HIST 1003 Final Quizzes

The history of much of the second half of the twentieth century is marked by hostilities between the world's two superpowers (The United States of America, and the Soviet Union). What were the causes of this cold war? What were its stages and how each of them differed from the other? What were the consequences of the cold war for Europe and the world?

2 remaining superpowers after WWII- France was weakened through invasion and Britain had to rebuild and was financially troubled.causes- Future of east-central euro shaped at Yalta Conference= each of 3 superpowers get some major aims concerning shape of postwar euro/ Potsdam- also gave much of Germany east border to Poland, divided Euro and Germany into zones of influence for each of the alliesstart- Soviets were supporting leftist party to take over Greek monarchy, US support Greek monarchy after Britain had to drop out over financial concernsStage1 (late 40's to early 50's)- Policy of Containment= Truman doctrine, domino theory, NATO, COMECON- soviet economic policy for satellite state from USSR, US decide to extend containment to Asia, Africa, Latin Am. , Israel and India freeStage 2-(early 50's to early 60's) Escalation= Korean War, Iran Coup and Guatemala, Khrushchev- peaceful coexistence, Warsaw Pact, revolts in Poland and Hungry Castro, Berlin Wall, Cuban Missile CrisisStage 3(early 60's to late 70's)- confrontation and détente- fear Mutually Assured Destruction, Am. intervention in DR, Brezhnev doctrine, Soviet in Czech, Rapprochement b/w US and China, Arab- Israeli War, end of Vietnam war, Helsinki accordsStage 4(early-mid 80's)- 2nd cold war- Iran revolution and Nicaragua, Soviet invade Afghanistan, Regan confrontation policy, Poland solidarity movement, intervention in Grenada, Lebanon, and Libya by US, Gorbachev- in USSRStage 5 (late 80's early 90's)- end of Cold War- Gorbachev try openness policy, 12/89 end of cold war, 91 USSRdissolveConsequences- no common communist adversary= less pressing collaboration, Euro chart own course and expand EU, West unite to respond to ethnic violence and terrorism but spilt over interference in Iraq and Libya, rise of new major economies= new effort for global economic coordination

The essence of Willy Brandt's policies toward the Eastern Bloc was:

A. to seek peace and reconciliation

Which position best represents the views of John Maynard Keynes?

He denounced the Treaty of Versailles.

How did Muhammad Ali finance his modernization of Egyptian society?

He forced farmers to become tenants of large, private landowners who adopted commercial agriculture.

In the 1890s, how did Sergei Witte seek to transform Russia?

He implemented industrial policies to catch up with the West

How did Mussolini build support from big business in Italy?

He left big business to regulate itself and never purged it members.

How did Lenin respond to the peasants' seizure of land when he rose to power in 1917?

He mandated land reform in order to offer his approval for what the peasants had already done.

How did the Nazi Party seek to promote the idea of the Volksgemeinschaft?

The Nazis created mass organizations such as the Hitler Youth and held mass rallies to spread Nazi ideology and enlist volunteers.

How did labor unions in Germany change in the early 1900s?

Unions increasingly focused on bread-and-butter issues rather than dissemination of socialist doctrine.

Which statement best describes the government of Sardinia's King Victor Emmanuel?

Victor Emmanuel retained the liberal constitution forced upon his father in 1848, which included substantial civil liberties.

Vladimir Lenin

What/Who: Russian revolutionary and leader of the Bolsheviks since 1903, he masterminded the November 1917 revolution that overthrew the provisional government and led to a communist regime in Russia.When: Important during the first quarter of the 20th century.Short Description: Lenin proved an effective leader of the Bolsheviks because Bolshevism centered on discipline, organization, and a special leadership role for a revolutionary vanguard, which was embodied in his sternness, intelligence, and ruthlessness. Under his administration, Russia became a one-party socialist state; all land, natural resources, and industry were socialized into public property. Admirers view him as a champion of working people's rights and welfare whilst critics see him as the founder of a totalitarian dictatorship responsible for civil war and mass human rights abuses. He spurred many social changes and reforms in Russia, including:-Russia was to make a swift exit from World War One and that Bolshevik government and the people of Russia were to announce that they believed in peace to all nations.-There would be an immediate transfer of land to the peasants.The workers would take control over the means of production and the distribution of goods.-The Bolshevik government would take control of the banks, foreign trade, large industries and railways.-Any form of inequality based on class, sex, nationality or religion was made illegal.The Bolshevik Revolution: During the fall of 1917, leftist revolutionaries led by Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin launched a nearly bloodless coup d'état against the provisional government. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and other strategic locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government with Lenin as its head. The Red Terror soon followed and was a campaign of mass killings, torture, and systematic oppression conducted by the Bolsheviks after they seized power in Petrograd and Moscow in 1917. Lenin became the virtual dictator of the first Marxist state in the world. His government made peace with Germany, nationalized industry and distributed land, but beginning in 1918 had to fight a devastating civil war against anti-Bolshevik White Army forces.Historical Significance: Founded the USSR in 1917. His administration laid the framework for the system of government that ruled Russia for seven decades as well as providing the model for later Communist-led states. Lenin's influence was global. It is argued that Lenin's ideas and example that "constitutes the basis of the Communist movement today". His revolutionary theory—the belief in the necessity of a violent overthrow of capitalism through communist revolution, to be followed by a dictatorship of the proletariat as the first stage of moving towards communism, and the need for a vanguard party to lead the proletariat in this effort—developed into Marxism-Leninism, a highly influential ideology. Following Lenin's death, Stalin's administration established the ideology known as Marxism-Leninism.

The wave of social unrest that almost toppled de Gaulle's Fifth Republic was begun by:

students

Yalta Conference

what: meeting of Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill in which they began outlining plans for the postwar order, including the military occupation of Germany.when: 1945 (mid 1900s)description: When they had this meeting, victory was already assured for the Allies, and they met to plan for the period after the war. In exchange for territorial concessions in Asia and the Pacific, Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan within three months of the German surrender; they firmed up plans for military occupation of Germany in separate zones, for joint occupation of Berlin, and for an Allied Control Council, composed of the military commanders-in-chief, which would make policy for all of Germany by unanimous agreement; Britain ensured French and Soviet commitment to the UN; Poland was going to gain territory from Germany to make up for what it had lost from the USSR; the Soviets compromised by allowing a role for the noncommunist Polish government-in-exile in London and by promising free elections down the road.significance: Germany was divided amongst the Allies after its surrender. Eastern Europe was given a choice to join the USSR. USSR would join the fight against Japan.

Warsaw Pact

what: military-diplomatic alliance of Soviet bloc countries, created to counter NATOwhen: 1955description: Called for a unified military command and for the maintenance of Soviet military units on the territories of the other participating statessignificance: A systematic plan to strengthen the Soviet hold over its satellites which caused them to become a target for nationalist hostility in Poland and Hungary

Prague Spring

what: reform movement in Czechoslovakia; The attempt by Czechoslovakian reformers in 1968 to gain freer cultural expression, democratization of Communist Party procedures, and broader participation in public life within the framework of a communist state.when: 1968 (mid 1900s)description: end: Moving tanks into Prague in August 1968, Soviet leaders ended the widely admired reform movement in Czechoslovakia. Though there were protests, the outcome was a foregone conclusion once the Soviets decided to intervene.significance: The Soviet suppression of the reform movement in Czechoslovakia during the "Prague Spring" of 1968 seemed to indicate the inherent rigidity of the Soviet system; This end of the Prague Spring closed the era of relative flexibility and cautious innovation in the Soviet bloc that had begun in 1953.

What new model for European expansion did Britain establish in Egypt?

A combination of military force, political domination, and an ideology of beneficial reform

What was the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916?

An agreement between Great Britain and France to divide up parts of the Near and Middle East after the war

For artists such as the Dadaists and Surrealists, what was the purpose of art?

Art should expose the bankruptcy of modern society and produce radical social change.

How did the Soviet Union and Eastern European communist regimes treat displaced persons returning home after the war?

As politically unreliable because of their exposure to Western European society

The founder of the National Organization for Women was:

Betty Friedan

How did Louis Napoleon believe that the people should be represented in government?

By a strong national leader whose reforms would aid all of the people

Write an informative essay about the causes and consequences of the new imperialism for Europe and for the world. How did various supporters of European imperialism justify their calls for colonial expansion? Make sure to provide specific examples of imperialist policies of various European powers to support your arguments.

Causes of the New Imperialism: External and InternalExternal casuses resulted from the dramatic shift in Europe's position in relation to the rest of the worldGrowing importance of world trade dominated by European goodsVast new infrastructures in transportation and communicationPower and flexibility of Europe's financial institutions: mobile wealthThe demographic factor: European migrations to other continentsInternal causes resulted from national rivalries within EuropePolitical factors: narrow, exclusive, competitive nationalism, conflicts between nation-statesEconomic factors: economic expansion and economic distress, economic nationalism, protectionism, trade wars, decline of trade within Europe, struggle to extend control over foreign territories, to secure markets and raw materialsBrutal conquest- 1904-1908 Germany killed 60,000 Herero people after they revoltedInsensitive to locals needs- France gave control of large parts of France-Congo to rubber companies to cut administration costs (1890's) over to large rubber companies which systematically and savagely coerced local people to collect sap of rubber treesNot sharing advanced technology- only a small number of locals could attend their imperialist's schoolsNo consideration for local politics- British unite all of India under single authority with Congress Party

What idea did Heinrich von Treitschke promote in relationship to colonies?

Colonies were essential to great nations, who would weaken without colonial lands.

To resolve the economic problems of Germany and international tensions in Europe, in 1924 the United States developed the:

Dawes Plan

After 1860, why did foreign aggression diminish in China until near the end of the century?

Europeans had obtained their primary goal of commercial and diplomatic relations.

Migration out of Europe often followed what pattern?

Families and friends would coordinate their migrations so that they would settle together in a new land.

Compare and contrast two of these European totalitarian regimes: Mussolini's Fascist Italy, Stalinist Soviet Union, Hitler's Nazi Germany. Make sure to provide ideological background as well as discuss important domestic and foreign policies of each regime you choose to analyze. What was the impact of these regimes on Europe and the world?

Fascist Italy- Mussolini started out as prominent socialist journalist, lead The People of Italy paper, saw military service in WW1, translate war experience into fascism, murder of Matteotti- Italian moderate socialist by fascists= prime minister Mussolini commit to more radical direction= fascist form of state, govt. now totalitarian, all-encompassing, limitless, state too weak under liberal system, dismantle democratic system brutally, became corporative state- system established in 1926 that sought to involve people in public life not as citizens but as producers through their roles in the economy, made concessions with Catholic Church= Lateran Pact= Vatican sovereignty+ church have role in public ed. and marriage, traditional fascists mad at church deal= church has too much power, regime restored Italy and stratify those not content with liberal democracy or Marxist communism, corporativist institutions bogged down by bureaucracy, Italy want independent Austria as German buffer, 1934 Mussolini force Hitler to stop Austrian invasion=racist Nazis threaten best if euro, France and Britain want good relations with Italy for ideological balance, Italy meet with France and Britain in 35 to resist treaties that may endanger peace of euro, invade Ethiopia in 35 thought France and Britain would not resist in need of anti-Nazi support, after few sanctions, Italy send troops to Spain to aid nationalists, Italy drift to Germany to spite accommodations from France and Britain, Rome-Berlin Axis est.= ally Hitler and Mussolini in 36 cemented by open-ended milt. alliance in Pact of Steel 1936, Italy become anti-sematic to dev. relationship, even if didn't want to, many facists angry and kept interference in WWII, proposed a 4 nation talk when hitler want to smash Czechs by force= Munich agreement, Italy got involved in war hoping for territorial advantages, attacked Greece by Hitler's orders, Hitler and Mussolini had sensitive relationship, Mussolini arrested in 43 by invading allied troops, King Victor Emmanuel form new govt. in Italy, Germany fail to protect ItalyStalinist soviet union- Stalin- soviet dictator who jettisoned the New Economic policy and instituted a program of crash industrialization and agricultural collectivization. Concluded the Nazi- soviet pact in 1939, join allies after German invasion of soviet union in 1941, politically savy enough to remove enemies from office, leave capitalism behind and return to central planning= 1929 1st 5 year plan, state need control over economy in agricultural surplus in order to buy new equipment, "socialist realism", start collectivism- soviet program under Stalin that reshaped agriculture by forcing peasants into government-controlled collective farms in order to finance rapid industrialization, carried out with brutality, 5 million die of starvation from soviet mass agricultural exportation= many Ukrainian chosen to be peasant farmers for nationality, industrialization finally happen in late 30's, propaganda used heavily, GULAG- network of forced labor camps expand dramatically in 30's and with great terror= 37-38 and grew from momentum that spun out of control, soviet

Why was the Great Depression slow to affect France?

France was less industrialized than the other major continental powers in Europe and somewhat isolated from the world economy.

What part of Bismarck's alliance system did William II abandon?

Germany's non-aggression pack with Russia

Why did the Council of Europeans fail to evolve into a European parliament with sovereign rights?

Great Britain consistently opposed conceding any real political power and sovereignty to the council.

Slobodan Milosevic's intent, which hastened separatism and civil war in Yugoslavia, was to create:

Greater Serbia

How did the Pied-Noirs complicate the experience of decolonization in Algeria?

Having lived in Algeria for several generations, these European Algerians threatened revolt against France if France did not oppose the Islamic independence movement.

In the late 1920s, how did Adolf Hitler shape the Nazi Party's message to appeal to middle-class voters?

He deemphasized the anticapitalist elements of National Socialism and vowed to fight communism.

Which of the following best characterizes the presidency of Vladimir Putin in Russia?

He reasserted anti-Western Russian nationalism and centralized political authority in the Kremlin.

Why did Charles de Gaulle withdraw France from NATO?

He viewed the United States as the main threat to French independence.

Which of the following best characterizes the "new fascist man" that Mussolini promoted?

He was to be a virile, patriotic warrior.

How did the Union of South Africa function differently than any other territory in Africa?

It functioned as a largely A self-governing@ colony

All of the following nations joined the war on the side of the Central Powers except:

Italy

By 1890, how had Japan met the challenge of Western expansion?

Japan selectively adopted those elements of Western society that were in keeping with Japanese tradition.

The British political party that emerged during the 1920s as the champion of the working class and the main opposition to the Conservative party was the:

Labour Party

Lenin's New Economic Policy was a political compromise with the:

Russian peasants which allowed them to buy and sell more goods

Summarize the decisions taken at Teheran, Yalta and Potsdam Conferences regarding postwar Europe, including specific countries (Germany, Poland, other states). How did these decisions affect a political map of Europe and the world after World War II? Be as specific as possible with your answers.

Teheran- 11/1943, Stalin Roosevelt Churchill meet for 1st time, agree next step to invade west euro from Brit, plan D-Day-the complex allied amphibious landings in Normandy, France on 6/6/1944, that opened that second major euro front in WWII. Deceived the Germans into defense and consolidated position. Supplemented by soviet attack from the east. Soviets defeated in first advance but eventually took Warsaw in 1945. Churchill wanted to supplement D-Day with from Italy through Yugoslavia and into eastern euro. US felt Churchill was targeting outmoded influence spheres, so a second invasion happened in southern France in 1944= Paris liberated quicklyYalta- 1945- meeting of Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill in which they began outlining plans for postwar order, including military occupation of Germany- separate zones and joint berlin occupation, and for Allied Control Council= composed of military commanders-in-chief which would make a German policy by unanimous agreement, U.S. allow Stalin to take territories in Asia and Pacific for Stalin to declare war on Japan, Churchill- concerned over US leaving Euro with soviet occupation, want to restore French power= give France share in German occupation and permanent UN seat, US gain Churchill support for UN by allowing him to keep British colony, Britain exempt from measure to bring former colonies under UN to trusteeship after war, Italy kept democracy as 2 had already resisted Stalin, Central Euro comp.= democratic and friend to soviet union/ Poland- role for noncommunist Polish govt. in exhile in London, soviet lead, promise free elections later, gain much of Germany to make up for territory taken by USSRPotsdam- (1945)- a July-August 1945 meeting held at Potsdam Germany, b/w USSR, US, and Britain to implement their earlier agreements concerning the treatment of defeated Germany. Only Stalin remained from previous agreements. Germany rely on allied force for daily survival. Determined that Germany should not be deindustrialized= serve no one's economic interests, economically healthy Germany help balance against soviet union. Soviet sought to further exploit Germany due to disproportionately heavy war losses. Accept to move Germany's eastern border substantially west= Poland gain but Soviets still have a large part of eastern Poland. 3 allies each responsible to administer zone of occupation, should be coordinating activities in common German policy= denazification, demilitarize, assault economic power concentrations

How did Bismarck structure the North German Confederation in order to secure the authority of the Prussian Emperor?

The Emperor controlled the army and foreign affairs and universal male suffrage permitted the emperor to go directly to the people if the middle class liberals resisted his bills in the legislature.

Why was West Germany allowed to build an army after 1955?

The German army would permit Germany to defend itself from attack by the Soviet Union.

As Hungary gained its independent status in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, how did it organize its domestic politics?

The Magyar nobility dominated both the peasantry and minority populations through the Parliament.

Why was the Balkans considered the "tinderbox of Europe"?

The Ottoman Empire had been forced to give up its territory in the region, leading to growing ethnic nationalism.

How did the Soviet Union initially organize the Eastern European nations as it threw out pro-Nazi regimes?

The Soviet Union created coalition governments of leftist political parties but reserved key government posts for Moscow-trained communists.

What did the Korean War demonstrate about Cold War relations?

The United States and Soviet Union would avoid open conflict in Europe but would engage in open, non-nuclear conflict elsewhere in the world

Why did OPEC declare an oil embargo on the United States in 1973?

The United States had aided Israel in its war with Egypt and Syria in 1973.

Why were extensive social welfare programs slow to form in Great Britain?

The conservative, aristocratic House of Lords resisted the formation of such programs until the king threatened to appoint new nobles who would support the programs.

How did the Ottoman Empire's efforts at reform in the latter half of the nineteenth century undermine the empire's stability?

The reforms created equality before the law for all citizens, which increased religious disputes and split Muslims into secularist and traditionalist camps.

Throughout the First World War, what mistake did military commanders repeatedly make?

They attempted to mount massive offensives designed to break through entrenched lines.

Why did the German military re-start submarine warfare in the Atlantic despite knowing that it would lead the United States to enter the war against them?

They believed that improved submarines could starve Britain into submission before the United States could come to Britain's rescue.

What problem was faced by most of the underground resistance groups who opposed the Nazis?

They were not well unified, for they had differing political goals.

How did some British women seek to affect British colonialism in India?

They worked to improve the lives of Indian women, moving them closer to Western standards through education and legislation.

Which of the following best characterizes the political goal of the creation of free, compulsory elementary education in France?

To act as a nation-building tool in which all children would be taught secular, republican values

What was the Nazi Party policy of "coordination"?

To force German society to conform to National Socialist ideology

What was Germany's goal in the Battle of Britain?

To gain air supremacy in anticipation of an invasion of Great Britain

What was Mikhail Gorbachev's goal in bringing reforms to Russia

To revitalize the Soviet system in order to save it.

What was Mikhail Gorbachev's goal in bringing reforms to Russia?

To revitalize the Soviet system in order to save it.

What was the pattern of triangular trade that characterized the global economy in the nineteenth century?

Traders from Western Europe brought manufactured goods to trade for slaves from Africa, then brought the slaves to the Americas where they bought raw materials in return.

Maginot Line

What/Who: A 200-mile system of elaborate permanent fortifications on France's eastern border, named for war minister André Maginot and built primarily during the 1903s.When: 1930s - before WWIShort Description: Determined to prevent another invasion like the one in 1914 by Germany, the Maginot Line was built. It was a defense against German frontal assault; in 1940, the Germans invaded by flanking the line through the Ardennes Forest. When constrycting the line, the French believed the forest would act as a natural blockade.Of the line it is written: "This ultramodern defensive fortification showed traces of the old circular system of fortifications, but its dominant feature was linear. The Maginot Line was, from the standpoint of the troops, a tremendous advance over previous fortifications. Its concrete was thicker than anything theretofore known and its guns heavier. In addition, there were air-conditioned areas for the troops, and the line was usually referred to as being more comfortable than a modern city. There were recreation areas, living quarters, supply storehouses, and underground rail lines connecting various portions of the line. Strongpoints had been established in depth, capable of being supported by troops moved underground by rail."Historical Significance: Represents a shift in French policy to that of defense. Shows France's distrust of Germany even after signing the Treaty of Locarno in 1925.

Munich Agreement

What/Who: An agreement permitting Germany to annex part of Czechoslovakia in hopes to avoid war.When: 1938Short Description: Hitler threatened to invade Czechoslovakia unless Britain supported Germany's plans to takeover the Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government hoped that Britain and France would come to its assistance in the event of German invasion, but British Prime Minister Chamberlain was intent on averting war. The Munich Agreement was a settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers, for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was coined. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among the major powers of Europe (Germany, France, Britain, and Italy), excluding the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia.Historical Significance: Chamberlain believed he had avoided and boasted as much to Britain, but less than a year later war broke out and Germany invaded Poland.

League of Nations

What/Who: An international organization established at the end of WWI without the membership of the US. Though its covenant called for the peaceful settlement of disputes and for sanctions against a member that went to war in violation of League provisions, it failed to prevent the escalating violence that culminated in WWII.When: During and after the Paris Peace conference, 1920.Short Description: Wilson worked to establish and promote the League at the conference, but joining the League was rejected in the U.S. Senate because of American reluctance stemming for isolationist backlash. It embodied the hope for a new international order where members would settle disputes through discussions instead of war. Sanctions were created for violations of the League.Historical Significance: The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States' refusal to join. But the UN did rise from the League after WWII.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

What/Who: Archduke and heir to the Habsburg throne whose assassination spurred WWI.When: 1914Short Description: Much discontent between Austria and Russia over territory. A pro-Russian party took control of Serbia and were angry that Austria had annexed Bosnia and sought to unify Slavs, including those in Austria. Archduke Ferdinand was heir to the Habsburg throne and was visiting Austria-ruled Bosnia when he was assassinated by the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist group. His murder provided Austria a reason for taking military action and in 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia allied with Serbia and Germany allied with Austria. Soon other European powers were joining the war for their own self-interests.Historical Significance: His killing gave Austria an excuse to attack Serbia and soon European and then global powers were roped into the war to defend their allies and their own self-interests. It spurred WWI.

Benito Mussolini

What/Who: Founder of the fascist movement and subsequently dictator within the Italian fascist regime.When: First half of the 20th century.Short Description: He had been a prominent socialist journalist and was concerned with renewal of Italian socialism which made him an unorthodox socialist. He encouraged wartime intervention and rallied disparate groups to join as he oversaw military service. After the war, he founded the fascist movement in 1919 which, at first, found very little support because Mussolini seemed to be using fascism as a personal instrument to garner power within the existing system. In 1922, he maneuvered his way into winning the prime minister's post. After the Matteotti murder, a crisis followed causing Mussolini to spearhead an ongoing fascist revolution and in 1925, he devoted himself to a more radical course to transform Italy into a fascist state. Mussolini's regime undermined the existing democratic system by expanding the state's sovereignty and mobilizing society to create a deeper sense of national identity, which included new forms of public participation (women, youths). The centerpiece of the his state was corporativism - a system sought to involve people in public life as producers based on the organization of the workplace. By the end of the 1920s, it was unclear if Mussolini's fascism was a form of revolution or restoration. Though it restored order, it could be dictatorial and violent and offered a new direction for those disconcerted with Marxist socialism and liberal democracy.Historical Significance: Founder of fascism in Italy which fed volatility and ideological polarization that marked the European political order after WWI.

Adolf Hitler

What/Who: German dictator whose aggressive foreign policy led to WWII and whose policies of anti-Semitism and racial purity eld to the murder of millions during the Holocaust.When: First half of the 20th century, specifically important in WWII.Short Description: Hitler was born Austrian but became a German nationalist and fought in WWI, where he said he "found himself". He soon was inspired to lead a new nationalist, anticommunist, and anti-Weimar movement. In 1933, Hitler became chancellor and dramatically changed the regime after the Nazis gain electoral support due to economic depression and political impasse. Hitler radically transformed German society in the 1930s Hitler began consolidating and gaining power and established the SS.The center components of Hitler's thinking included: geopolitics, biological racism, anti-Semitism, and Social Darwinism. He believed Germany needed to conquer the Lebensraum in Poland for German peoples. He also believed the Jews were the virus keeping Germany from prospering and led the extermination of Jews to purify the Aryan race. He established forced youth participation to indoctrinate children in Nazi propaganda. Soon the euthanasia program was created to cleanse Germany of those detrimental to Germany's racial health. Germany was preparing for war, the core of Nazism. Hitler violated the Rhineland component of the treaty of Versailles in 1936. At the Munich conference in 1938, Chamberlain attempted to appease Hitler with giving him Sudetenland, but this obviously failed. In 1939, Hitler created the Nazi-Soviet Pact to invade Poland. In 1940, Germany attacked France and Belgium. Hitler attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, effectively breaking the pact. The Nazis created concentration camps during the war to murder the Jews for racial cleansing, though it was shrouded in secrecy for a while. After D-Day, in April of 1945, knowing the defeat of Germany was imminent, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered soon after.Historical Significance: Was responsible for shifting the power balance in Europe, spurring WWII, and killing countless numbers of Jews, Bohemians, Slavs, and other people with the Holocaust during WWI.

Schlieffen Plan

What/Who: German operational war plan created by General Count Alfred von Schlieffen as an attack on Franco-Russian forces in World War I.When: Drafted in 1905, enforced 1914-1916Short Description: Schlieffen identified France as Germany's most dangerous opponent. Schlieffen concluded that a massive and successful surprise attack against France would be enough to put off Britain becoming involved in a continental war. He attacked France through Belgium and Luxembourg. He planned 6 weeks to defeat France and then move troops to the Russian border.The plan assumed that France was weak and could be beaten quickly, and that Russia was much stronger, but would take longer to mobilise its army. The plan was not successful as Germany faced opposition in Belgium and British and French forces counterattacked. The Germans were forced to fall back and begin digging trenches.Historical Significance: The failure of the planned ushered in trench warfare that is so linked and associated with World War I. It was a new and horrific way to fight wars.

Gustav Stresemann

What/Who: German statesman of the WEimar Republic, he secured a reduction of Germany's reparations payments and negotiated the Treaty of Locarno, paving the way for Germany's entry into the League of Nations in 1926.When: 1920sShort Description: Leader of the German People's Party (DVP), a conservative party that did not support the republic. He became chancellor in 1923, when inflation was raging out of control. Within months, his government managed to get the German economy functioning effectively again. He worked with France and other Euro powers in 1925 and created the TReaty of Locarno because he knew better relations with France had to be a priority if Germany was to rejoin the great powers. His negotiations often cost his party electoral support, but he won the nobel peace prize in 1926 for his work with France.Historical Significance: Improved conditions in Germany and negotiated with France in the Treaty of Locarno to allow Germany to enter the League of Nations and once again become a great power in Europe and the world.

"Lebensraum"

What/Who: Means living space and is associated with Germany's mission to expand its borders.When: First half of the 20th century.Short Description: Lebensraum refers to the desire for the Nazis to expand into other countries to provide living space for the growing German race. It was a racist ideology that believed Germany was entitled to extra space. The Holocaust is what came out of this ideology - it was an excuse for the brutality and genocide of non-Germans in border countries. The Germans wanted to empty the land through killing, not relocating.Historical Significance: Lebensraum is one cause of WWII and a justification for the genocide of Slavic and Jewish populations throughout Europe.

Krystal Night (Kristallnacht)

What/Who: Organized Nazi assault on Jewish businesses and synagogues during the night of Nov. 9-10, 1938, following the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris. Part of the progrom.When: 1938 in WWIIShort Description: Almost all the synagogues in Germany and about 7,000 Jewish-owned stores were destroyed. Between 30-50,000 relatively prosperous Jews were arrested and forced to emigrate after their property was confiscated. About 35,000 Jews were rounded up and sent to the camps, but most were soon released as soon as they could document their intention to emigrate. In 1939, before WWII, 25,000 Jews were in the camps already.Historical Significance: Marks the escalation of the Nazi initiative.

Treaty of Versailles

What/Who: Peace treaty that the victors in WWI imposed on a defeated Germany in 1919.When: 1919Short Description: Took place in Paris and was a dictated, not a negotiated peace. Germany and Russia were excluded. Germans were required to pay reparations to reimburse the victors for the costs of the war. Germany was forced to dismantle much of its military apparatus. The army and navy were severely restricted. France took book Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. Allied forces were sent to the west bank of the Rhine River in Germany for military occupation for 15 years. Germany felt betrayed and bitterness over the peace terms.Historical Significance: The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened - no long-term peace resulted. It ended up fueling German nationalism because of resentment towards the war-guilt clause. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European Powers.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

What/Who: Proposals by Wilson to guide the new international order that would follow an Allied victory in WWI.When: 1918Short Description: Wilson wanted to counter growing anti-war sentiment in the U.S. so in his State of the Union address, he proposed the 14 points. Notable among them are open diplomacy, free trade, reduced armaments, self-determination for nationalities, a league of nations, and a recasting of the colonial system to ensure equal rights for the indigenous populations.Historical Significance: The League of Nations was established in 1919. The Fourteen Points speech was the only explicit statement of war aims by any of the nations fighting in World War I.

Joseph Stalin

What/Who: Soviet dictator who jettisoned the New Economic Policy and instituted a program of crash industrialization and agricultural collectivization. He concluded the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939 but joined the Allies after the German invasion of the Soviet union in 1941.When: First half of the 20th century (1900-1950s).Short Description: He was highly intelligent and proved a master of political maneuvering. He set the Soviet Union on a course of crash industrialization, focusing on heavy industry and agriculture collectivization. He had unprecedented power, but extreme paranoia that led to brutality and terror. The terror targeted peasants and ethnic minorities and especially affected those in the upper and middle classes.Upheld the "Socialism in one Country" theory which stated that given the defeat of all the communist revolutions in Europe in 1917-1921 except Russia's, the Soviet Union should begin to strengthen itself internally. That turn toward national communism was a shift from the previously held Marxist position that socialism must be established globally (world communism).+WWII: No Soviet alliance appeared with France and Britain so the Soviets turned to Germany in August 1939 a surprise agreement between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany was created. It was called the Nazi-Soviet Pact and stated that each would remain neutral if the other went to war against some other nation. Nazi germany and the Soviet Union jointly invaded Poland in 1939. He joined the Allies after the German invasion of the Soviet union in 1941.+Post WWII: Stalin led the Soviet Union through its post-war reconstruction phase, which saw a significant rise in tension with the Western world that would later be known as the Cold War. During this period, the USSR became the second country in the world to successfully develop a nuclear weapon.The exact number of deaths caused by Stalin's regime is still a subject of debate, but it is widely agreed to be in the order of millions.Historical Significance: Stalin is responsible for Russia's industrialization and his the Five-Year Plan substantially helped to modernize the previously backward Soviet economy. With the SU's assistance, the Allies were able to take down Germany and win WWII.

Collectivization

What/Who: Soviet program under Stalin that reshaped agriculture by forcing peasants into government-controlled collective farms in order to finance rapid industrialization.When: 1930sShort Description: In 1928 there was a 2 million ton shortfall in grains purchased by the state, one of the causes for collectivization. Collectivization served, as intended, to squeeze from the peasantry the resources needed to finance industrialization, but it was carried out with extreme brutality. The state's extractions of resources cut into the peasantry subsistence. Starvation grew among the peasantry , culminating into the "terror-famine" of 1932-33, when over 5 million died. Most of the victims were Ukrainian, targeted for their nationality. Its few successes resulted in rebounding agriculture and rising living standards, though it created many inefficiencies and entailed tremendous human costs. Despite the initial plans, collectivization, accompanied by the bad harvest of 1932-1933, did not live up to expectations. Between 1929 and 1932 there was a massive fall in agricultural production resulting in famine in the countryside. The deaths from starvation or disease directly caused by collectivization have been estimated as between 4 and 10 million.Historical Significance: Collectivization was an example of Stalin's departure from certain socialist principles - egalitarianism in wages for one - that the regime had taken seriously during the 1920s.

SS (Schutzstaffel)

What/Who: Specially selected Nazi elite, entrusted with the most sensitive ideological tasks of the Nazi regime - and is responsible for many of its worst atrocities. Linked to the Gestapo. Led by Himmler. Served as Hitler's bodyguards as well - translates to "Protective Echelon".When: First half of the 20th century. (1925-1945) WWIIShort Description: In 1941, the SS began exterminating Jews and soon concentration camps were created. At these camps, the SS functionaries were medical doctors who tested the enw arrivals for assignment in certain labor pools. In 1942, the SS began to arrest and expel peasants from Poland to make room for German resettlement. Nearly 1 million Germans had been moved to Poland by 1943. After the assault on the SU, Himmler told the SS they need to exterminate 30 million Slavs in the SU and the promptly began executing. The SS were sworn to silence about their actions in concentration camps. himmler and other SS leaders believed they were serving the Nazi elite and found satisfaction in the genocide.Historical Significance: The SS was the organization most responsible for the implementation of the Final Solution and members of all of its branches committed numerous crimes against humanity during World War II (1939-45).

Appeasement

What/Who: The policy employed by Britain's prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, to defuse the 1938 crisis with Germany's Hitler. It involved annexing part of Czechoslovakia to Germany.When: 1938 - during the Munich conferenceShort Description: Hitler was upset with the German minority in the new Czechoslovakia and began to make it an issue. Chamberlain settled the crisis with his appeasement - he agreed to Hitler's demands to annex the Sudetenland portion of Czechoslovakia (where most Germans were).Historical Significance: The appeasement, along with the Munich agreement, proved unsuccessful as war broke out less than a year later.

Great Depression

What/Who: The stock market crash of 1929 in the United States that triggered a world economic crisis.When: 1930sShort Description: Caused by the realignment of the international economy after WWI. Many European economies depended on the U.S. economy after WWI, especially Germany.+U.S.: During the summer of 1929, consumer spending dropped and unsold goods began to pile up, slowing production, while stock prices continued to rise, which led the American economy into an ordinary secession. Investors soon began pulling out of banks, and many banks were unable to pay back debt. The failure of so many banks, combined with a general and nationwide loss of confidence in the economy, led to much-reduced levels of spending and demand and hence of production, thus aggravating the downward spiral. As consumer confidence vanished in the wake of the stock market crash, the downturn in spending and investment led factories and other businesses to slow down production and construction and begin firing their workers.+Worldwide effect: The absence of a single standard of exchange, combined with carious currency restrictions, made foreign trade more difficult, thereby diminishing it further. So tariff protection was a widespread response. The decline of trade spread depression throughout the world economic system. The restriction on international trade meant a sharp decline in the demand for basic commodities that colonial and other regions exported to the industrialized West.The Depression was essentially a radical contraction in economic activity; with less being produced and sold, demand for labor declined sharply leading to underemployment and drastically reduced wages.Historical Significance: The Great Depression fanned the flames of fear of a more interconnected world, specifically in economic terms. All areas of the world, the west and the rest, faced extreme hardship during the 1930s. The Depression helped fuel anticolonialist sentiment. Hitler became popular in Germany for helping to put Germany back on track during the 1930s.

Total War

What/Who: Total war is "warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, and justifies using weapons and tactics that result in significant civilian or other non-combatant casualties, whether collateral damage or not".When: World War I (1914-1918), specifically mid-war as both sides realized the war would not be quick.Short Description: All aspects of society are geared toward contributing to the war effort - they are mobilized for war. Factories shift production from civilian goods to war goods (tanks, uniforms, etc.). Women take the place of men in the workforce, specifically in factories. Money goes to the war, food is rationed for the soldiers, propaganda is abundant to divert attention to war on the home front and to gain support for the war. The civilian population makes significant sacrifices for the war effort.Historical Significance: The Western powers were able to prevail in WWI because of total war.

Treaty of Locarno

What/Who:The 1925 treaty in which Germany, again recognized as a diplomatic equal, freely agreed with France, Britain, and Italy to accept key aspects of the Versailles peace settlement. From book.Treaty signed between Belgium, France, Italy, the U.K., and Germany to relieve tensions in Europe, especially between France and Germany.When: 1925Short Description: The treaty was meant to normalize relations with defeated Germany after WWI and its harsh consequences on Germany. Germany formally recognised its new western borders acted by the treaty of Versailles, specifically French borders. France agreed renounced direct military intervention in Germany and agreed to begin withdrawing troops from the Rhineland ahead of schedule. Furthermore, Germany, France, and Belgium agreed not to attack each other, with the other two acting as guarantors. In the event of aggression by any of the three states against another, all other parties were to assist the country under attack. The treaty permitted Germany to enter the League of Nations a year later.Historical Significance: The Locarno Treaties were regarded as the keystone of the improved western European diplomatic climate of 1924-1930, introducing a hope for international peace, typically called the "spirit of Locarno" or spirit of reconciliation. Germany was brought back into the mainstream European life, improving the economic climate of Western Europe.

Realpolitik

What: "The politics of reality"; used to describe the tough, practical politics in which idealism and romanticism play no part. Otto von Bismarck and Camillo Benso di Cavour were the leading practitioners of realpolitik.When: Mid 19th CenturyDescription: It is particularly associated with the era of 19th century nationalism. Realpolitik policies were employed in response to the failed revolutions of 1848, as means to strengthen states and tighten social order.Realpolitik is distinct from ideological politics in that it is not dictated by a fixed set of rules, but instead tends to be goal-oriented, limited only by practical exigencies. Since Realpolitik is ordered toward the most practical means of securing national interests, it can often entail compromising on ideological principles. For example, during the Cold War, the United States often supported authoritarian regimes that were human rights violators, in order to theoretically secure the greater national interest of regional stability.Significance: Bismarck used Realpolitik in his quest to achieve Prussian dominance in Germany. He manipulated political issues such as the Schleswig-Holstein Question and the Hohenzollern candidature to antagonize other countries and cause wars if necessary to attain his goals. Such policies are characteristic of Bismarck, demonstrating a pragmatic view of the "real" political world.Adolf Hitler's attempt to annex the predominantly German region of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland in 1938 may also be described as Realpolitik.

Karl Marx

What: A German philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist and revolutionary socialist.When: Mid 19th CenturyDescription: Marx's work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto. Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—the collective understanding of which is known as Marxism—hold that human societies progress through class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class that controls production and a dispossessed labouring class that provides the labour for production. States, Marx believed, were run on behalf of the ruling class and in their interest while representing it as the common interest of all; and he predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system: socialism.Significance: Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and intellectual thought. From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology. He has been cited as one of the nineteenth century's three masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud, and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber. Throughout the twentieth century, revolutions in dozens of countries labelled themselves 'Marxist', most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of the USSR. Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Fidel Castro, and others, all cited Marx as an influence, and his ideas informed political parties worldwide beyond those where 'Marxist revolutions' took place. The brutal dictatorships associated with some Marxist nations have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths, but the fidelity of these varied revolutionaries, leaders and parties to Marx's work is highly contested, and rejected by many Marxists.

Suffragists

What: Activist in the 19th and early 20th century who advocated the right for women to vote. Suffragist achieved their primary goal with the ratification of the 19th amendment in the 1920s.When: Late 19th, early 20th centuriesDescription: British suffragettes were mostly women from upper and middle-class backgrounds, frustrated by their social and economic situation. Their struggles for change within society, along with the work of such advocates for women's rights as John Stuart Mill, were enough to spearhead a movement that would encompass mass groups of women fighting for suffrage. The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, which was founded in 1897, was formed of a collection of local suffrage societies. This union was led by Millicent Fawcett, who believed in constitutional campaigning, like issuing leaflets, organising meetings and presenting petitions. However this campaigning did not have much effect. In 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded a new organisation, the Women's Social and Political Union. Pankhurst thought that the movement would have to become radical and militant if it was going to be effective.Significance: It gave women the right to vote. Before the suffrage movement, only men had a voice in deciding political, social and economic issues. It also paved the way for further social reforms for women.

Clemens von Metternich

What: An Austrian foreign minister who led the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815; he was a monarchist and aristocrat but a less conservative ideologue than a man whom championed stability and order above all else. He was known for his ability to force others to do his bidding trying to suppress nationalism and restore kings and lords of the revolutions, which had banished.When: Early 19th centuryDescription:He believed in absolute monarchies and so suppressed all attempts at nationalism or liberalism in Italy during its period of unification. He did this because the Austrian Empire at the time he was in power was made up of a large collection of different nationalities and so he did not want the Nationalist feelings to spread to Austria due to the chaos that would ensue when all the different Austrian nationalities demanded independence.Significance: Particularly in the 19th century, Metternich was heavily criticised, decried as the man who prevented Austria and the rest of central Europe from "developing along 'normal' liberal and constitutional lines". Had Metternich not stood in the way of "progress," Austria might have reformed, dealt better with the problems of nationality, and the First World War might never have happened. Instead, Metternich chose to fight an overwhelmingly fruitless war against the forces of liberalism and nationalism. Heavy censorship was just one of a range of repressive instruments of state available to him that also included a large spy network. He opposed electoral reform, criticising the British Reform Bill. In short, he locked himself into an embittered battle against "the prevailing mood of his age". Metternich correctly foresaw and worked to prevent Russian dominance in Europe, succeeding where his successors would fail 130 years later. He pursued legality, cooperation, and dialogue, and therefore helped ensure 30 years of peace, the "Age of Metternich".

Conservatism

What: An ideology underlying the order established in Europe in 1815, which afterward emphasized support for the existing order of monarchy, aristocracy, and an established church.When: Early to mid 19th centuryDescription: Conservatism sprang up during the French Revolution to resist forces of change. Edmund Burke was the one of the first people to launch an intellectual assault on the French Revolution. He believed that belief in human equality undermined social order and that government should be anchored in tradition. Conservative ideals were preached by both rich and poor; they enforced gender differences and placed priority on family stability. It was also influenced by Romanticism's glorification of the past.Significance: conservatives desired social stability through monarchical rule. Conservatives believed in tradition and hierarchy to govern over a nation. There were three main essential anchors of social harmony: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Church. They did not believe that all men were created equal, and that some men were in fact born greater than others. A nation has to have a wide reach into the lives of it

Otto von Bismarck

What: Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire.When: Mid to Late 19th centuryDescription: In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871 he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve German hegemony in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. His diplomacy of realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor." German unification and its rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy. He disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when it was demanded by both elite and mass opinion.Significance: In Germany he created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist enemies. Bismarck became a hero to German nationalists; they built hundreds of monuments glorifying the iconic symbol of powerful conservative leadership. Historians generally praise him as a statesman of moderation and balance who kept the peace in Europe, and was primarily responsible for the unification of Germany and building its world-renowned bureaucracy and army.

"New Imperialism"

What: Historians' term for the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century wave of conquests by European powers, the United States, and Japan, which were followed by the development and exploitation of the newly conquered territories for the benefit of the colonial powersWhen: Late 19th-Early 20th centuriesDescription: By some accounts, it began as early as 1830, and may have lasted until World War II. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions. At the time, states focused on building their empires with new technological advances and developments, making their territory bigger through conquest, and exploiting their resources. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of a territory claim, specifically in Africa. The imposition of direct rule in terms of "effective occupation" necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples.Significance: The Berlin conference divided up Africa into arbitrary territories controlled by nations with no intimate knowledge of the people living there, causing huge problems for the African people which persist today. New Imperialism gave rise to new social views of colonialism. Rudyard Kipling, for instance, urged the United States to "Take up the White Man's burden" of bringing European civilization to the other peoples of the world, regardless of whether these "other peoples" wanted this civilization or not. This was the rise of Social Darwinism as a pseudo-science.

Congress of Vienna

What: The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.-Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and later FranceWhen: September 1814 to June 1815Description: The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other off and remain at peace. The leaders were conservatives with little use for republicanism or revolution.-Loyalty to the pre-Revolutionary past, and a re-drawing of the national borders with no regard for those inhabiting the lands.Significance: France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west and 40% of the Kingdom of Saxony; Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. Russia gained parts of Poland. The new Kingdom of the Netherlands had been created just months before, and included formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became Belgium.-The old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. The Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium.-The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.

Camillo di Cavour

What: The Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. He started out as a conservative, then became more liberal. He created a state to attract others by building railroads and docks (this had some aspects of socialism). He limited agriculture, and imposed liberal trade measures. He limited the church's power and landholdings. He was anti-revolutionary, and therefor had no sympathy for Mazzini. Ha harnessed liberalism and nationalism in order to unite Italy through Piedmont-Sardinia.When: 1810 - 1861Description: He was the founder of the original Liberal Party and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month resignation) throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, Cavour took office as the first Prime Minister of Italy. As prime minister, Cavour successfully negotiated Piedmont's way through the Crimean War, the Second Italian War of Independence, and Garibaldi's expeditions, managing to maneuver Piedmont diplomatically to become a new great power in Europe, controlling a nearly united Italy that was five times as large as Piedmont had been before he came to power.Significance: In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II declared the Kingdom of Italy, making Cavour officially Prime Minister of Italy. Cavour had many difficult issues to consider, including how to create a national military, which legal institutions should be retained in what locations, and especially the future of Rome. After his death, Italy would gain Venice in 1866 in the course of the Third Italian War of Independence, connected to the Austro-Prussian War. The Capture of Rome completed the unification of Italy (aside from Trentino and Trieste) in 1870.

Social Darwinism

What: The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.When: Late 19th Century, but still a term used todayDescription: Economically, social Darwinists argue that the strong should see their wealth and power increase while the weak should see their wealth and power decrease. Different social Darwinist groups have differing views about which groups of people are considered to be the strong and which groups of people are considered to be the weak, and they also hold different opinions about the precise mechanism that should be used to reward strength and punish weakness. Many such views stress competition between individuals in laissez-faire capitalism, while others are claimed to have motivated ideas of eugenics, racism, imperialism, fascism, Nazism, and struggle between national or racial groups.Significance: Social Darwinism was used during the latter portion of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century as a biological justification to further the aims of laissez-faire capitalism, immigration control, eugenics, colonialism and, in one its most extreme applications, Nazism. Although social Darwinists viewed competition among groups and individuals as a normal part of human evolution, it was used in the political arena to promote racism, nationalism and military aggression.

Scramble for Africa

What: The invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and the Conquest of Africa.When: Late 19th CenturyDescription: Britain obtained most of eastern Africa, France most of northwestern Africa. Other countries (Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain) acquired lesser amounts. The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the starting point of the Conquest of Africa. Consequent to the political and economic rivalries among the European empires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning of Africa was how the Europeans avoided warring amongst themselves over Africa.The latter years of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism" (hegemony), by military influence and economic dominance, to the direct rule of a people which brought about colonial imperialism.Significance: First, the competition for colonies in Africa can be cited as a cause of WWI. The various European countries were competing for colonies and for power. They felt that having African colonies helped them economically (which brings military power with it) and that it helped to give them international prestige. Because of this, they all wanted more colonies. Germany, for example, tried to gain influence over French colonies in Africa. These sorts of actions made countries like France and England nervous and helped lead to the war.Second, the Scramble for Africa can be blamed for many of Africa's problems today. Essentially all of Africa was colonized. The colonizing powers set up economic systems that were meant to help the colonizers, not the Africans. They did not do much to educate the colonized people or get them ready for independence. They put different ethnic groups together in single colonies. All of these things caused major problems when African countries became independent in the 1960s and 1970s. The colonial systems made it so that the African countries had poor economies and chaotic governmental systems. Thus, you can argue that the Scramble for Africa helped made African countries some of the poorest in the world today.

Triple Entente

What: The understanding linking the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on 31 August 1907.When: 1907-1914Description: The understanding between the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Japan and Portugal, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Italy, though Italy did not follow through, and soon joined the allies.Significance: Once a spark ignited the flame (assassination of Ferdinand), most of the European powers were entangled into alliances, forcing them to go to war. For example, the German schlieffen plan, which was their way of mobilizing forces, would only allow them to attack east (against Russia) after first attacking west (France.) Likewise, all of Europe was soon engulfed in terrible warfare. Unlike WWII, where alliances were less important than ideology, WWI was a war characterized by alliances, militarism, imperialism and nationalism.

Samuel Smiles

What: a Scottish author and government reformer who concluded that more progress would come from new attitudes than from new laws. His masterpiece, Self-Help (1859), promoted thrift and claimed that poverty was caused largely by irresponsible habits, while also attacking materialism and laissez-faire government. It has been called "the bible of mid-Victorian liberalism", and it raised Smiles to celebrity status almost overnight.When: Mid to Late 19th century (1812-1904)Description: Smiles was a social darwinist who believed that poverty stemmed from laziness and that the poor got what they deserved. He is quoted with saying "Heaven helps those who help themselves."Significance: His ideas of people helping themselves are still very prevalent in society. They are the basis of our capitalist culture.

Crimean War

What: a conflict in which Russia lost to an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.When: October 1853 - February 1856Description: The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Christians. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of the United Kingdom and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense.Significance: The war had a permanent impact. Through nationalist movements incited by the war, the present-day states of Ukraine, Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and regions such as Crimea and the Caucasus all changed in small or large ways due to this conflict. It also helped set the backbone of several geopolitical conflicts between the Western world and Russia and other Eastern world powers, which would include the Cold War in the 20th century.The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use modern technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways, and telegraphs.The war was one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and photographs. As the legend of the "Charge of the Light Brigade" demonstrates, the war quickly became an iconic symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. The reaction in the UK was a demand for professionalization, most famously achieved by Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modern nursing while treating the wounded.

Steam Engine

What: a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.When: Patented in 1709 (early 18th c.) by Thomas Newcomen. Later improved by James Watt.Description: The steam engine invented by Newcomen was able to pump water out of deep coal mines, which allowed for the further extraction of coal from the earth. Coal was used as a replacement for charcoal at this time in the process of refining metals. When Watt improved it, he developed a separate condenser which led to an engine that could power a variety of machines.Significance: By the late 1700s, the steam engine also powered the blast furnaces in the coke smelting process and drove the forge hammers that shaped iron. This led to the replacement of wooden iron machines with far more durable iron machines, and the steam engine allowed for organization of work in factories instead of cottage industries. This led to the rise in factories, furthering industrialization and increasing the output of good significantly. The larger amount of goods on the market led to decreased prices of the goods.

Triple Alliance

What: a military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It lasted from 1882 until World War I in 1914.When: 1882-1914Description: In the alliance, each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power, or, in the case of Germany and Italy, an attack by France alone. The man chiefly responsible for the Triple Alliance was Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany. Bismarck wanted to prevent a war on two fronts, which is why he targeted these two countries specifically.Significance: Once a spark ignited the flame (assassination of Ferdinand), most of the European powers were entangled into alliances, forcing them to go to war. For example, the German schlieffen plan, which was their way of mobilizing forces, would only allow them to attack east (against Russia) after first attacking west (France.) Likewise, all of Europe was soon engulfed in terrible warfare. Unlike WWII, where alliances were less important than ideology, WWI was a war characterized by alliances, militarism, imperialism and nationalism.Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the allies.

Liberalism

What: a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas and programs such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free markets, civil rights, democratic societies, secular governments, and international cooperation. It was a direct descendent of the Enlightenment's critique of 18th c. absolutism.When: Liberalism was first established in the Enlightenment, but Social Liberalism as it is known today was really brought about in the Mid 19th century.Description:By the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged by downturns in economic growth, a growing perception of the evils of poverty, unemployment and relative deprivation present within modern industrial cities, and the agitation of organised labour. The ideal of the self-made individual, who through hard work and talent could make his or her place in the world, seemed increasingly implausible. A major political reaction against the changes introduced by industrialisation and laissez-faire capitalism came from conservatives concerned about social balance, although socialism later became a more important force for change and reform.-John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of classical liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism.-Mill's 1859 On Liberty addressed the nature and limits of the power that can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual. He gave an impassioned defence of free speech, arguing that free discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress.-It was strongly influenced by Romanticism and Nationalism.Significance: The 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. In this period, the dominant ideological opponent of classical liberalism was conservatism, but liberalism later survived major ideological challenges from new opponents, such as fascism and communism. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the winning side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state.

Nationalism

What: a shared group feeling in the significance of a geographical and sometimes demographic region seeking independence for its culture and/or ethnicity that holds that group together. This can be expressed as a belief or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with or becoming attached to one's nation.When: Mid 19th century- mid 20th century (but still kinda today)Description: Nationalism involves national identity, by contrast with the related concept of patriotism, which involves the social conditioning and personal behaviors that support a state's decisions and actions. The adoption of national identity in terms of historical development has commonly been the result of a response by influential groups unsatisfied with traditional identities due to inconsistency between their defined social order and the experience of that social order by its members, resulting in a feeling of being "outsiders" that nationalists seek to resolve. It results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community.Significance: These nationalistic causes are responsible for the establishment of new liberal states in the 19th century, including Italy and Germany. After this establishment, many of these nationalistic nations then move toward a militant nationalism that supports anti-individualism, statism(plans by the few ideology), radical extremism, and aggressive-expansionist militarism. There are many different forms of nationalism, grouping people together by common ethnicities, nationalities, or languages, but each form of nationalism implies an "us v. them" mentality, resulting in increased tensions between nations. It was this form of militant nationalism that acted as an indirect cause to both World Wars.

Romanticism

What:19th-century western European artistic and literary movement; held that emotion and impression, not reason, were the keys to the mysteries of human experience and nature; sought to portray passions, not calm reflection.When: Early to Mid 19th centuryDescription: It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalisation of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education, and the natural sciences. It had a significant and complex effect on politics, and while for much of the Romantic period it was associated with liberalism and radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was perhaps more significant.Significance: One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states.

Socialism

What:a social and economic system characterised by social ownership and democratic control of the means of production, as well as a political theory and movement that aims at the establishment of such a system.When: Early 19th centuryDescription: During the 1820s, troubled by the harsh condition of the working classes, thinkers in Britain and France began to espouse new theories to address the social ills produced by industrial capitalism. Socialism encompassed a variety of approaches, but it was Karl Marx who finally shaped all the independent notions of Socialism into what is known today as Communism.Significance: It was socialist thought that led Karl Marx to developing communism.

What were the direct and long-term consequences for Germany of losing World War I? Consider the political upheaval, the unwillingness of the German people to admit defeat, terms of the peace settlement, and economic hardships right after the war. Do you believe that World War I was the direct cause of World War II? Explain your view.

Yes WWI was a major cause of WW2TOTAL WAR:Military propagandaHardships on the home front:women in the workforcemilitary productionfood shortages and inflationsynthetic substitutesThe cost of War:Revolutions in RussiaCollapse of Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire- raise hopes of self-determination among formerly subject peoples, also complicate challenge of peacemakingProblems in Europe during the inter-war period:Flaws of the Versailles systemGerman revisionismLack of balance of power in EuropePower vacuum in Eastern EuropePopularity of extreme ideologiesEconomic crisis and its consequencesFrance did not prevent Germans from militarizing as it said it would in treaty of VersaillesLyvanstrum- living space, hitler sought to create to create a master race and populate eastern euro, feed off German anger from WWI policies, blamed Jews for problems and use them as scapegoats to justify mass killings.Neville Chamberlain- Brit. prime minister's policy of appeasement toward german invasion of Sudetenland in CzechNazis gain broad support in the 30s and then took over the Weinmare repub.German people felt they were punished too harshly and that the punishments were counterproductive to peaceinflation from the war and its aftermath had long-term psychological consequences especially in GermanyGermany democratic political revolution not= major changes in socioeconomic relations or administrative structuresWeimar repub. fall into multi party system that led to unstable coalition in govt. due to polarization in electedTreaty of Locarno- hopeful reconciliation b/w France and GermanGustav Stresemann through republic was best framework for restoring Germany and for stopping the left revolutionBauhaus- (1919) influential German art school that sought to adopt contemporary materials to develop new forms of architecture, design, and urban planning in response to cultural uncertainty that followed WWINew extreme regimes on either side of the political spectrum during global economic crisis of great depression

The long-established customs union among the German states was known as the:

Zollverein

The fascist vision of society emphasized:

a community rooted in the bonds of nationalism

The goals of the Solidarity trade union in Poland in the 1980s included:

a limited revolution to defend freedoms won in previous agreements with the communist government

The Boxer Rebellion was:

a rebellion of traditionalist Chinese patriots who wished to expel all Westerners from China

Stalin's theory of socialism in one country:

argued that the Soviet Union could build socialism on its own

The ultimate goal of the plan for an international organization to coordinate coal and steel production in Europe was to:

bind the members of the Common Market so closely that war would be impossible

The event that directly prompted the Great Reforms in Russia, including the emancipation of the serfs, was the:

defeat in the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856

During the First World War, the African colonial subjects of Britain and France:

generally supported their foreign masters.

The German government's printing of money to pay unemployment benefits to workers striking in the Ruhr against the Franco-Belgian occupation of 1923 led to:

hyperinflation.

Bismarck's alliance system was designed to isolate France and:

maintain peace between Russia and Austria-Hungary.

The attempted coup by the communist old guard in the Soviet Union in August 1991 failed because of:

massive popular resistance, rallied around Boris Yeltsin

In the early twentieth century, the traditional arts and amusements of people in villages and small towns was overshadowed by:

modern mass media such as cinema and radio

The "principle of uncertainty" (as outlined by Werner Heisenburg) suggested that:

nature itself is ultimately unknowable and unpredictable and lacks any absolute objective reality

Following the First World War, one of the most difficult domestic problems faced by governments was:

providing care for the large number of injured veterans.

Some scholars conclude that due to European population declines, Europeans need to:

recognize that Islam is now a valid European religion and vital part of European life

The Helsinki agreement of 1975 called for:

respect for human rights and inviolability of existing boundaries

The Berlin Conference of 1884—1885:

set up the terms for the division of most of Africa among European colonial powers.

With the United States' failure to ratify the Versailles treaty, many French leaders placed their hopes for future security on:

strict implementation of the treaty

In which of the following did Gabriel Marcel found the answer to the postwar broken world?

the Catholic Church

The immediate cause of British entry into the First World War was

the German invasion of neutral Belgium

The immediate cause of British entry into the First World War was:

the German invasion of neutral Belgium.

In the late nineteenth century, Theodore Herzl was:

the founder of the Zionist Jewish national movement.

During the 1950s, the Christian Democrats across Europe endorsed all of the following positions except:

they supported socialist economic policies.

The essence of Willy Brandt's policies toward the Eastern Bloc was:

to seek peace and reconciliation

Britain and France finally confronted Hitler with the threat of war when he:

used the pretext of German minorities in Danzig to threaten Poland.

Jews made up one of the immigrant groups least likely to return to their native land, primarily because of:

violent anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe

Potsdam Conference

what: A July-August 1945 meeting held at Potsdam, Germany, between the USSR, theUnited States, and Great Britain to implement their earlier agreements concerning the treatment of defeated Germany.when: 1945 (mid 1900s)description: negotiation of terms for the end of WWII between the three powers USSR, US, and Great Britain; Each of the three Allies had responsibility for administering a particular zone of occupation, under common policies including deNazification, demilitarization, and assaults on concentrated economic power.significance: Along with agreements at Yalta, Postdam gave more territory to Poland.Systematic de-Nazification to keep this from happening again, but also agreement among the victors that the Nazi's should not be treated as defeated adversaries, that's what happened after WWI, and it didn't help anything. This conference also led to much east-west disagreement over economic policy, perhaphs leading to the Cold War era.

Helsinki Accords

what: Agreements signed by thirtyfive countries in Helsinki, Finland, that committedthe signatories to recognize existing borders, to increase economic and environmental cooperation, and to promote freedom of expression, religion, and travel.when: 1975 (late 1900s)description: Pledged the 35 signatory nations to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and to cooperate in economic, scientific, humanitarian, and other areassignificance: Reduced tension between the Soviet and Western blocs; formed the basis for mutual controls

D-Day

what: Allied forces land at Normandy, early in the morning of June 6, 1944, at lastopening a major second front in Europe.when: June 6, 1944 (mid 1900s)description: Allied troops crossed the English Channel to land on the beaches of Normandy and were able to consolidate their positions which opened up a major second front in Europe and allowed the Allies to make their way towards Germanysignificance: because of the success of D-Day, an Allied victory was only a matter of time. Western democracies were able to liberate Western Europe and the Soviets liberated east-central Europe; distribution of power greatly affected postwar Europe

Vichy France

what: Authoritarian French government, headquartered in the town of Vichy, that followed the Third Republic after France's defeat by Nazi Germany in 1940. The government collaborated with the victorious Germans, who occupied Paris.when: mid 1900sdescription: end of fighting in France resulted in a kind of antidemocratic revolution; the armistice agreement made France collaborate with Germany but resistance began immediately; Charles de Gaulle called for people to join him to continue to fight against Nazi Germany.significance: Gave Germany a stronger hold and security in France. More military forces could be deployed to the front lines

Winston Churchill

what: British prime minister during World War II; his courage and decisiveness made him widely seen as one of modern Britain's greatest leaders.when: 1874-1965 (late 1800s-mid 1900s) (mid 1900s)description: coined the phrase "The Iron Curtain"; participated in conferences representing Englandsignificance: warned the world about the Iron Curtain, increased doubts in the West about Soviet intentions whereas before they thought cooperation was possible

Teheran Conference

what: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met for the first time, at Teheran, Iran, in November 1943; they agreed that the next step would be to invade western Europe from Britain.when: 1943 (Mid 1900s)description: codenamed "Eureka"; decided that Turkey should enter the war the next year on the side of the Allies, and the cross-channel invasion of France would take place in 1944.significance: resulted in D-Day

Fidel Castro

what: Cuban politician and revolutionary who served as Prime Minister of the Republic of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and then President, led a 1959 revolutionwhen: mid-late 1900sdescription: Formed alliance with USSR, allowing them to place nuclear weapons on the island, this started the Cuban Missile Crisis which played a huge role in starting the Cold Warsignificance: Converted Cuba into a one-party socialist state under Communist Party rule

European Union

what: European nations organization; originally called the European Economic Community (EEC); Common market formed by Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands to promote free trade.when: 1957 (mid 1900s)description: membership gradually expanded; became a pillar solidifying democracy in Europe; The immediate aim of the original EEC was to facilitate trade by eliminating customs duties between its member countries and by establishing common tariffs on imports from the rest of the world. Members made up of 28 states the organization was formed to create economic and political unionsignificance: Developed a single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states.

United Nations

what: International organization of nations founded in 1945 to encourage peace, cooperation, and recognition of human rights.when: 1945 (mid 1900s)description: replaced ineffective League of Nations; created after WWII to prevent another such conflict between countries; at its founding it had 51 member states, whereas now there are 193. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. During the Second World War, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated talks on a successor agency to the League of Nations, and the United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April-June 1945; this charter took effect 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies.significance: created a framework for international peace and humanitarian aid; international support of human rights increased

Zionism

what: Nationalist Jewish movement beginning in the late nineteenth century. In faceof anti-Semitism, Zionism advocated establishing a Jewish state in the Jews' ancient homeland of Palestine.when: 1948: creation of state of Israel (mid 1900s)description: Nationalist and Political movement for the return of the Jewish people and power to the Land of Israelsignificance: led to creation of the state of Israel; Advocates on behalf of Israel and its continued existence and power

NATO

what: North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance for regional defense, createdin 1949 by the United States, Canada, and western European nations, whosemembers agree to defend one another from attack by nonmember countries.when: 1949 (mid 1900s)description: Democratic states in Europe and North America formed military alliancesignificance: Symbolized the beginning of the US military movement against the USSR

Nazi-Soviet Pact (08.23.39)

what: Surprise agreement between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in August 1939 that each would remain neutral if the other went to war against some other nation.when: 1939 (mid-1900s)description: allowed the Soviets to regain much of the land they had lost after WWI, when Poland, Finland, and other states were created; appeared to give Hitler freedom to invade Poland but Chamberlain affirmed that Britain would stand behind Poland if it was invaded (France and Britain did declare war on Germany after the invasion of Poland)*significance: Britain and France had been trying to establish a pact with the Soviet Union but after this pact, they ran out of possible European allies; The pact also contained a secret agreement in which the Soviets and Germans agreed how they would later divide up Eastern Europe. The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact fell apart in June 1941, when Nazi forces invaded the Soviet Union.

Truman Doctrine

what: The U.S. policy of containment, or limiting communist expansion, as outlined byPresident Harry Truman in 1947.when: 1947 (mid 1900s)description: Truman declared the U.S. promise to help noncommunist countries to prevent expansion by the USSRsignificance: Overturned the Monroe Doctrine and led to the Marshall Plan

Auschwitz-Birkenau

what: The largest of Nazi Germany's six extermination camps, all of which were located in what had been Poland.when: became principal center in 1943 (mid-1900s)description: Polish extermination camp where Jews were shipped from all over Europe that included slave labor factories where Jews were literally worked to death; they were typically shipped there in cattle cars and once they got there were subjected to "selection" where some were sent to work while others were sent directly to the gas chambers.significance: deaths of about 1.1 million people; established a systematic, organized, efficient extermination mechanism

Nuremberg Trials

what: The war crimes trials conducted in Nuremberg, Germany. Most of the twenty-fourdefendants were convicted of war crimes and "crimes against humanity."when: 1945-1946 (mid 1900s)description: a series of military tribunals, held by the Allied forces after World War II, which were most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany who planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in the Holocaust and other war crimes. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany.significance: 12 prominent Nazis were sentenced to death; first successful international criminal trials dealing with war crimes; first legal definition of what a crime against humanity was: Individual people were held responsible for their actions, but they were given the basic human right to defend themselves in court; paved the way for International Criminal Court

"Iron Curtain"

what: term used by Winston Churchill in a speech on March 5, 1946, to warn that, thanks to Soviet policy, a formidable barrier was emerging in Europe, cutting the Soviet sphere off from the West and threatening the long-term division of the Continent.when: 1946 (mid 1900s)description: The USSR blocked themselves and its satellite states from open contact with the west and non-USSR controlled areassignificance: States developed their own international economic and military alliances on either side of the curtain

Jews in Palestine proclaimed the state of Israel

when the British withdrew from Palestine in 1948.