Hist 102

Prince Henry of Portugal

An early 15th century explorer, Henry "the Navigator" sought to increase the power of Portugal by seeking trade routes to the East by way of Africa. established a school that taught sailing, geography, mapmaking, and astronomy

Which of the following groups were the primary rivals of Portugal for control of the Indian Ocean spice trade?

Spanish, English, Dutch

Ottomans

Turkish empire based in Anatolia. Arrived in the same wave of Turkish migrations as the Seljuks. Turks who had come to Anatolia in the same wave of migrations as the Seljuks. (344) Turkic people who advanced from strongholds in Asia Minor during 1350s; conquered large part of Balkans; unified under Mehmed I; captured Constantinople in 1453; established empire from Balkans that included most of Arab world. In the late thirteenth century, a new group of Turks under the tribal leader Osman 1280-1326) began to consolidate power in the northwestern corner of the Anatolian peninsula. That land had been given to them by the Seljuk rulers as a reward for helping drive out the Mongols in the late thirteenth century. At first, the Osman Turks were relatively peaceful and engaged in pastoral pursuits, but as the Seljuk empire began to crumble in the early fourteenth century, the Osman Turks began to expand and founded the Osmanli dynasty, with its capital at Bursa. The Osmanlis later came to be known as the Ottomans. A key advantage for the Ottomans was their location in the northwestern corner of the peninsula. From there they were able to expand westward and eventually take over the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, between the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. The Byzantine Empire, of course, had controlled the area for centuries, serving as a buffer between the Muslim Middle East and the Latin West. The Byzantines, however, had been severely weakened by the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and the occupation of much of the empire by western Europeans for the next half century. In 1345, Ottoman forces under their leader Orkhan I (r. 1326-1360) crossed the Bosporus for the first time to support a usurper against the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople. Setting up their first European base at Gallipoli at the Mediterranean entrance to the Dardanelles, Turkish forces expanded gradually into the Balkans and allied with fractious Serbian and Bulgar forces against the Byzantines. In these unstable conditions, the Ottomans gradually established permanent settlements throughout the area, where Turkish provincial governors, called beys (from the Turkish beg, "knight"), collected taxes from the local Slavic peasants after driving out the previous landlords. The Ottoman leader now began to claim the title of sultan (SUL-tun) or sovereign of his domain. In 1360, Orkhan was succeeded by his son Murad I, who consolidated Ottoman power in the Balkans, set up a capital at Edirne (see Map 16.1), and gradually reduced the Byzantine emperor to a vassal. Murad did not initially attempt to conquer Constantinople because his forces were composed mostly of the traditional Turkish cavalry and lacked the ability to breach the strong walls of the city. Instead, he began to build up a strong military administration based on the recruitment of Christians into an elite guard. Called janissaries (from the Turkish yeni cheri, "new troops"), they were recruited from the local Christian population in the Balkans and then converted to Islam and trained as foot soldiers or administrators. One of the major advantages of the janissaries (an elite core of eight thousand troops) was that they were directly subordinated to the sultanate and therefore owed their loyalty to the person of the sultan. Other military forces were organized by the beys and were thus loyal to their local tribal leaders.

Elizabeth I

(1533-1603) Queen of England and Ireland between 1558 and 1603. She was an absolute monarch and is considered to be one of the most successful rulers of all time. English Queen and politique who united Protestants and Catholics through compromise This queen of England chose a religion between the Puritans and Catholics and required her subjects to attend church or face a fine. She also required uniformity and conformity to the Church of England

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements. Christian humanism or northern Renaissance humanism an intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries that combined interest in the classics of the Italian Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity, including the New Testament and the writings of the church fathers.

Which of the following describes the Triangular Trade?

Africans sold slaves to European traders who then sold them to slave owners in the New World. The slave owners paid for them with products such as sugar, which were then imported into Europe.

East India Company

An English company formed in 1600 to develop trade with the new British colonies in India and southeastern Asia. British joint-stock company that grew to be a state within a state in India; it possessed its own armed forces. a British trading company that set up large, profitable trading post colonies in India

Bakufu

Military government established by the Minamoto following the Gempei Wars; centered at Kamakura; retained emperor, but real power resided in military government and samurai military-style government of the Japanese shogun A military government established in Japan after the Gempei Wars; the emperor became a figurehead, while real power was concentrated in the military, including the samurai

Qing dynasty empire

Ruling dynasty of China from 1644 to 1912; these rulers were originally from Manchuria, which had conquered China. Ruling dynasty of China from 1644 to 1912; the Qing rulers were originally from Manchuria, which had conquered China. ruling dynasty of China from 1644 to 1912; Qing rulers originally from Manchuria In 1800, the Qing or Manchu Dynasty appeared to be at the height of its power. China had experienced a long period of peace and prosperity under the rule of two great emperors, Kangxiand Qianlong (CHAN-loong). Its borders were secure, and its culture and intellectual achievements were the envy of the world. Its rulers, hidden behind the walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing (bay-ZHING), had every reason to describe their patrimony as the "Central Kingdom." But there was trouble under the surface, and a little over a century later, humiliated and harassed by the black ships and big guns of the Western powers, the Qing Dynasty, the last in a series that had endured for more than two thousand years, collapsed in the dust (see Map 22.1). Many historians once assumed that the primary reason for the rapid decline and fall of the Manchu Dynasty was the intense pressure applied to a proud but somewhat complacent traditional society by the modern West. Now, however, most believe that internal changes played a major role in the dynasty's collapse and point out that at least some of the problems suffered by the Manchus during the nineteenth century were self-inflicted and had little to do with the Western onslaught. Actually, both explanations have some validity. Like so many of its predecessors, after an extended period of growth the Qing Dynasty at the end of the eighteenth century began to experience the familiar dynastic ills of official corruption, peasant unrest, and incompetence at court. Such weaknesses were probably exacerbated by the rapid growth in population. The long era of peace and stability, the introduction of new crops such as maize and sweet potatoes from the Americas, and the cultivation of new, fast-ripening strains of rice had enabled the Chinese population to double in size between 1550 and 1800. The population continued to grow after 1800, placing enormous pressure on the agricultural sector to feed a population that rose to the unprecedented level of 400 million by 1900. Even without the irritating presence of the Western powers, the Manchus might have been destined to repeat the fate of previous imperial dynasties. But the ships, guns, and ideas of the foreigners highlighted the growing weakness of the Manchu Empire and likely hastened its demise. In doing so, Western imperialism still exerted an indelible impact on the history of modern China—but as a contributing, not a causal, factor.

Pizarro

Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima (1475-1541). Between 1531 and 1536, another expedition, led by a hardened and somewhat corrupt soldier, Francisco Pizarro (1470-1541), destroyed Inka power high in the Peruvian Andes. The Spanish conquests were undoubtedly facilitated by the prior arrival of European diseases, which had decimated the local population. Although it took another three decades before the western part of Latin America was brought under Spanish control, already by 1535, the Spanish had created a system of colonial administration that made the New World—at least in European eyes—an extension of the old.

Ming Dynasty

Succeeded Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368; lasted until 1644; initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China. A major dynasty that ruled China from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. It was marked by a great expansion of Chinese commerce into East Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia Chinese dynasty that ruled from 1368 to 1644

Atlantic Culture

Sugar and coffee were two of the most important crops grown in the Portuguese colony of Brazil. Although coffee was a major export crop for Brazil, arguably, the most significant agricultural enterprise introduced to the Americas was sugar cane. It forever altered the Americas, Africa, and Europe as sugar came to be the most lucrative crop in international trade. The production of sugar dramatically increased the number of slaves purchased in Africa and brought to the Americas to do plantation labor. It gave West Africa, the Americas, and Europe closer economic ties than ever before as the three continents came to rely on one another for the production, refinement, and consumption of sugar. (conquistador) used to torture and use huge dogs to get people to tell where treasures are.

Daimyo

prominent Japanese families who provided allegiance to the local shogun in exchange for protection; similar to vassals in Europe. A Japanese feudal lord who commanded a private army of samurai one of the great lords who were vassals of the shogun. Japan's large landowners Once in power, the Tokugawa attempted to strengthen the system that had governed Japan for more than three hundred years. They followed precedent in ruling through the bakufu, composed now of a coalition of daimyo, and a council of elders. But the system was more centralized than it had been previously. Now the shogunate government played a dual role. It set national policy on behalf of the emperor in Kyoto while simultaneously governing the shogun's own domain, which included about one-quarter of the national territory as well as the three great cities of Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka. As before, the state was divided into separate territories, called domains (han), which were ruled by a total of about 250 individual daimyo lords. The daimyo themselves were divided into two types: the fudai daimyo (inside daimyo), who were mostly small daimyo that were directly subordinate to the shogunate, and the tozama daimyo (outside daimyo), who were larger, more independent lords that were usually more distant from the center of shogunate power in Edo. In theory, the daimyo were essentially autonomous, since they were able to support themselves from taxes on their lands (the shogunate received its own revenues from its extensive landholdings). In actuality, the shogunate was able to guarantee daimyo loyalties by compelling daimyo lords to maintain two residences, one in their own domains and the other at Edo, and to leave their families in Edo as hostages for the daimyo's good behavior. Keeping up two residences also placed the Japanese nobility in a difficult economic position. Some were able to defray the high costs by concentrating on cash crops such as sugar, fish, and forestry products, but most were rice producers, and their revenues remained roughly the same throughout the period. The daimyo were also able to protect their economic interests by depriving their samurai retainers of their proprietary rights over the land and transforming them into salaried officials. The fief thus became a stipend, and the personal relationship between the daimyo and his retainers gradually gave way to a bureaucratic authority. The Tokugawa also tinkered with the social system by limiting the size of the samurai class and reclassifying samurai who supported themselves by tilling the land as commoners. In fact, with the long period of peace brought about by Tokugawa rule, the samurai gradually ceased to be a warrior class and were required to live in the castle towns. As a gesture to their glorious past, samurai were still permitted to wear their two swords, and a rigid separation was maintained between persons of samurai status and the nonaristocratic segment of the population. The Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier observed that "on no account would a poverty-stricken gentleman marry with someone outside the gentry, even if he were given great sums to do so."

What is the encomienda system?

Under this system, indigenous people were forced to labor on land that was initially granted to European settlers by Queen Isabella of Castile.

In the years between 1700 and 1800, the population of China grew from approximately 200 million to 300 million. According to historians, which of the following factors account for this boom?

Immunities to disease New crops Use of gunpowder Better growing conditions

Millet

an administrative unit in the Ottoman Empire used to organize religious groups. Each religious group within the empire was organized as an administrative unit called a millet ("nation" or "community"). Each group, including the Muslims themselves, had its own patriarch, priest, or grand rabbi who dealt as an intermediary with the government and administered the community according to its own laws. The leaders of the individual millets were responsible to the sultan and his officials for the behavior of the subjects under their care and collected taxes for transmission to the government. Each millet established its own system of justice, set its own educational policies, and provided welfare for the needy.

Louis XIV

(1638-1715) Known as the Sun King, he was an absolute monarch that completely controlled France. One of his greatest accomplishments was the building of the palace at Versailles. This French king ruled for the longest time ever in Europe. He issued several economic policies and costly wars. He was the prime example of absolutism in France. French king who personified absolute monarchy. France during the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715) has traditionally been regarded as the best example of the practice of absolute or divine-right monarchy in the seventeenth century (see Comparative Illustration "Sun Kings, West and East,"). French culture, language, and manners reached into all levels of European society. French diplomacy and wars overwhelmed the political affairs of western and central Europe. The court of Louis XIV was also imitated elsewhere in Europe. One of the keys to Louis's power was his control of the central policymaking machinery of government because it was part of his own court and household. The royal court, located in the magnificent palace at Versailles (vayr-SY), outside Paris, served three purposes simultaneously: it was the personal household of the king, the location of central governmental machinery, and the place where powerful subjects came to find favors and offices for themselves and their clients. The greatest danger to Louis's personal rule came from the very high nobles and princes of the blood (the royal princes), who considered it their natural function to assert the policymaking role of royal ministers. Louis eliminated this threat by removing them from the royal council, the chief administrative body of the king, and enticing them to his court, where he could keep them preoccupied with court life and out of politics. Instead of the high nobility and royal princes, Louis relied for his ministers on nobles who came from relatively new aristocratic families. His ministers were expected to be subservient: "I had no intention of sharing my authority with them," Louis said. Court life at Versailles itself became highly ritualized with Louis at the center of it all. The king had little privacy; only when he visited his wife or mother or mistress was he free of the noble courtiers who swarmed about the palace. Most daily ceremonies were carefully staged, including those attending Louis's rising from bed, dining, praying, attending Mass, and going to bed. A mob of nobles aspired to assist the king in carrying out these solemn activities. It was considered a great honor for a noble to be chosen to hand the king his shirt while dressing. Court etiquette was also a complex matter. Nobles and royal princes were arranged in an elaborate order of seniority and expected to follow certain rules of precedence. Who could sit down and on what kind of chair was a subject of much debate. Louis's domination of his ministers and secretaries gave him control of the central policymaking machinery of government and thus authority over the traditional areas of monarchical power: the formulation of foreign policy, the making of war and peace, the assertion of the secular power of the crown against any religious authority, and the ability to levy taxes to fulfill these functions. Louis had considerably less success with the internal administration of the kingdom, however. The traditional groups and institutions of French society—the nobles, officials, town councils, guilds, and representative estates in some provinces—were simply too powerful for the king to have direct control over the lives of his subjects. As a result, control of the provinces and the people was achieved largely by bribing the individuals responsible for carrying out the king's policies. The cost of building palaces, maintaining his court, and pursuing his wars made finances a crucial issue for Louis XIV. He was most fortunate in having the services of Jean-Baptiste Colbert ( ZHAHN-bap-TEEST kohl-BAYR) (1619-1683) as his controller general of finances. Colbert sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism, which advocated government intervention in economic activities for the benefit of the state. To decrease imports and increase exports, Colbert granted subsidies to individuals who established new industries. To improve communications and the transportation of goods internally, he built roads and canals. To decrease imports directly, Colbert raised tariffs on foreign goods. The increase in royal power that Louis pursued led the king to develop a professional army numbering 100,000 men in peacetime and 400,000 in time of war. To achieve the prestige and military glory befitting an absolute king as well as to ensure the domination of his Bourbon dynasty over European affairs, Louis waged four wars between 1667 and 1713. His ambitions roused much of Europe to form coalitions against him to prevent the certain destruction of the European balance of power by Bourbon hegemony. Although Louis added some territory to France's northeastern frontier and established a member of his own Bourbon dynasty on the throne of Spain, he also left France impoverished and surrounded by enemies.

How did the Safavid Empire come into existence?

A Shi'ite leader, Shah Ismail, combined Sufi and Shi'ite religious and political values to seize much of Iran by the early sixteenth century, founding the Safavid Dynasty and ruling as its first king.

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange. the overthrow of King James II of England 1688

Oliver Cromwell

English general and statesman who led the parliamentary army in the English Civil War (1599-1658) English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator. Leader of the Roundheads in the English Civil War

Osman

Founder of the Ottoman Empire most successful warrior and "founder" of Ottomans Leader of the Ottoman Empire

Three Great Unifiers

Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu

Suleyman I (1520-1566)

Otherwise known as, the Magnificent, began the attack on Europe. He seized Belgrade and won a major victory over the Hungarians. He took over Hungary and moved into Austria and advanced as far as Vienna. They took over most of the Mediteranean, but the Spanish destroyed a large Turish fleet. Ottoman's greatest ruler; called Grand Turk, the Magnificent by Europeans The magnificent mosques built under the patronage of Suleyman the Magnificent are a great legacy of the Ottoman Empire and a fitting supplement to Hagia Sophia, the cathedral built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in the sixth century CE and later turned into a mosque by Mehmet II.

Witchcraft Craze

Over 100,000 people were charged with witchcraft during the 16th and 17th centuries. Probably caused by little Ice Age, famine, moldy crops; heresy that needed to be wiped out; biblical support; burnt at stake or hanged; 100,000 people were prosecuted across Europe during this time there was a huge outbreak of killings due to a huge level of superstition. people often exaggerate about the amount of casualties. it was primarily elderly women who were accused. Between 1560 and 1650, Europe experienced religious wars, revolutions and constitutional crises, economic and social disintegration, and a witchcraft craze. It was truly an age of crisis. Hysteria over witchcraft affected the lives of many Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Perhaps more than 100,000 people were prosecuted throughout Europe on charges of witchcraft. As more and more people were brought to trial, the fear of witches, as well as the fear of being accused of witchcraft, escalated to frightening levels Common people—usually those who were poor and without property—were more likely to be accused of witchcraft. Indeed, where lists are available, those mentioned most often are milkmaids, peasant women, and servant girls. In the witchcraft trials of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, more than 75 percent of the accused were women, most of them single or widowed and many over fifty years old. That women were most often the victims of the witch hunt has led some scholars to argue that the witch hunt was really a woman hunt or "genderized mass murder," arguing that men hunted witches because they caused disorder and were sexual beings in a patriarchal society. Other scholars have rejected this approach and argue first, that men were also accused of witchcraft, and second, that women accused other women of witchcraft. These scholars believe that people in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries believed in witchcraft as a constant threat in their society. Despite scholarly differences about the nature of the witch hunts, there is no doubt that women were the primary victims. Current estimates are that there were 100,000 to 110,000 witch trials between 1450 and 1750 with about 50 percent of the trials leading to executions. Of those executed, 75 to 80 percent were women, many of them older women. That women should be the chief victims of witchcraft trials was hardly accidental. Nicholas Rémy (nee-koh-LAH ray-MEE), a witchcraft judge in France in the 1590s, found it "not unreasonable that this scum of humanity, i.e., witches, should be drawn chiefly from the feminine sex." To another judge, it came as no surprise that witches would confess to sexual experiences with Satan: "The Devil uses them so, because he knows that women love carnal pleasures, and he means to bind them to his allegiance by such agreeable provocations."Footnote By the mid-seventeenth century, the witchcraft hysteria had begun to subside. As governments grew stronger, fewer magistrates were willing to accept the unsettling and divisive conditions generated by the trials of witches. Moreover, by the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth, more and more people were questioning their old attitudes toward religion and found it especially contrary to reason to believe in the old view of a world haunted by evil spirits.

What are raw materials?

The colonial economic system that was set up in Latin America exported these types of goods, such as sugar, tobacco, and cacao, to Europe.

Desiderius Erasmus

best known christian humanist he called his view of religion "the philosophy of Christ'. Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe although his criticisms of the Church led to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther. he wrote The Praise of Folly, worked for Frobein and translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin(1466-1536)

mercantilism

government regulated economic system. Creation of capitalistic system ( to bypass "the middle man") You want more goods going out of the country than coming in. Export over import

Issues with trade routes

-distance -expense (more money) -dangerous (pirates, bandits, robbers)

The concept of divine right is best described by which of the following statements?

Kings received their power and their right to rule from God, and they thus owed no one responsibility except God.

Mary I

"Bloody Mary". Super-Catholic. Married PHILIP II of Spain. KILLED PROTESTANTS, or exiled them. 1553-1558 This was the queen who reverted back to Catholicism in England for five years and during this reign, she executed many Protestants

Sultan

"holder of power"; a title commonly used by Muslim rulers in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and elsewhere; still in use in parts of Asia, sometimes for regional authorities. Military and political leader with absolute authority over a Muslim country Muslim ruler Muslim ruler of India But the rise of empire brought about changes and an adaptation to Byzantine traditions of rule, much as Abbasid political practices had been affected by Persian monarchical tradition at an earlier time in Baghdad. The status and prestige of the sultan now increased relative to the subordinate tribal leaders, and with Suleyman the Magnificent—perhaps the Ottoman Empire's greatest ruler—the position took on the trappings of imperial rule (see "A Portrait of Suleyman the Magnificent"). Court rituals were inherited from the Byzantines and Persians, and a centralized administrative system was adopted that increasingly isolated the sultan in his palace. The position of the sultan was hereditary, with a son, although not necessarily the eldest, always succeeding the father. This practice led to chronic succession struggles upon the death of individual sultans, and the losers were often executed or imprisoned. Potential heirs to the throne were assigned as provincial governors to provide them with experience.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532. English king who created the Church of England after the Pope refused to annul his marriage (divorce with Church approval) was the English King who declared himself head of the Church of England

Martin Luther

95 Thesis, posted in 1517, led to religious reform in Germany, denied papal power and absolutist rule. Claimed there were only 2 sacraments: baptism and communion. a German monk who became one of the most famous critics of the Roman Catholic Chruch. In 1517, he wrote 95 theses, or statements of belief attacking the church practices. German theologian who led the Reformation; believed that salvation is granted on the basis of faith rather than deeds (1483-1546)

What were four main types of political systems in Southeast Asia?

Buddhist kings, Javanese kings, Islamic sultans, Vietnamese emperors

English Civil War

Conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in 1660 following execution of previous king civil war in England between the Parliamentarians and the Royalists under Charles I a conflict, lasting from 1642 to 1649, in which Puritan supporters of Parliament battled supporters of England's monarchy Grievances mounted until England finally slipped into a civil war (1642-1648) won by the parliamentary forces, due largely to the New Model Army of Oliver Cromwell, the only real military genius of the war. The New Model Army was composed primarily of more extreme Puritans known as the Independents, who, in typical Calvinist fashion, believed they were doing battle for God. As Cromwell wrote in one of his military reports, "Sir, this is none other but the hand of God; and to Him alone belongs the glory." We might give some credit to Cromwell; his soldiers were well trained in the new military tactics of the seventeenth century. After the execution of Charles I on January 30, 1649, Parliament abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords and proclaimed England a republic or commonwealth. But Cromwell and his army, unable to work effectively with Parliament, dispersed it by force and established a military dictatorship. After Cromwell's death in 1658, the army decided that military rule was no longer feasible and restored the monarchy in the person of Charles II, the son of Charles I.

In 1644, the Manchus, who came from outside the traditional borders of China, seized Beijing and declared the beginning of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing presided over a long period of stability and economic growth. Which of the following statements describes one of the main reasons for the great success of the Qing?

To a large degree, they adopted Ming customs.

Ninety-Five Theses

attack on the abuses of the church and was copied and spread throughout Germany; written by Martin Luther. This was the letter Martin Luther wrote to Archbishop Albert which explained that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance Luther did not see himself as a revolutionary innovator or a heretic, but he was greatly upset by the widespread selling of indulgences. Especially offensive in his eyes was the monk Johann Tetzel, who hawked indulgences with the slogan "As soon as the coin in the coffer [money box] rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Greatly angered, in 1517 he issued a stunning indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences, known as the Ninety-Five Theses. Thousands of copies were printed and quickly spread to all parts of Germany. Document written by Martin Luther and posted on a church door in Germany that listed 95 things that Luther saw wrong with the church

Samurai

literally, "retainers"; similar to European knights. Usually in service to a particular shogun, these Japanese warriors lived by a strict code of ethics and duty. Class of warriors in feudal Japan who pledged loyalty to a noble in return for land. A member of the warrior class in premodern feudal Japan Literally 'those who serve,' the hereditary military elite in Feudal Japan as well as during the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Predestination

the belief, associated with Calvinism, that God, as a consequence of his foreknowledge of all events, has predetermined who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned (the reprobate). Calvin's religious theory that God has already planned out a person's life. the belief that what happens in human life has already been determined by some higher power Calvinist belief that God long ago determined who would gain salvation

Shogun

a powerful Japanese leader, originally military, who ruled under the titular authority of the emperor. A general who ruled Japan in the emperor's name In feudal Japan, a noble similar to a duke. They were the military commanders and the actual rulers of Japan for many centuries while the Emperor was a powerless spiritual figure. Supreme military commander

Bushido

the code of conduct observed by samurai warriors; comparable to the European concept of chivalry. The Feudal Japanese code of honor among the warrior class. "the way of the warrior" the code of honor and morals developed by the Japanese samurai.

Oda Nobunaga

Daimyo who hoped to control all of Japan and seized Kyoto japanese lord who seized the imperial capital kyoto in 1568 and sought to rule the empire by force Defeated his rivals and seized the imperial capital Kyoto in 1568

True or False: By the end of the Ming Dynasty, the nuclear family had become the basic unit of Chinese society.

False

True or False: The fall of the Safavid Dynasty was due to a decline in the significance of orthodox religious values in government policy, leading to the collapse of Muslim religious authority in the country.

False

Hongwu

First Ming emperor in 1368; originally of peasant lineage; original name Zhu Yuanzhang; drove out Mongol influence; restored position of scholar-gentry Commander of the rebel army that drove the Mongols out of China in 1368 first Ming emperor (1368-1403); drove out the Mongols and restored the position of the scholar-gentry.

Which of the following inventions directly aided the Europeans in their exploration of the Indian Ocean?

The caravel The compass The astrolabe The caravel, the compass, and the astrolabe were all fairly recent inventions that greatly contributed to the success of European exploration across the Indian Ocean and beyond. Caravels were ships that were mobile enough to sail against the wind and engage in naval warfare and also large enough to be armed with heavy cannons and carry a substantial amount of goods. The compass (invented by the Chinese) and the astrolabe (invented by Arab sailors) were both devices that Europeans used to more accurately navigate their many journeys.

The prevalence of warfare in West Africa increased with the expansion of trade with Europe. What was the main reason for this?

The slave trade made it profitable to sell prisoners of war.

Which of the following was a major factor in the speed with which Cortes was able to conquer the Aztec Empire?

The spread of European diseases In 1519, Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) landed in Mexico with only 600 men but cleverly made alliances with local groups that were opposed to Aztec rule, including the people from Tlaxcala. Although the Aztecs had a much larger fighting force, they fell to the Spanish in a matter of months. While the alliance with Tlaxcala, and horses and steel (neither of which had been present in the Americas), contributed to the Spanish victory, disease was arguably the most important factor. Native Americans lacked immunities to Afro-Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox and the bubonic plague. These maladies would eventually kill an estimated 90% of the indigenous population.

Which of the following were the main characteristics of Southeast Asian societies in the precolonial era?

Commercial farming began to replace subsistence farming. New religious and moral restrictions were imposed. Buddhism and Islam brought formal education.

conquistadors

Spanish soldiers and explorers who led military expeditions in the Americas and captured land for Spain Early-sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers who conquered Mexico, Central America, and Peru. (Examples Cortez, Pizarro, Francisco.) "conquerors." Leaders in the Spanish conquests in the Americas, especially Mexico and Peru, in the sixteenth century.

England avoided the path of absolutism because the attempt by the monarchy to express a divine right to rule was met with resistance from Parliament, leading eventually to the development of a constitutional monarchy. True or False

True

The English in India

early 1600s excluded from the spice trade, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, symbiotic relationship with Mughal make alliances with the rajas become intertwined with politics Penetration of the new market was not easy for the Europeans because they initially had little to offer their hosts, who had been conducting a thriving trade with peoples throughout the Indian Ocean regional market for centuries. On the other hand, the Mughals expressed little interest in the sea and left the practice of maritime commerce to foreign shippers. As a result, European merchants focused on taking part in the carrying trade between one Asian port and another. The Portuguese, for example, carried high-quality textile goods from India to Africa in exchange for gold from the mines in Zimbabwe. With their profits, they paid for spices to be transported back to Europe. Eventually, goods such as textiles and spices were paid for with gold and silver bullion mined in Latin America. The experience of the English was a prime example. When in 1608 the first English fleet arrived at Surat, a thriving port on the northwestern coast of India, the English request for trading privileges was rejected by Emperor Jahangir, at the suggestion of the Portuguese advisers already in residence at the imperial court. Needing lightweight Indian cloth to trade for spices in the East Indies, the English persisted, and in 1616, they were finally permitted to install their own ambassador at the imperial court in Agra. Three years later, the first English factory, or warehouse, was established at Surat. During the next several decades, the English presence in India steadily increased as Mughal power waned. By mid-century, additional English trading posts had been established at Bombay ("good bay" in Portuguese) on the west coast of the peninsula, at Fort William (now the great city of Calcutta, recently renamed Kolkata) on the Hoogly River near the Bay of Bengal, and at Madras (now Chennai) on the southeastern coast. From there, English ships carried high-quality Indian-made cotton goods back home to the British Isles, where they began to compete effectively with locally produced woolen products, or to the East Indies, where they were bartered for spices to be shipped back to England. English success in India attracted rivals, including the Dutch and the French. The Dutch eventually abandoned their interests in India to concentrate on the spice trade, but the French were more persistent and seized Madras in 1746. For a brief period, the French competed successfully for trade privileges with the British, but the military genius of Sir Robert Clive (CLYV), an aggressive British administrator and empire builder who eventually became the chief representative of the East India Company in the subcontinent, combined with the refusal of the French government to provide financial support for French actions in India eventually left the latter with only a fort at Pondicherry and a handful of other tiny enclaves on the southeastern coast (see Chapter 18).

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679) believed that people are born selfish and need a strong central authority Leviathan (1651)

The Ottoman Empire's population, taken as a whole, contained a _________of non-Muslims, such as Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians, and Jews. For the most part, these populations were _________. The term _________ referred to the administrative unit associated with each specific non-Muslim group, each of whom were required to pay a ________ As Muslims were exempt from this tax, converting to Islam therefore held certain material and political benefits.

significant minority; treated with relative tolerance; head tax

trade routes

-Waterways, paths, and trails that traders used to move goods for exchange from one place to another. -connections between West Europe and East Asia -many goods flowed through -East to West -Europe was in need of many things such as salt, silk, other goods (food, medicine) -Those spices changed their food

Devshirme

'Selection' in Turkish. The system by which boys from Christian communities were taken by the Ottoman state to serve as Janissaries. Ottoman policy of taking boys from Christian peoples to be trained as Muslim soldiers The tribute of boy children that the Ottoman Turks levied from their Christian subjects in the Balkans; the Ottomans raised the boys for service in the civil administration or in the elite Janissary infantry corps.

Peter the Great

(1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg. This was the tsar of Russia that Westernized Russia and built up a massive Russian army. czar of Russia who introduced ideas from western Europe to reform the government Peter the Great wished to westernize Russia, especially in the realm of technical skills. His goal was the creation of a strong army and navy and the acquisition of new territory in order to make Russia a great power. Jean Marc Nattier, a French artist, painted this portrait of the tsar dressed in military armor in 1717. Peter the Great (1689-1725) was an unusual character. A strong man towering 6 feet 9 inches tall, Peter enjoyed low humor—belching contests and crude jokes—and vicious punishments, including floggings, impalings, and roastings. Peter got a firsthand view of the West when he made a trip there in 1697-1698 and returned to Russia with a firm determination to westernize Russia. He was especially eager to borrow European technology in order to create the army and navy he needed to make Russia a great power. As could be expected, one of Peter's first priorities was the reorganization of the army and the creation of a navy. Employing both Russians and Europeans as officers, he conscripted peasants for twenty-five-year stints of service to build a standing army of 210,000 men and at the same time formed the first navy Russia had ever had. To impose the rule of the central government more effectively throughout the land, Peter divided Russia into provinces. Although he hoped to create a "police state," by which he meant a well-ordered community governed in accordance with law, few of his bureaucrats shared his concept of loyalty to the state. Peter hoped to evoke a sense of civic duty among his people, but his own forceful personality created an atmosphere of fear that prevented any such sentiment. This use of force was also evident when Peter began to introduce Western customs, practices, and manners into Russia shortly after his return from the West in 1698. Because Europeans at that time did not wear beards or traditional long-skirted coats, Russian beards had to be shaved and coats shortened, a reform Peter personally enforced at court by shaving off his nobles' beards and cutting their coats at the knees with his own hands. Outside the court, barbers and tailors planted at town gates enforced the edicts by cutting the beards and cloaks of those who entered or left. Many Russians, as a result, regarded the tsar as a tyrant.

John Baptist Colbert

-finance minister to Louis XIV -wealth and eons of france should serve the state -mercantilist -founded company of the East Indies The cost of building palaces, maintaining his court, and pursuing his wars made finances a crucial issue for Louis XIV. He was most fortunate in having the services of Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) as his controller general of finances. Colbert sought to increase the wealth and power of France through general adherence to mercantilism, which advocated government intervention in economic activities for the benefit of the state. To decrease imports and increase exports, Colbert granted subsidies to individuals who established new industries. To improve communications and the transportation of goods internally, he built roads and canals. To decrease imports directly, Colbert raised tariffs on foreign goods.

John Calvin

1509-1564. French theologian. Developed the Christian theology known as Calvinism. Attracted Protestant followers with his teachings. religious reformer who believed in predestination and a strict sense of morality for society After a conversion experience, John Calvin abandoned his life as a humanist and became a reformer. In 1536, Calvin began working to reform the city of Geneva, where he remained until his death in 1564. This is a seventeenth-century portrait of Calvin done by a member of the Swiss school. On most important doctrines, Calvin stood very close to Luther. He adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone to explain how humans achieved salvation. But Calvin also placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty or all-powerful nature of God—what Calvin called the "power, grace, and glory of God." One of the ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God—predestination—gave a unique cast to Calvin's teachings. This "eternal decree," as Calvin called it, meant that God had predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate). According to Calvin, "He has once for all determined, both whom He would admit to salvation, and whom He would condemn to destruction."Footnote Although Calvin stressed that there could be no absolute certainty of salvation, his followers did not always make this distinction. The practical psychological effect of predestination was to give later Calvinists an unshakable conviction that they were doing God's work on earth, making Calvinism a dynamic and activist faith. In 1536, Calvin began working to reform the city of Geneva. He was able to fashion a tightly organized church order that employed both clergy and laymen in the service of the church. The Consistory, a special body for enforcing moral discipline, functioned as a court to oversee the moral life, daily behavior, and doctrinal orthodoxy of Genevans and to admonish and correct deviants. Citizens in Geneva were punished for such varied "crimes" as dancing, singing obscene songs, drunkenness, swearing, and playing cards. Calvin's success in Geneva enabled the city to become a vibrant center of Protestantism. Following Calvin's lead, missionaries trained in Geneva were sent to all parts of Europe. Calvinism became established in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and central and eastern Europe, and by the mid-sixteenth century, Calvin's Geneva stood as the fortress of the Reformation.

Edict of Nantes

1598 - Granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship. document that granted religious freedom to the Huguenots For thirty years, battles raged in France between Catholic and Calvinist parties. Finally, in 1589, Henry of Navarre, the political leader of the Huguenots and a member of the Bourbon dynasty, succeeded to the throne as Henry IV (1589-1610). Realizing, however, that he would never be accepted by Catholic France, Henry converted to Catholicism. With his coronation in 1594, the Wars of Religion had finally come to an end. The Edict of Nantes in 1598 solved the religious problem by acknowledging Catholicism as the official religion of France while guaranteeing the Huguenots the right to worship and to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding of public offices.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property. English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. English philosopher who argued that people have natural rights

Safavids

A Shi'ite Muslim dynasty that ruled in Persia (Iran and parts of Iraq) from the 16th-18th centuries that had a mixed culture of the Persians, Ottomans and Arabs. rivals of the Ottomans who practiced Shia Islam and was active in military conquest. a member of a dynasty that ruled Persia 1502-1736 and installed Shia rather than Sunni Islam as the state religion. The Safavid Dynasty was founded by Shah Ismail (r. 1487-1524), a descendant of Sheikh Safi al-Din (hence the name Safavid) (1252-1334), who traced his origins to Ali, the fourth imam of the Muslim faith. In the early fourteenth century, Safi had been the leader of a community of Turkic-speaking people in Azerbaijan, near the Caspian Sea. Safi's community was one of many Sufi mystical religious groups throughout the area. In time, the doctrine spread among nomadic groups throughout the Middle East and was transformed into the more activist Shi'ite faith. Its adherents were known as "red heads" because of their distinctive red cap with twelve folds, meant to symbolize allegiance to the twelve imams of the Shi'ite faith. In 1501, Ismail seized much of the lands of the old Abbasid Empire and proclaimed himself shah of a new Persian state, to be called Iran in deference to the ancient term derived from the ethnic word "Aryan." Baghdad was subdued in 1508, as were the Uzbeks in Bokhara shortly thereafter. Ismail now promoted the Shi'ite faith among the primarily Sunni local population and sent Shi'ite preachers into Anatolia to proselytize and promote rebellion among Turkish tribal peoples in the Ottoman Empire. In retaliation, the Ottoman sultan, Selim I (see above), advanced against the Safavids in Persia and won a major battle near Tabriz in 1514. But Selim could not maintain control of the area, and Ismail regained Tabriz a few years later. The Ottomans returned to the attack in the 1580s and forced the new Safavid shah, Abbas I (r. 1587-1629), to sign a punitive peace in which he accepted the loss of much territory. The capital was subsequently moved for defensive reasons from Tabriz in the northwest to Isfahan in the south. Still, it was under Shah Abbas ("the Great") that the Safavids reached the zenith of their glory. He established a system similar to the janissaries in Turkey to train administrators to replace the traditional warrior elite. He also used the interval of peace to strengthen his army, now armed with modern weapons, and in the early seventeenth century, he attempted to regain the lost territories. Although he had some initial success, war resumed in the 1620s, and a lasting peace was not achieved until 1638 (see Map 16.2).

Printing Press

A mechanical device for transferring text or graphics from a woodblock or type to paper using ink. Presses using movable type first appeared in Europe in about 1450. 15th century invention which revolutionized the ability to print information which in turn affected the speed of the spread of information itself. The Renaissance witnessed the development of printing, which made an immediate impact on European intellectual life and thought. Printing from hand-carved wooden blocks had been done in the West since the twelfth century and in China even before that. What was new in the fifteenth century in Europe was multiple printing with movable metal type. The development of printing from movable type was a gradual process that culminated sometime between 1445 and 1450; Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz played an important role in bringing the process to completion. Gutenberg's Bible, completed in 1455 or 1456, was the first true book produced from movable type. By 1500, there were more than a thousand printers in Europe, who collectively had published almost 40,000 titles (between 8 million and 10 million copies). Probably half of these books were religious—Bibles and biblical commentaries, books of devotion, and sermons. Next in importance were the Latin and Greek classics, medieval grammars, legal handbooks, and works on philosophy. The printing of books encouraged scholarly research and the desire to attain knowledge. Printing also stimulated the development of an ever-expanding lay reading public, a development that had an enormous impact on European society. Indeed, the printing press enabled the new religious ideas of the Reformation to spread as rapidly as they did in the sixteenth century.

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between Charles V and the German Protestant princes that granted legal recognition of Lutheranism in Germany. 1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler

Jesuits

Also known as the Society of Jesus; founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) as a teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism. members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola Members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534. They played an important part in the Catholic Reformation and helped create conduits of trade and knowledge between Asia and Europe. Of all the new religious orders, the most important was the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, founded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola (if-NAY-schuss of loi-OH-luh) (1491-1556). Loyola brought together a small group of individuals who were recognized as a religious order by the pope in 1540. The new order was grounded on the principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchical order for the society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and a dedication to engage in "conflict for God." A special vow of absolute obedience to the pope made the Jesuits an important instrument for papal policy. Another prominent Jesuit activity was the propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians. Francis Xavier (ZAY-vee-ur) (1506-1552), one of the original members of the Society of Jesus, carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. After attracting tens of thousands of converts in India, he traveled to Malacca and the Moluccas before finally reaching Japan in 1549. He spoke highly of the Japanese: "They are a people of excellent morals—good in general and not malicious."Footnote Thousands of Japanese, especially in the southernmost islands, became Christians. In 1552, Xavier set out for China but died of fever before he reached the mainland. Although conversion efforts in Japan proved short-lived, Jesuit activity in China, especially that of the Italian Matteo Ricci (ma-TAY-oh REE-chee), was more long-lasting. Recognizing the Chinese pride in their own culture, the Jesuits attempted to draw parallels between Christian and Confucian concepts and to show the similarities between Christian morality and Confucian ethics. For their part, the missionaries were much impressed with many aspects of Chinese civilization, and reports of their experiences heightened European curiosity about this great society on the other side of the world. The Jesuits were also determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism. Jesuit missionaries succeeded in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and eastern Europe. Poland was largely won back for the Catholic Church through Jesuit efforts.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian navigator who was funded by the Spanish Government to find a passage to the Far East. He is given credit for discovering the "New World," even though at his death he believed he had made it to India. He made four voyages to the "New World." The first sighting of land was on October 12, 1492, and three other journies until the time of his death in 1503. An important figure in the history of Spanish exploration was an Italian from Genoa, Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). Like many knowledgeable Europeans, Columbus was aware that the world was round, but he was also convinced that the circumference of the earth was smaller than some of his contemporaries believed. He therefore argued that Asia could easily be reached by sailing due west instead of eastward around Africa. After his plan was rejected by the Portuguese, he persuaded Queen Isabella of Castile to finance his exploratory expedition, which left Spain in early August 1492 and reached land somewhere in the islands of the Bahamas ten weeks later. For the next few weeks, his three ships explored the coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of the neighboring island of Hispaniola (his-puhn-YOH-luh or ees-pahn-YAH-luh). Columbus believed that he had reached Asia and in three subsequent voyages (1493, 1498, and 1502) sought in vain to find a route through the outer islands to the Asian mainland. In his four voyages, Columbus reached all the major islands of the Caribbean, which he called the Indies, as well as Honduras in Central America. Although Columbus clung for the rest of his life to his belief that he had reached Asia, other navigators soon realized that he had discovered a new frontier altogether and joined the race to what Europeans began to call the "New World."

Robert Clive

Architect of British victory at Plassey; established foundations of the Raj in northern India. This man was a British soldier who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Southern India and Bengal. He is credited with securing India, and the wealth that followed, for the British crown. British general and statesman whose victory at Plassey in 1757 strengthened British control of India (1725-1774) Robert Clive was the leader of the army of the British East India Company. He had been commanded to fight the ruler of Bengal in order to gain trading privileges. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Clive and the East India Company took control of Bengal. In this painting by Edward Penny, Clive is shown receiving a grant of money for his injured soldiers from the local nabob or governor of Bengal.

Council of Trent

Called by Pope Paul III to reform the church and secure reconciliation with the Protestants. Lutherans and Calvinists did not attend. A meeting of Roman Catholic leaders, called by Pope Paul III to rule on doctrines criticized by the Protestant reformers. Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings, forbade the sale of indulgences In March 1545, a group of high church officials met in the city of Trent on the border between Germany and Italy and initiated the Council of Trent, which met intermittently from 1545 to 1563 in three major sessions. The final decrees of the Council of Trent reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Scripture and tradition were affirmed as equal authorities in religious matters; only the church could interpret Scripture. Both faith and good works were declared necessary for salvation. Belief in purgatory and in the use of indulgences was strengthened, although the selling of indulgences was prohibited. After the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified structure under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes. Although the Roman Catholic Church had become one Christian denomination among many, the church entered a new phase of its history with a spirit of confidence.

Istanbul

Capital of the Ottoman Empire; named this after 1453 and the sack of Constantinople. Capital of the Ottoman Empire capital of the Ottoman empire; located in the northwest of present-day Turkey; formerly Constantinople

Divine Right of Kings

Doctrine that states that the right of ruling comes from God and not people's consent the belief that the authority of kings comes directly from God the belief that kings receive their power from God and are responsible only to God a form of government in which the sovereign power or ultimate authority rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God.

slave trade

European trade agreement with Africa dealing with slaves brought from Africa. Integral part of Triangle Trade between the Americas, Africa, and Europe. The European exploration of the African coastline had little immediate significance for most peoples living in the interior of the continent, except for a few who engaged in direct or indirect trade with the foreigners. But for peoples living on or near the coast, the impact was often great indeed. As the trade in slaves increased during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, thousands and then millions of men, women, and even children were removed from their homes and forcibly exported to plantations in the Western Hemisphere. African slaves began to be shipped to Brazil and the Caribbean to work on the plantations. The first were sent from Portugal, but in 1518, a Spanish ship carried the first boatload of African slaves directly from Africa to the Americas. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the trade in African slaves to the Americas became a major source of profit to European merchants. This map traces the routes taken by slave-trading ships, as well as the territories and ports of call of European powers in the seventeenth century.

The period between 1560 and 1650 in Europe was considered an age of crisis because European states' lack of powerful armies contributed to a decline in stability and order. True or False

False This statement is false. Although the period between 1560 and 1650 was a time of great instability and lack of order in Europe, it was not because of a paucity of powerful state armies. Instead, the period saw the development of some of the first standing armies in Europe and the world. These armies were deployed by European leaders in bloody and ruinous wars, which rarely remained limited to their original antagonists. As the wars spread, leaders attempted to build bigger and more powerful military forces, thereby increasing each conflict's destructive effects.

Babur

First sultan of the Mughal Empire; took lots of land in India. founder of Mughal dynasty in India; descended from Turkic warriors; first led invasion of India in 1526; died in 1530. Founder of the Mughal empire of India; he invaded Afghanistan and India and established an empire there. The founder of the dynasty, known to history as Babur (1483-1530), had an illustrious pedigree. His father was descended from the great Asian conqueror Tamerlane, his mother from the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan. Babur had inherited a fragment of Tamerlane's empire in an upland valley of the Syr Darya River (see Map 16.2). Driven south by the rising power of the Uzbeks and then the Safavid Dynasty in Persia, Babur and his warriors seized Kabul in 1504 and, thirteen years later, crossed the Khyber Pass into India. Following a pattern that we have seen before, Babur began his rise to power by offering to help an ailing dynasty against its opponents. Although his own forces were far less numerous than those of his adversaries, he possessed advanced weapons, including artillery, and used them to great effect. His use of mobile cavalry was particularly successful against his enemy's massed forces supplemented by mounted elephants. In 1526, with only 12,000 troops against an enemy force nearly ten times that size, Babur captured Delhi and established his power in the plains of northern India (see "The Mughal Conquest of Northern India"). Over the next several years, he continued his conquests in northern India until his death in 1530 at the age of forty-seven.

Shah Ismail

Founder of Safavid Empire in 1501, ruled until 1524; made Twelver Shiism the official religion of the empire and imposed it upon his Sunni subjects; his followers became known as qizilbash. Founder of the Safavid dynasty founder of the Safavid dynasty; took control of Iran, Iraq, Baghdad, and Tabriz The founder of the Safavid dynasty (1487-1524), a descendant of the Sheikh Safi al-Din, who traced his origins to Ali. He seized the region of Iran and Iraq and proclaimed himself Shah of the new Persian state. He also conquered Baghdad and defeated the Uzbeks.

Match each characteristic on the left with the corresponding absolute monarchy on the right.

France- Attempted to limit the power of "princes of the blood" Prussia-Established the General War Commissariat Austria-Habsburg emperor was ruler of various smaller states Russia-Ruler's primary goal was to "open a window to the west"

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by John Calvin Religion was central to the French civil wars of the sixteenth century. The growth of Calvinism had led to persecution by the French kings, but the latter did little to stop the spread of Calvinism. Huguenots, as the French Calvinists were called, constituted only about 7 percent of the population, but 40 to 50 percent of the French nobility became Huguenots, including the house of Bourbon, which stood next to the Valois in the royal line of succession. The conversion of so many nobles made the Huguenots a potentially dangerous political threat to monarchical power. Still, the Calvinist minority was greatly outnumbered by the Catholic majority, and the Valois monarchy was staunchly Catholic.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

General under Nobanga; suceeded as leading military power in Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constucted a series of military alliances that made him the military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598. general under Nobunaga; leading military power in central Japan; broke power of the diamyos; became military master in 1590 Daimyo who took control of almost all of Japan

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and Carlos I of Spain, tried to keep Europe religiously united, inherited Spain, the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and much of the Holy Roman Emperor from his grandparents, he sought to stop Protestantism and increase the power of Catholicism. He allied with the pope to stamp out heresy and maintain religous unity in Europe. He was preocuppied with struggles with Turkey and France and could not soley focus on the rise of Protestantism in Germany. This was the Holy Roman Emperor that called for the Diet of Worms. He was a supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation by use of the Counter-Reformation From its very beginning, the fate of Luther's movement was closely tied to political affairs. In 1519, Charles I, king of Spain and the grandson of Emperor Maximilian, was elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. Charles V ruled over an immense empire, consisting of Spain and its overseas possessions, the traditional Austrian Habsburg lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries, and the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy. Politically, Charles wanted to maintain his enormous empire; religiously, he hoped to preserve the unity of his empire in the Catholic faith. A number of problems, however, kept him preoccupied and cost him both his dream and his health. Moreover, the internal political situation in the Holy Roman Empire was not in Charles's favor. Although all the German states owed loyalty to the emperor, during the Middle Ages these states had become quite independent of imperial authority. By the time Charles V was able to bring military forces to Germany in 1546, Lutheranism had become well established and the Lutheran princes were well organized. Unable to defeat them, Charles was forced to negotiate a truce. An end to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg (OUKS-boork). The division of Christianity was formally acknowledged; Lutheran states were to have the same legal rights as Catholic states. Although the German states were now free to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism, the peace settlement did not recognize the principle of religious toleration for individuals. The right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects was accepted, but not the right of the subjects to choose their own religion. With the Peace of Augsburg, what had at first been merely feared was now certain: the ideal of Christian unity was lost. The rapid spread of new Protestant groups made this a certainty for all of Europe.

Janissaries

Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826. 30,000 Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826. Christian boys taken from families, converted to Islam, and then rigorously trained to serve the sultan

William and Mary

King and Queen of England in 1688. With them, King James' Catholic reign ended. As they were Protestant, the Puritans were pleased because only protestants could be office-holders. ended the Dominion of New England, gave power back to colonies These people were the king and queen of England after the Glorious Revolution that recognized the supremacy of the English Parliament William and Mary raised an army and invaded England while James, his wife, and their infant son fled to France. With little bloodshed, England had undergone its "Glorious Revolution." In January 1689, Parliament offered the throne to William and Mary, who accepted it along with the provisions of a bill of rights (see "The Bill of Rights,"). The Bill of Rights affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes. The rights of citizens to keep arms and have a jury trial were also confirmed. By deposing one king and establishing another, Parliament had destroyed the divine-right theory of kingship (William was, after all, king by grace of Parliament, not God) and asserted its right to participate in the government. Parliament did not have complete control of the government, but it now had the right to participate in affairs of state. Over the next century, it would gradually prove to be the real authority in the English system of limited (constitutional) monarchy. IN 1688, THE ENGLISH EXPERIENCED a bloodless revolution in which the Stuart king, James II, was replaced by Mary, James's daughter, and her husband, William of Orange. After William and Mary had assumed power, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights, which set out the rights of Parliament and laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy.

What are manufactured goods?

Latin American colonies imported these types of goods from Europe, where they had been made by processing the goods taken from their colonies abroad.

Cortes, Hernan

Led expedition of 600 to coast of Mexico in 1519; conquistador responsible for defeat of Aztec Empire; captured Tenochtitlan In 1519, Hernando Cortes (1485-1547) landed in Mexico with only 600 men but cleverly made alliances with local groups that were opposed to Aztec rule, including the people from Tlaxcala. Although the Aztecs had a much larger fighting force, they fell to the Spanish in a matter of months. While the alliance with Tlaxcala, and horses and steel (neither of which had been present in the Americas), contributed to the Spanish victory, disease was arguably the most important factor. Native Americans lacked immunities to Afro-Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox and the bubonic plague. These maladies would eventually kill an estimated 90% of the indigenous population.

Akbar

Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). He expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation with Hindus. The most famous Muslim ruler of India during the period of Mughal rule. Famous for his religious tolerance, his investment in rich cultural feats, and the creation of a centralized governmental administration, which was not typical of ancient and post-classical India. The greatest of the Mughald Emperors. Second half of 1500s. Descendant of Timur. Consolidated power over northern India. Religiously tolerant. Patron of arts, including large mural paintings. Although Akbar was probably the greatest of the conquering Mughal monarchs, like his famous predecessor Ashoka, he is best known for the humane character of his rule. Above all, he accepted the diversity of Indian society and took steps to reconcile his Muslim and Hindu subjects. Though raised an orthodox Muslim, Akbar had been exposed to other beliefs during his childhood and had little patience with the pedantic views of Muslim scholars at court. As emperor, he displayed a keen interest in other religions, not only tolerating Hindu practices in his own domains but also welcoming the expression of Christian views by his Jesuit advisers. Akbar put his policy of religious tolerance into practice by taking a Hindu princess as one of his wives, and the success of this marriage may well have had an effect on his religious convictions. He patronized classical Indian arts and architecture and abolished many of the restrictions faced by Hindus in a Muslim-dominated society. During his later years, Akbar became steadily more hostile to Islam. To the dismay of many Muslims at court, he sponsored a new form of worship called the Divine Faith (Din-i-Ilahi), which combined characteristics of several religions with a central belief in the infallibility of all decisions reached by the emperor. Some historians have maintained that Akbar totally abandoned Islam and adopted a Persian model of imperial divinity. But others have pointed out that the emperor was claiming only divine guidance, not divine status, and suggest that the new ideology was designed to cement the loyalty of officials to the person of the monarch. Whatever the case, the new faith aroused deep hostility in Muslim circles and vanished rapidly after his death. Akbar also extended his innovations to the imperial administration. The empire was divided into provinces, and the administration of each province was modeled after the central government, with separate departments for military, financial, commercial, and legal affairs. Senior officials in each department reported directly to their counterparts in the capital city of Agra. Although the upper ranks of the government continued to be dominated by nonnative Muslims, a substantial proportion of lower-ranking officials were Hindus, and a few Hindus were appointed to positions of importance. At first, most officials were paid salaries, but later they were ordinarily assigned sections of agricultural land for their temporary use; they kept a portion of the taxes paid by the local peasants in lieu of a salary. These local officials, known as zamindars (zuh-meen-DAHRZ), were expected to forward the rest of the taxes from the lands under their control to the central government, which also derived much of its revenue from the exploitation of substantial crown lands. Zamindars often recruited a number of military and civilian retainers and accumulated considerable power in their localities. The same tolerance that marked Akbar's attitude toward religion and administration extended to the Mughal legal system. While Muslims were subject to the Islamic codes (the Shari'a), Hindu law (the Dharmashastra) applied to areas settled by Hindus, who after 1579 were no longer required to pay the unpopular jizya (JIZ-yuh), or poll tax on non-Muslims. Punishments for crime were relatively mild, at least by the standards of the day, and justice was administered in a relatively impartial and efficient manner. A key element in Akbar's vision of the ideal social order was the concept of harmony, meaning that each individual and group within the empire would play their assigned role and contribute to the welfare of society as a whole. This concept of social harmony was based in part on his vision of a world shaped by the laws of Islam as transmitted by Muhammad (Shari'a), but it also corresponded to the deep-seated indigenous belief in the importance of class hierarchy, as expressed in the Indian class and caste system. In its overall conception, it bears a clear resemblance to the social structure adopted by the Mughals' contemporaries to the west, the Ottoman Empire. Overall, Akbar's reign was a time of peace and prosperity. Although all Indian peasants were required to pay about one-third of their annual harvest to the state through the zamindars, in general the system was applied fairly, and when drought struck in the 1590s, the taxes were reduced or even suspended altogether. Thanks to a long period of relative peace and political stability, commerce and manufacturing flourished. Foreign trade, in particular, thrived as Indian goods, notably textiles, tropical food products, spices, and precious stones, were exported in exchange for gold and silver. Tariffs on imports were low. Much of the foreign commerce was handled by Arab traders, since the Indians, like their Mughal rulers, did not care for travel by sea. Internal trade, however, was dominated by large merchant castes, which also were active in banking and handicrafts.

Who is Bartolome de Las Casas?

Priest that condemned the Encomienda system by exposing it's horrors. it worked the king eventually ended the practice in 1542. This Dominican monk published many writings exposing the cruelty of the encomienda system, and his advocacy guided the colonial government to abolish the system.

Thirty Years War

Protestant rebellion against the Holy Roman Empire ends with peace of westpahlia.1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. (1618-1648 CE) War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia. (1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a battle between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. The war in Germany was officially ended in 1648 by the Peace of Westphalia, which proclaimed that all German states, including the Calvinist ones, were free to determine their own religion. The major contenders gained new territories, and France emerged as the dominant nation in Europe. The more than three hundred entities that made up the Holy Roman Empire were recognized as independent states, and each was given the power to conduct its own foreign policy; this brought an end to the Holy Roman Empire and ensured German disunity for another two hundred years. The Peace of Westphalia made it clear that political motives, not religious convictions, had become the guiding force in public affairs.

Kangxi

Qing emperor (r. 1662-1722). He oversaw the greatest expansion of the Qing Empire. Chinese Qing emperor (r. 1661-1722) who promoted Confucian ideas and policies and expanded the Qing empire (Captured Taiwan, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia- Tibet) Confucian scholar and Manchu emperor of Qing dynasty from 1661 to 1722; established high degree of Sinification among the Manchus Kangxi (r. 1661-1722) was arguably the greatest ruler in Chinese history. Ascending to the throne at the age of seven, he was blessed with diligence, political astuteness, and a strong character and began to take charge of Qing administration while still an adolescent. During the six decades of his reign, Kangxi not only stabilized imperial rule by pacifying the restive peoples along the northern and western frontiers but also managed to make the dynasty acceptable to the general population. As an active patron of arts and letters, he cultivated the support of scholars through a number of major projects. During Kangxi's reign, the activities of the Western missionaries, Dominicans and Franciscans as well as Jesuits, reached their height. An intellectually curious ruler like the Mughal emperor Akbar, Kangxi was quite tolerant of the Christians, and several Jesuit missionaries became influential at court. Several hundred court officials converted to Christianity, as did an estimated 300,000 among the general population (see "The Debate over Christianity,"). But the Christian effort was ultimately undermined by squabbling among the Western religious orders over the Jesuit policy of accommodating local beliefs and practices in order to facilitate conversion. The Jesuits had acquiesced to the emperor's insistence that traditional Confucian rituals such as ancestor veneration were civil ceremonies and thus could be undertaken by Christian converts. Jealous Dominicans and Franciscans complained to the pope, who issued an edict ordering all missionaries and converts to conform to the official orthodoxy set forth in Europe. At first, Kangxi attempted to resolve the problem by appealing directly to the Vatican, but the pope was uncompromising. After Kangxi's death, his successor began to suppress Christian activities throughout China.

Abbas the Great

Safavid ruler from 1587 to 1629; extended Safavid domain to greatest extent; created slave regiments based on captured Russians, who monopolized firearms within Safavid armies; incorporated Western military technology. strongers leader of Safavid Empire, expanded trade w/ West - Abbas' reign, with its military successes and efficient administrative system, raised Iran to the status of a great power. Abbas was a skilled diplomat, tolerant of his Christian subjects in Armenia shah who expanded Safavid Empire, passed reforms & promoted the arts SHAH ABBAS I, probably the greatest of the Safavid rulers, expanded the borders of his empire into areas of the southern Caucasus inhabited by Christians and other non-Muslim peoples. After Persian control was assured, he instructed that the local peoples be urged to convert to Islam for their own protection and the glory of God. In this passage, his biographer, the Persian historian Eskander Beg Monshi, recounts the story of that effort.

Which of the following factors facilitated the Portuguese takeover of the Indian Ocean spice trade from Islamic merchants?

Seizure of Malacca School founded by Prince Henry the Navigator Light ships and cannons In 1419, Prince Henry founded a school for navigators that soon led to a major expansion of maritime exploration. The first journeys were along the west coast of Africa, in search of gold. By the end of the century, Vasco da Gama's fleet became the first to sail from Europe to the East Indies by rounding the southern tip of Africa. It crossed the Arabian Sea and arrived at Calicut on the Indian coast in 1498. Light ships and cannons were two of the most important factors that allowed the Portuguese to temporarily dominate the spice trade. In 1511, the Portuguese brutally attacked Malacca and soon had it under their control. From there they moved further east and within a few years were making enormous profits for the Portuguese crown.

Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547). But tensions soon erupted between the Spaniards and the Aztecs, provoked in part by demands by Cortés that the Aztecs renounce their native beliefs and accept Christianity. When the Spanish took Moctezuma hostage and began to destroy Aztec religious shrines, the local population revolted and drove the invaders from the city. Receiving assistance from the Aztec tribute state of Tlaxcallan, Cortés managed to fight his way back into the city. Meanwhile, the Aztecs were beginning to suffer the first effects of the diseases brought by the Europeans, which would eventually wipe out the majority of the local population. In a battle that to many Aztecs must have seemed to symbolize the dying of the legendary fifth sun, the Aztecs were finally vanquished. Within months, their magnificent city and its temples, believed by the conquerors to be the work of Satan, had been destroyed

Which of the following developments greatly increased the participation of Islamic merchants in the spice trade in Southeast Asia in the early fifteenth century?

The founding of the sultanate at Malacca The Muslim sultanate at the port of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula (founded by Paramesvara, a vassal of the Hindu state of Majapahit) was a major source of the subsequent success of Islamic merchants in the Indian Ocean spice trade. Malacca quickly became the dominant power in the region and helped spread the Islamic faith among merchants throughout the islands of Southeast Asia. The Portuguese would later take over Malacca as part of its attempt to dominate the spice trade and crush its Muslim competitors.

The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, recognized approximately 300 independent states in what had been the Holy Roman Empire. True or False

True

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Vassal of Toyotomi Hideyoshi; succeeded him as most powerful military figure in Japan; granted title of shogun in 1603 and established Tokugawa Shogunate; established political unity in Japan. this man established a shogunate that would dominate Japan for hundreds of years 1534-1616, founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate which lasted from 1603 to 1867 and reunified Japan

Absolutism

a form of government in which the sovereign power or ultimate authority rested in the hands of a monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God. A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.) A political system in which a ruler holds total power A form of government, usually hereditary monarchy, in which the ruler has no legal limits on his or her power. Many people responded to the crises of the seventeenth century by searching for order. An increase in monarchical power became an obvious means for achieving stability. The result was what historians have called absolutism or absolute monarchy, in which the sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right—the idea that kings received their power from God and were responsible to no one but God. Late-sixteenth-century political theorists believed that sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, levy taxes, administer justice, control the state's administrative system, and determine foreign policy.

Mehmet II (1451-1481)

leader of the Ottoman Empire (Turks), he conquered Constantinople (from the Byantines), took it as their own capitol and renamed it Istanbul. The Ottoman sultans were enthusiastic patrons of the arts and maintained large ateliers of artisans and artists, primarily at the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul but also in other important cities of the vast empire. The period from Mehmet II in the fifteenth century to the early eighteenth century witnessed a flourishing of pottery, rugs, silk and other textiles, jewelry, arms and armor, and calligraphy. All adorned the palaces of the new rulers, testifying to their opulence and exquisite taste. The artists came from all parts of the realm and beyond. Besides Turks, there were Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Hungarians, and Italians, all vying for the esteem and generous rewards of the sultans and fearing that losing favor might mean losing their heads! In the second half of the sixteenth century, Istanbul alone listed more than 150 craft guilds, ample proof of the artistic activity of the era. The magnificent mosques built under the patronage of Suleyman the Magnificent are a great legacy of the Ottoman Empire and a fitting supplement to Hagia Sophia, the cathedral built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in the sixth century CE and later turned into a mosque by Mehmet II. Towering under a central dome, these mosques seem to defy gravity and, like European Gothic cathedrals, convey a sense of weightlessness. The Suleymaniye Mosque (in A), constructed in the mid-sixteenth century on a design by the great architect Sinan, borrowed many elements from its great predecessor (in B) and today is one of the most impressive and most graceful in Istanbul. A far cry from the seventh-century desert mosques constructed of palm trunks, the Ottoman mosques stand among the architectural wonders of the world.

Mughals

muslim rulers over india, combined Hindu and Muslim, brought India to the peak of its political empire, had a single government with a common culture Mongols of the Indian Subcontinent. This name was used because they were a mix of the islamic mongols and the native hindus The Mughals were the last of the great traditional Indian dynasties. Like so many of their predecessors since the fall of the Guptas nearly a thousand years before, the Mughals were Muslims. But like the Ottoman Turks, the best Mughal rulers did not simply impose Islamic institutions and beliefs on the predominantly Hindu population; they combined Muslim with Hindu and even Persian concepts and cultural values in a unique social and cultural synthesis that even today seems to epitomize the greatness of Indian civilization. The new faith of Sikhism, founded in the early sixteenth century in an effort to blend both faiths (see Chapter 9), undoubtedly benefited from the mood of syncretism promoted by the Mughal court.

Rise of Modern Japan

rapidly began to industrialism ager matthew perry resistance to foreign influence led by Satsuma and Choshu/Sat-Cho (1868) --- want to restore the Emperor in Japan and succeed in the Meiji Restoration Japan's transformation from a feudal, agrarian society to an industrializing, technologically advanced society in little more than half a century has frequently been described by outside observers (if not by the Japanese themselves) in almost miraculous terms. Some historians have questioned this characterization, pointing out that the achievements of the Meiji leaders were spotty. In Japan's Emergence as a Modern State, the Canadian historian E. H. Norman lamented that the Meiji Restoration was an "incomplete revolution" because it had not ended the economic and social inequities of feudal society or enabled the common people to participate fully in the governing process. Although the genro were enlightened in many respects, they were also despotic and elitist, and the distribution of wealth remained as unequal as it had been under the old system.Footnote It has also been noted that Japan's transformation into a major industrial nation was by no means complete by the beginning of the new century. Until at least the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the majority of goods produced by the manufacturing sector came from traditional cottage industries, rather than from modern factories based on the principle of large-scale output. The integration of the Japanese economy into the global marketplace was also limited, and foreign investment played a much smaller role than in most comparable economies in the West.

English Reformation

result of the disagreement between Henry VIII and the Pope, created the Church of England or Anglican Church which was separate from the Catholic Church, still left little room for religious freedom a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Henry VIII's break from the Catholic Church. The English Reformation was rooted in politics, not religion. King Henry VIII (1509-1547) had a strong desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, with whom he had a daughter, Mary, but no male heir. The king wanted to marry Anne Boleyn (BUH-lin or buh-LIN), with whom he had fallen in love. Impatient with the pope's unwillingness to grant him an annulment of his marriage, Henry turned to England's own church courts. As archbishop of Canterbury and head of the highest church court in England, Thomas Cranmer ruled in May 1533 that the king's marriage to Catherine was "absolutely void." At the beginning of June, Anne was crowned queen, and three months later, a child was born; much to the king's disappointment, the baby was a girl (the future Queen Elizabeth I). In 1534, at Henry's request, Parliament moved to finalize the break of the Church of England with Rome. The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared that the king was "the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England," a position that gave him control of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline. Although Henry VIII had broken with the papacy, little change occurred in matters of doctrine, theology, and ceremony. Some of his supporters, including Archbishop Cranmer, sought a religious reformation as well as an administrative one, but Henry was unyielding. But he died in 1547 and was succeeded by his son, the underage and sickly Edward VI (1547-1553), and during Edward's reign, Cranmer and others inclined toward Protestant doctrines were able to move the Church of England (or Anglican Church) in a more Protestant direction. New acts of Parliament gave the clergy the right to marry and created a new Protestant church service. Edward VI was succeeded by Mary (1553-1558), a Catholic who attempted to return England to Catholicism. Her actions aroused much anger, however, especially when "bloody Mary" burned more than three hundred Protestant heretics. By the end of Mary's reign, England was more Protestant than it had been at the beginning.

Mandate of Heaven

the justification for the rule of the Zhou dynasty in China. The king was charged to maintain order as a representative of Heaven, which was viewed as an impersonal law of nature. a political theory of ancient China in which those in power were given the right to rule from a divine source in Chinese history, the divine approval thought to be the basis of royal authority the belief that the Chinese king's right to rule came from the gods

Indulgence

the remission of part or all of the temporal punishment in purgatory due to sin; granted for charitable contributions and other good deeds. Indulgences became a regular practice of the Christian church in the High Middle Ages, and their abuse was instrumental in sparking Luther's reform movement in the sixteenth century. a pardon releasing a person from punishments due for a sin Within the Catholic Church, this is the remission punishment for ones sins. Such as for a sin that has already been forgiven by God but which still carries with it some kind of punishment. Centuries ago the Church would sell certificates that would get a person out of purgatory. This practice contributed to the Protestant reformation. A pardon given by the Roman Catholic Church in return for repentance for sins

Middle Passage

the route in between the western ports of Africa to the Caribbean and southern U.S. that carried the slave trade. the sea journey undertaken by slave ships from West Africa to the West Indies. A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas as the middle leg of the triangular trade. During the next two centuries, the trade in slaves increased by massive proportions (see Map 14.5). An estimated 275,000 enslaved Africans were exported to other countries during the sixteenth century, more than two-thirds of them to the Americas. The total climbed beyond a million in the seventeenth century and jumped to 6 million in the eighteenth century, when the trade spread from West and Central Africa to East Africa. Even during the nineteenth century, when Great Britain and a number of other European countries attempted to end the slave trade, nearly 2 million humans were exported. It has been estimated that altogether as many as 10 million African slaves were transported to the Americas between the early sixteenth and the late nineteenth centuries. As many as 2 million were exported to other areas during the same period. One reason for these astonishing numbers, of course, was the tragically high death rate. In what is often called the Middle Passage, the arduous voyage from Africa to the Americas, losses were frequently appalling. Although figures on the number of slaves who died on the journey are almost entirely speculative, during the first shipments, up to one-third of the human cargo may have died of disease or malnourishment. Even among crew members, mortality rates were sometimes as high as one in four. Later merchants became more efficient and reduced losses to about 10 percent. Still, the future slaves were treated inhumanely, chained together in the holds of ships reeking with the stench of human waste and diseases carried by vermin.

Encomienda

the system by which Spain first governed its American colonies. Holders of an encomienda were supposed to protect the Indians as well as use them as laborers and collect tribute but in practice exploited them. To produce these goods (gold and silver), colonial authorities initially tried to rely on local sources of human labor. Spanish policy toward the Indians was a combination of confusion, misguided paternalism, and cruel exploitation. Confusion arose over the nature of the Indians. Queen Isabella declared the Indians to be subjects of Castile and instituted the encomienda system, under which European settlers received grants of land and could collect tribute from the indigenous peoples and use them as laborers.