people are born corrupt and society must reeducate them. governments are formed by contracts among free individuals.

human development is determined by education and social institutions.

Scholarly statistical studies of the condition of members of the British working class indicate that

improvement did not come until after 1820

The Crystal Palace exhibition of 1851 commemorated the - industrial dominance of Britain. half-century of labor reforms in Britain. creation of the German Zollverein. Battle of Waterloo. launching of the Great Eastern.

industrial dominance of Britain.

In the 1780s, over 50 percent of France's annual budget was expended on - the military. the royal court. administrative functions. interest payments on the debt. bread subsidies for the poor.

interest payments on the debt.

Joseph II of Austria responded to calls to grant civil liberties to Jews by - issuing edicts intended to integrate Jews more fully into society, including eligibility for military service. granting Jews freedom of worship but requiring them to live separately from Christians. granting Jews liberties only in areas useful to the monarchy, such as banking. expelling all Jews from Austrian lands. requiring Jews who issued such calls to pay heavy fines or face execution.

issuing edicts intended to integrate Jews more fully into society, including eligibility for military service.

The strength of popular religion in Catholic countries reflected - the desires of secular authorities. its importance in community life. the decline of papal and clerical abuses. the role of the parish clergy in the state bureaucracy. widespread fear of the outside world.

its importance in community life.

In the eighteenth century, the advocates for agricultural innovation argued that - the rights of the nobility over land needed to be reinforced, since until that time only nobles could bring about innovations. government officials should seize land in order to demonstrate the value of agricultural innovation so that local farmers would adopt such practices. landholdings and common lands needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently. the key to agricultural innovation was to provide support for the peasants against the lords, since the lords resisted innovation that they feared would diminish their authority. farming should be strictly separated from herding for sheep and cattle, since herds diminished the lands' productivity by trodding on and flattening loose soil.

landholdings and common lands needed to be consolidated and enclosed in order to farm more efficiently

The Factory Act of 1833 - limited the work of children and thereby broke the pattern of families working together in factories. required employers to keep logs of all work-related injuries and accidents and provide copies to local authorities. established the first minimum wage for workers, although it did not apply to children. mandated a maximum work week for adults of sixty hours if the adult operated machinery. authorized workers to form unions if the factory had more than twenty-five employees.

limited the work of children and thereby broke the pattern of families working together in factories.

According to Olympe de Gouges, - women should enjoy special rights and privileges. men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law. monarchy was the most oppressive form of government. it was natural to exclude women from the political process. the government ought to sponsor free public day care.

men and women should be equal in the eyes of the law.

In Africa, the slave trade primarily resulted in - greater prosperity and a growing population. more wars and likely fewer people. more consumer goods and greater prosperity. larger empires and more wars. larger empires and far fewer people

more wars and likely fewer people.

The pattern of late marriage in early modern Europe resulted primarily from the - puritanism of rural society. prevalence of the extended family structure. fear of overpopulation. availability of premarital sex. necessary precondition of economic independence.

necessary precondition of economic independence.

In the Tennis Court Oath, delegates to the National Assembly swore - to overthrow the feudal regime. to dedicate themselves to replacing the monarchy with a republican government. to export the ideals of the Revolution to the rest of Europe. not to disband until they had written a new constitution. not to accept any future role for the Catholic Church in political issues.

not to disband until they had written a new constitution.

Until at least 1750, the practice of late marriage did not lead to a large number of illegitimate children because - of the widespread use of effective methods of birth control such as sheep condoms. sexual activity prior to marriage was extremely rare and harshly punished by the church. poor nutrition dramatically diminished women's ability to become pregnant and to carry a child to term. unmarried pregnant women commonly aborted their fetuses. of community pressure on a couple to marry when a women became pregnant.

of community pressure on a couple to marry when a women became pregnant.

According to the text, the French military victories after the winter of 1793-1794 were largely due to - superior generalship. patriotism and the superior numbers supplied by the draft. superior French technology and tactics. Austria's withdrawal from the First Coalition. French control of the seas.

patriotism and the superior numbers supplied by the draft.

A striking feature of the salons was that - clerics were banned. philosophes, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled. they were often sponsored by the government. members of the working classes often attended. their main purpose was making marriage matches between poor nobles and wealthy commoners.

philosophes, nobles, and members of the upper middle class intermingled.

The idea of the industrious revolution is best understood as a result of - the reduction of holidays and festivals by the state in order to create more workdays during the year, combined with laws requiring the closing of taverns two hours past sunset. efforts by Protestant and Catholic churches to combat sin by promoting a gospel of prosperity and industry that would keep workers productively at their labors. merchant capitalists gaining greater authority over workers and forcing them into factories where their work activity could be more closely monitored and controlled. poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to be used to buy consumer goods. the nobility expanding its land holdings by draining swamps and fens, which required workers to provide labor for their noble lords.

poor families choosing to reduce leisure time and the production of goods for household consumption in order to earn wages to be used to buy consumer goods.

The primary purpose of Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) was to - advocate religious tolerance. attack French absolutism. adapt scientific thought to Christian doctrine. counteract the influence of the Enlightenment. popularize the findings of the scientific revolution.

popularize the findings of the scientific revolution.

British economist Thomas Malthus argued that - population pressure would always force wages down to subsistence levels. using young children in factories was immoral. population always grew faster than the food supply. the standard of living was a reflection of industrial capacity. Methodism was a key factor in keeping the working class from revolting.

population always grew faster than the food supply.

The dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1773 is a striking indication of the - decline of religious feeling in the eighteenth century. resurgent power of the papacy. power of the state over the church. vitality of the Protestant revival. obscurantism of the Bourbon monarchs.

power of the state over the church.

Johannes Kepler believed that the elliptical orbit of planets - could not be sustained, for they violated the perfection of circular orbits. demonstrated the presence of Satan's disruptive influence in the universe. made the heavens subject to violent corrections that produced earthquakes on earth. were interspersed with epicycles and deferents. produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies.

produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies.

The National Assembly instituted all of the following reforms except - the abolition of monopolies, guilds, and workers' associations. granting religious toleration to French Jews and Protestants. eliminating all barriers to trade within France. recognizing women as holding full civil rights. dividing France into eighty-three departments of relatively equal size.

recognizing women as holding full civil rights.

To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, Empress Maria Theresa - regulated the church more closely. ordered the adoption of scientific farming techniques. abolished serfdom. reduced nobles' power over their serfs. established a bank to make loans to peasants on easy terms.

reduced nobles' power over their serfs.

According to recent scholarship, during the eighteenth century the guild system - was in the process of collapse as new technologies made guild regulations obsolete. inhibited the development of the economy through its rigid rules and their strict application. provided the foundation for Great Britain's economic growth, since the guilds were strongly supported under British law. undermined the creation of banking systems, since guild masters were forbidden from borrowing money for business expansion. remained flexible as masters adopted new technologies and circumvented impractical rules.

remained flexible as masters adopted new technologies and circumvented impractical rules.

The spinning of thread for the loom - required the work of several spinners for each loom, which led merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers. was established as a unique craft in which communities and even regions specialized, especially those regions that practiced the herding of large flocks of sheep. was quickly turned into a mechanized process, which freed more women to take up operation of the loom. required a difficult set of skills that men came to monopolize and used to earn higher salaries than women, who were left the simple task of spooling the thread. marked a new type of industry in which the merchants created unambiguous standards for spun thread that reduced conflicts between merchants and spinners.

required the work of several spinners for each loom, which led merchants to employ the wives and daughters of agricultural workers.

According to the text, in the summer of 1789 the National Assembly was driven toward more radical action by - Maximilien Robespierre's brilliant rhetoric. fear of attack by Austria and Prussia. King Louis XVI's attempted flight from France. revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris. the completion of the American constitution.

revolutionary actions of French peasants and the common people of Paris.

According to the text, one danger that threatened young girls who were living away from home in domestic service was - increased risk of contracting infectious diseases. reduced chances of marriage on returning home. risk of sexual attack by males in the households they served. malnutrition from subsisting on a city diet. higher risk of death or injury in street or kitchen accidents.

risk of sexual attack by males in the households they served.

The concept of the reading revolution refers to the

shift from reading aloud texts perceived as authoritative to reading many different textsrapidly, silently, and individually.

The Englishman Jethro Tull - demonstrated that slow oxen who produced more manure were preferred for plowing than swifter-moving horses. sought to critically analyze farming methods and develop better methods about farming through empirical research promoted the idea of a lost rural past where Englishmen lived in harmony tending their fields. became the popular symbol of rural rebellion when he burned his fields rather than enclose them. became the first non-noblemen to be England's largest landowner, with vast estates in southeastern England.

sought to critically analyze farming methods and develop better methods about farming through empirical research.

In Germany, Fritz Harkort - sought to demonstrate that widespread economic growth could be achieved through agricultural development without having to develop industry. sought to forge a new path to industrialization by using the state as the central engine of industrial growth. sought to develop a private academy that would train engineers for industrial production. sought to match English achievements in machine production as quickly as possible, even at great, unprofitable expense. led a revolt by artisan craftsmen against the instruction of machine technology.

sought to match English achievements in machine production as quickly as possible, even at great, unprofitable expense.

Between 1650 and 1790, a crucial component of the global economy was established when European nations developed - the African trade the Atlantic economy. the colonial economy. the East Indian trade. the Pacific economy

the Atlantic economy.

In the eighteenth century, the biggest increase in British foreign trade was with - France. the British colonial empire. Africa and the Middle East. the European continent. China.

the British colonial empire

In The Condition of the Working Class in England, Friedrich Engels stated that - the social problems in Britain were not a product of the Industrial Revolution. the British middle classes were guilty of "mass murder" and "wholesale robbery." in general, the living conditions of the working class were slowly improving. the class consciousness of the working class would lead to social revolution. the working class was itself responsible for most of the problems its members faced.

the British middle classes were guilty of "mass murder" and "wholesale robbery."

Rousseau's concept of the general will asserts that - enlightened monarchs protect the interests of the entire society and should be relied on for reform. the people's political wishes can be conveyed only by direct democracy. the authentic, long-term needs of the people can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority. sovereignty resides in the monarchy. public opinion polling can be a valuable support to democracy.

the authentic, long-term needs of the people can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority.

With the development of Spanish colonial society, by the eighteenth century - the colonial elite created an exaggerated sense of their "Spanish-ness" in order to distinguish themselves from the local peoples. the colonial elite largely abandoned European cultural forms and practices in order to create a new Latin American culture. the colonial elite came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in Spain. the colonial elite were openly discussing breaking ties with Spain in a colonial independence movement. the colonial elite had so thoroughly merged with local populations as to be indistinguishable from them.

the colonial elite came to believe that their circumstances gave them different interests and characteristics from those in Spain.

The difficulties faced by the continental economies in their efforts to compete with the British included all of the following except - the low prices of British produced goods. the complexity of the new technology. the expense of new technology. the devastation of the Napoleonic wars. the difficulty of finding large sums of money for investment.

the devastation of the Napoleonic wars.

According to the text, the underlying reason for the illegitimacy explosion of 1750-1850 was - the growth of cottage industry and peasant migration to the cities. the decline of traditional moral standards due to the Enlightenment. decreasing availability of birth control in the countryside. Protestantism's stress on women's equality. the sexual exploitation of poor girls by wealthy men.

the growth of cottage industry and peasant migration to the cities.

The growth in eighteenth-century consumerism in clothing was encouraged by - the growth of fashion merchants who dictated changing styles. the royal courts establishing fashion standards. the creation of the mechanical loom. the enforcement of new class restrictions on clothing usage. the role of the nobility as the arbiters of fashion.

the growth of fashion merchants who dictated changing styles.

The leadership of the Dutch people in farming methodology can be attributed primarily to - the exceptional fertility of their lands. the necessity to provide for a densely populated country. the leadership of the Dutch scientific community. their strong nobility. their Calvinism.

the necessity to provide for a densely populated country.

At the center of Adam Smith's arguments in The Wealth of Nations was the belief that - the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of the citizens. capitalism could only flourish if workers' wages were kept low. government was incapable of providing services as efficiently as the free marketplace. guilds provided a structural stability to the economy that permitted the free market to function effectively. the government had a responsibility to protect consumers and the general public from price gouging and fraud.

the pursuit of self-interest in competitive markets would improve the living conditions of the citizens.

Abbé Sieyès's answer to the question, What is the third estate? was that it was - a bunch of rabble-rousers. the true strength of the French nation. those who adhered to liberalism. the business and professional elite. a parasitic class that robbed the peasantry and artisans of the just fruits of their labor.

the true strength of the French nation.

The rural putting-out system had all of the following competitive advantages except - underemployed labor was abundant, and the poor worked for low wages. production in the countryside was unregulated. lacking guild standards, workers could produce a wide variety of goods. merchants could change procedures and experiment. the workers had to purchase the raw material themselves, saving the merchant capital expenses.

the workers had to purchase the raw material themselves, saving the merchant capital expenses.

Merchant capitalists complained bitterly about - the high cost of production in the rural countryside. their inability to directly supervise and direct the work of rural laborers. the constant claims by guilds to authority over rural production. government efforts to protect spinners and weavers from labor abuses. the failure of wholesale merchants to purchase their cloth for international trade markets.

their inability to directly supervise and direct the work of rural laborers.

The British won the American component of the Seven Year's war because - The French military leadership was ineffective their Prussian ally won the European component the French did not have an adequate Navy they diverted men and money from Europe to the American theatre they won the support of Native American tribes

they diverted men and money from Europe to the American theatre

Workers resisted moving from cottage work into factories for all of the following reasons except - they had to follow the pace and work schedule of the machines. they had to be at work every day and follow a strict schedule. they were under the constant, demanding supervision of overseers. they received substantially lower wages than cottage work. they were consistently punished if they broke work rules.

they received substantially lower wages than cottage work.

All of the following were true of the French clergy on the eve of the French Revolution except - they were under the complete control of the papacy. there were about 100,000 of them. they paid only a voluntary gift, rather than regular taxes. they levied a tax on landowners. they owned about 10 percent of the land.

they were under the complete control of the papacy.

Christianity in colonial societies in the Americas - remained almost exclusively connected to European colonists, for few native people adopted the religion. took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous peoples. sought to reestablish medieval traditions and practices in a romantic notion of the faithful Middle Ages. remained a foundation of European culture and tradition on which European settlers could depend to defend traditional European practices. so fully embraced native customs and traditions that European Christians came to consider the Christianity practiced in the Americas to be heretical.

took on distinctive characteristics through a complex process of cultural exchange that made Christianity more comprehensible to indigenous peoples.

In addition to supervising labor and birth, midwives generally - practiced witchcraft. treated mental patients. treated female medical difficulties. assisted physicians. sold contraceptives.

treated female medical difficulties.

All of the following correctly characterize nursing and wet-nursing practices except - aristocratic women hired live-in wet nurses since nursing was seen as undignified. working women typically sent their children to wet nurses in the countryside. rural wet-nursing was conducted within the framework of a putting-out system. upper-middle-class women nursed their own children to prove their motherly devotion. lower-class women in the countryside generally nursed a child two years or more.

upper-middle-class women nursed their own children to prove their motherly devotion.

The tendency to hire family units in the early factories was - originally a government-sponsored response to urbanization. usually a response to the wishes of the families. replaced by the system of pauper apprenticeship. outlawed by the Combination Acts. highly inefficient.

usually a response to the wishes of the families.

The diet of the poorer classes consisted largely of bread and - meat and eggs. dairy products. vegetables. wild game. mead.

vegetables.

Vincent Ogé - was in charge of the guillotine during the Terror. was a peasant who initiated an attack on a noble lord's manor, which sparked the Great Fear. was the chief of Napoleon's secret police operations. was a free man of color in Saint-Domingue who led a failed revolt. was the leader of the National Assembly who initiated the Tennis Court Oath.

was a free man of color in Saint-Domingue who led a failed revolt.

Within the family, the operation of the loom - was somewhat dangerous, and children were forbidden from helping with it. generally only occupied one person, leaving other family members to farm or seek outside employment. was considered a man's job, reserved for the male head of household. required extensive training and kept the loom operator away from home for two to three years. was considered a woman's job, as were most of the sewing crafts.

was considered a man's job, reserved for the male head of household.

Joseph II's conversion of labor obligations to cash payments - had the support of the nobles. transformed a barter economy into a cash one. was opposed by both nobles and peasants. was the basis for the future evolution of Austrian society. followed Russian precedent.

was opposed by both nobles and peasants.

Among the laboring classes, guild masters - permitted easy access to guild masterships in order to maintain a strong labor force. were equally available to men and women in all crafts. were a small minority of the population who jealously guarded their membership. removed themselves from religious functions in order to avoid religious conflicts among the masters. were forbidden from training their sons or wives in their crafts.

were a small minority of the population who jealously guarded their membership.

In the "separate spheres" pattern of gender relationships, - women were expected to produce sufficient income for the family to provide for themselves. men were made responsible for managing families' finances. women generally stopped working outside of the home after the first child was born. men took on significant childcare and domestic roles so that women could work outside of the home. women increasingly gained access to employment opportunities that had traditionally been reserved for men.

women generally stopped working outside of the home after the first child was born.

Rousseau believed that - women should play an active role in public life. women were best suited to a passive role in social relations. civilization was the foundation of freedom. without rational thought, human society would crumble. enlightened absolutism was the best of all possible forms of government.

women were best suited to a passive role in social relations.

All of the following correctly characterize the role of women in the new science except - in Italy, universities offered positions to women. women were well involved in informal scientific communities, attending salons and participating in scientific experiments. most new academies that furnished professional credentials did not accept female members. women worked as illustrators and model makers. women were forbidden from publishing learned treatises.

women were forbidden from publishing learned treatises.

According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to - popularize the scientific revolution. improve the material life of Europeans. "change the general way of thinking." undermine French absolutism. overthrow the king.

"change the general way of thinking."

Which of the following best characterizes the regions to which slaves were carried from Africa to the Americas? - About 90 percent of slaves were transported to Brazil or the Caribbean, with only 3 percent brought to North America. Brazil received about one-half of the slaves carried across the Atlantic, while the Caribbean and North America each received about 25 percent. The Spanish colonies of South America received about 35 percent of slaves from Africa, while Brazil received about 15 percent and the Caribbean and North America each received about 25 percent. The Caribbean received about 50 percent of the slaves, while North American and Spanish South America received about 25 percent each. The North American colonies received about 40 percent of slaves from Africa, while Brazil and South America received about 25 percent each and Spanish South America received about 10 percent.

About 90 percent of slaves were transported to Brazil or the Caribbean, with only 3 percent brought to North America.

What led René Descartes to his discovery of analytical geometry? - An intellectual vision one night while serving as a soldier The study of medieval Islamic mathematical texts Kepler's discovery of the elliptical orbits of planets Efforts to solve the problem of building a better loom for weaving Early economic analysis that focused on the circular flow of money

An intellectual vision one night while serving as a soldier

How did the Enlightenment affect attitudes toward popular culture? - Enlightened authors embraced popular culture as an authentic expression of the human condition unaffected by Christian theology. Governments sought to use the critical perspectives of the Enlightenment to control and manage popular culture. The churches came to the defense of popular culture, fearing that the Enlightened authors would attack Christianity as superstitious. As the educated public adopted the Enlightenment's critical worldview, they increasingly saw popular culture as superstitious and vulgar. Enlightened authors approached popular culture from an anthropological perspective that permitted them to analyze it without condemning it.

As the educated public adopted the Enlightenment's critical worldview, they increasingly saw popular culture as superstitious and vulgar.

On what basis have revisionist historians rejected the traditional interpretation that the French Revolution has its origins in growing tensions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie? - The social environment in France preceding the Revolution was one of relative social harmony and broad acceptance of the existing social order. The Revolution clearly emerged from below as the peasants and the urban poor banded together to fight the abuses that they had long suffered. Both the nobility and bourgeoisie were so thorough disempowered by the absolute monarchy that neither could significantly affect the events leading up to the Revolution. The Revolution had its origins in efforts by the papacy to re-establish its authority within France. Both the nobility and the bourgeoisie were riddled with internal rivalries that precluded identifying these two groups as unified blocs opposing each other.

Both the nobility and the bourgeoisie were riddled with internal rivalries that precluded identifying these two groups as unified blocs opposing each other.

Which of the following best expresses the economic development among European nations in the 1870s? - Germany and France had caught up with Britain's industrial development. Britain was still Europe's leading industrial nation, but several countries had closed the gap on Britain. Germany, with its vast coal and iron deposits, had surpassed British industrial development. Britain's lead in industrial development grew more quickly as electricity and petroleum provided new energy sources. Because of its large population, France had caught up to its ancient rival, Britain.

Britain was still Europe's leading industrial nation, but several countries had closed the gap on Britain.

Who were the Luddites? - German merchants who organized into corporations to finance new textiles factories. Irish peasants who formed secret societies against British landowners. Dutch agricultural workers who rebelled against their falling standard of living in comparison to the urban workers. British handicraft workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery they believed were putting them out of work. Scottish Highlanders who formed community groups that worked building railroads across Great Britain.

British handicraft workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery they believed were putting them out of work.

Which of the following correctly characterizes the response of various religious perspectives to Copernicus's hypothesis? - The Catholic Church declared Copernicus a heretic, while Protestant faiths believed that the hypothesis had no bearing on Christian teaching. Lutheran and Catholic clerics rejected Copernicus, while Calvinists embraced the new interpretation as a new foundation for the heavens. Calvin and Luther condemned Copernicus, while Catholic reaction was mild at first and only declared his hypothesis false in the seventeenth century. The Catholic Church accepted the new science as the product of a faithful cleric, while Luther and Calvin rejected it as the product of Catholic heresy. Lutheran and Catholic officials rejected Copernicus's hypothesis as heretical to a literal interpretation of scripture, while Calvinists recognized a more modern approach to truth and adopted it.

Calvin and Luther condemned Copernicus, while Catholic reaction was mild at first and only declared his hypothesis false in the seventeenth century.

In the eighteenth century what problems were faced by the Church of England?

Church and state officials used the church to provide high-paying jobs to favorites and ignored the spiritual needs of the people

How did class-consciousness form during the industrial revolution? - Class-consciousness formed because industrial workers were forced into ever larger factories that provided the opportunity for them to recognize their common plight. Class-consciousness formed because the forward-thinking radicals educated the laboring classes into Marxist doctrine. Class-consciousness formed because many individuals came to believe that classes existed and developed a sense of class feeling. Class-consciousness formed because industrialists worked together to expand their wealth and to ensure the subordination of labor. Class-consciousness formed because the government acted to protect the position and wealth of the new industrialists.

Class-consciousness formed because many individuals came to believe that classes existed and developed a sense of class feeling.

The law that outlawed labor unions and strikes in Britain was the - Factory Act of 1833. Mines Act of 1842. Coercive Acts of 1766. Combination Acts of 1799. Reform Law of 1848.

Combination Acts of 1799.

Who provided the labor force for Britain's initial colonization of Australia? - Convicted prisoners Indentured servants Slaves Aboriginal people Volunteer settlers

Convicted prisoners

How did Enlightenment thinkers differ from those of the Middle Ages and Renaissance? - Enlightenment thinkers focused on worldly matters, while the Middle Ages and Renaissance only focused on concepts of sin and salvation. Enlightenment thinkers rejected the basic tenants of Christianity and embraced a vision of a world without God. Enlightenment thinkers drew inspiration from classical antiquity, whereas the Middle Ages and Renaissance focused on the Bible. Enlightenment thinkers relished artistic production, while the Middles Ages and Renaissance focused on penance and prayer. Enlightenment thinkers believed that thought had progressed far beyond that of antiquity, which demonstrated the possibility of human progress.

Enlightenment thinkers believed that thought had progressed far beyond that of antiquity, which demonstrated the possibility of human progress.

As literacy expanded, the common people read all of the following except - the Bible. chapbooks containing prayers and lives of the saints. fairy tales, medieval romances, and fantastic adventures. Enlightenment works on social and political issues. practical literature on rural crafts, household repairs, and useful plants.

Enlightenment works on social and political issues.

How did the idea of "race" transform Europeans' idea of their superiority over other peoples? European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior as well as religiously superior. European superiority increasingly was defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as culturally superior rather than religiously superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as religiously superior rather than biologically superior. European superiority was increasingly defined as politically superior rather than morally superior.

European superiority increasingly was defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior.

How did labor in British families change in the eighteenth century? - Family members increasingly adopted new, convenient machines that significantly reduced the time required for household labor. Husbands became more involved in managing the household because of the greater cash flow running through the house. Wives increasingly abandoned labor outside of the house to focus on childrearing. Family members shifted labor away from unpaid work for household consumption and toward work for wages. Family members increasingly scattered to diverse places of employment, rarely working together.

Family members shifted labor away from unpaid work for household consumption and toward work for wages.

All of the following correctly characterize industrial growth patterns in Europe except - Belgium led continental Europe in adopting British technology for production. Following the Napoleonic Wars, France experienced a boom in factory production as the economy shifted from wartime to peacetime production. France had a relatively good pattern of early industrial growth. Italy only made real progress in industrialization after 1880. Eastern Europe was the slowest region to industrialize, with the process occurring after 1880.

Following the Napoleonic Wars, France experienced a boom in factory production as the economy shifted from wartime to peacetime production.

The Enlightenment reached its highest development in France for all of the following reasons except - France had the highest literacy rates in Europe. French was the international language of the educated classes. France was the largest and most populous country in Europe. French intellectuals had more freedoms than those in eastern and east-central Europe. French philosophes sought to reach a large audience of elites.

France had the highest literacy rates in Europe.

The National Assembly granted religious freedom to - French Protestants but not Jews. French Protestants, Jews, and Muslims. French Protestants and Jews. all religious faiths. all faiths but explicitly condemned atheism.

French Protestants and Jews.

What was the economic effect of Napoleon's Continental System? - British merchants prospered, for the French merchants were now barred from British colonies. British merchants and craftsmen lost their major market, deeply harming the British economy and the British tax base for its wars against France. French merchants and manufacturers profited from the monopoly they now held on continental trade. French artisans and the middle class suffered, for they were economically damaged by the blockade of Great Britain. French colonies collapsed because the British blockaded them in response to the French blockade.

French artisans and the middle class suffered, for they were economically damaged by the blockade of Great Britain.

All of the following correctly characterize events in the Vendée region of Brittany except - Great Britain attempted an invasion backed by peasant revolutionaries. peasants revolted against being drafted into the army. devout Catholics and royalists encouraged a peasant rebellion. foreign agents encouraged a peasant rebellion. counter-revolutionaries recruited armies to oppose the Parisian radicals.

Great Britain attempted an invasion backed by peasant revolutionaries.

Why did Great Britain seek to raise taxes on its American colonies in the 1760s? - The rising cost of increasingly elaborate court ceremonies had forced the government to seek tax increases on all its territories. Great Britain expected the American colonies to help pay for the expenses incurred during the Seven Years' War. The work to rebuild the city of London following the Great Fire required extraordinary expenses that all of the colonies were expected to support. British merchant shipping to the colonies was under increased attack from pirates and from hostile forces, requiring the British to provide expensive naval convoys. Great Britain sought to prepare the colonies for eventual independence by establishing local governments with existing systems of taxation.

Great Britain expected the American colonies to help pay for the expenses incurred during the Seven Years' War.

In general, what was Voltaire's attitude toward government? - He believed in democracy, like most philosophes. He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for. He saw the despot or autocrat as designated by God. He believed in enlightened despotism as long as he could be the despot. He believed in enlightened theocracy.

He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for.

Which of the following incorrectly identifies Napoleon's background? - He was from an impoverished Corsican family. He gained training as a lawyer before joining the military. His family was part of the nobility. He fought for Corsican independence in 1789. He abandoned troops in Egypt before the failure of the campaign became known.

He gained training as a lawyer before joining the military.

All of the following correctly characterize a young man's period of apprenticeship except - he would enter an apprenticeship around age sixteen he would not be permitted to marry he finished his apprenticeship in his late teens or early twenties He would automatically become a master after seven years of training his training occurred in a city or a town

He would automatically become a master after seven years of training

Which of the following correctly characterizes eighteenth-century colonial trade in Europe? - England's exports to its colonies relied heavily on cultural objects such as books and furniture, since the colonies produced all of their own basic needs. Colonial trade became insignificant to the French after the loss of their colonies in New France (Canada). The Spanish empire collapsed, for Spain lacked the resources to sustain its military presence in the colonies. Spanish landowners in the colonies instituted slavery among all the Indian populations in order to force them to work on the haciendas. In England, the mercantalist system achieved remarkable success as British trade with its colonies grew substantially.

In England, the mercantalist system achieved remarkable success as British trade with its colonies grew substantially.

How did the reaction of kings and nobles in continental Europe toward the Revolution change over the Revolution's first two years? - Initially pleased by the Revolution's weakening of France, they came to feel threatened by its message. Initially confused by the claims of the revolutionaries, they came to embrace most of their ideas as representing solid Enlightenment thought. Initially fearful of the Revolution's chaos, they came to support the effort to implement needed reforms in France. Initially pleased by the Revolution's embrace of Enlightenment ideas, they came to fear the idea of nationalism spread by the Revolution. Initially outraged at the Revolution's attacks on the authority of the Catholic Church, they came to embrace the Revolution's efforts to expand the authority of the state over the Church.

Initially pleased by the Revolution's weakening of France, they came to feel threatened by its message.

How did the origins of industrialists change as the industrial revolution progressed? - More industrialists emerged from the working classes as they became accustomed to the new machine technology. Industrialists increasingly emerged from the noble classes, for the nobility recognized the need to expand family wealth and used their political connections to obtain advantages for their new firms. More industrialists emerged from the working classes, as creditors recognized the vast profits in new enterprises and were willing to assume more risk in new ventures. Industrialists increasingly emerged from the migrant communities, who carried new technologies across borders. It became harder to form new firms, and instead industrialists were increasingly likely to have inherited their wealth.

It became harder to form new firms, and instead industrialists were increasingly likely to have inherited their wealth.

The major breakthrough in energy and power supplies that catalyzed the Industrial Revolution was - Thomas Newcomen's 1705 steam engine. the development of the internal combustion engine. the use of running water to power cotton-spinning machinery. James Watt's steam engine, developed and marketed between the 1760s and the 1780s. Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the law of action and reaction.

James Watt's steam engine, developed and marketed between the 1760s and the 1780s.

How did Louis XV damage the sense of his sacred authority? - Louis allowed his common-born mistresses to exercise tremendous influence, which led to scandalous depictions of the king and the court in pamphlets. Louis attempted remove his rightful son as his successor and name one of his illegitimate children as the heir to the throne. Louis refused to take Holy Communion because of the claims of the Catholic Church that he had illegally seized church property. Louis had sided with Protestant princes against the effort of the Catholic Dukes of Austria to unify all of the German lands under Catholic authority. Louis granted freedom of worship to Protestants and Jews, in violation of Roman Catholic law.

Louis allowed his common-born mistresses to exercise tremendous influence, which led to scandalous depictions of the king and the court in pamphlets.