HIST 180 - The Atlantic Revolutions: The Glorious and American Revolutions
Themes
- Application of Enlightenment ideals will vary greatly based on the society, culture, and historical context in which they are enacted. - Emergence of civil society as a challenge to autocratic hegemony. Broadening ideas of rights, representation, and citizenship. - Enlightened despots in S, C, and E Europe cherry-pick parts of the Enlightenment that expand their power, but grow wary of such ideas when their revolutionary potential is realized (1770s-1790s) - Limited revolutions (Glorious and American) vs. totalizing revolutions (French and Haitian). The Glorious and American Revolutions were relegated to the political sphere, whereas the French and Haitian Revolutions sought to reshape cultural, economic, and social life as well as transform politics. - In the French and Haitian case: the masses in front of even the most revolutionary figures - Outline: Glorious Revolution; the American Revolution; The French Revolution; the Haitian Revolution; the Napoleonic thermidor and export of revolutionary ideals.
Conclusions
- Drawing on Enlightenment ideals, revolutionaries sought to fashion an equitable society by instituting governments that were responsive to the needs and interests of the peoples they governed. - To justify their policies, revolutionaries attacked monarchical and aristocratic regimes and argued for popular sovereignty—the notion that legitimate political authority resides not in kings, but rather in the people who make up a society. - These revolutions were limited however, in comparison to the ones we will study next week: revolution (coup) in Britain was conservative and sought to reestablish the power of the parliament over the king; in the US it was focused on independence and establishing rule through limited popular sovereignty. These revolutions were purely political revolutions that did nothing to alter the social or cultural constructs on which society rested. By contrast, the Revolutions in Haiti and France (next week) were much more totalizing and looked to overhaul not only existing political and economic order but also the very social and cultural norms on which the old regime rested. - These limited revolutions were a success: they caused limited upheaval and bore out stable states, but they were above all limited (most people's lives remained the same).
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
- Improved government efficiency. - Improved the condition of the oppressed peasantry by restricting punishments that nobles could enact. *Will not go as far as freeing the serfs (or even debating it) - Prohibits harsh punishments: torture, beatings, and mutilation. - Catherine's supplications - Patron of the arts and in constant communication with the philosophes. - Enlightened rule wanes when a peasant rebellion erupts in her country led by Pugachev (1773-1775). - 1790: Exile of Alexander Radishchev, the great Russian social critic.
Revolution in Britain (1)
- Key perquisites: growing middling strata who demanded rights, vibrant civil society in rapidly growing urban centers, and rising literacy (from 10 to ~25% in the last century). - English Civil War (1642-1649) *Rising frustration with taxation without consulting parliament and the Monarchy's support of an ornate religion. *Zealous Calvinists within Parliament will drive the push against the Monarchy, namely Charles I. *Between 1642 and 1649, Royalists ("Cavaliers") and Parliamentary forces ("Roundheads") under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell are at war. *Charles is tried for tyranny and beheaded in 1649 - Cromwell's regime took power but became a dictatorship in 1653, when he dismissed Parliament. - Unpopular because of his persecution of Catholics. - After his death in 1658 Parliament restored the monarch (1660), Charles II. - Conflicts between Parliament and the monarchy over taxation and religion continued. - Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) *Parliamentary frustration grows toward James II, in particular his relationship with the Catholic Church (James wants the Test Acts repealed). *Relatively bloodless in England: with the help of parliament William of Orange invades England with 463 ships and 14,000 men. The royalists had a 30,000 strong army but it reduced to 4,000 as a result of desertions. *Parliament deposes King James II and invites his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William of Orange to assume the throne. *Agree that the king would rule in cooperation with parliament, granting nobles and some of the middle-class representation in government affairs. *Uprisings take place in Ireland and Scotland which are put down. - Bill of Rights (1689): 1) laid down the power of the monarch, the rights of Parliament (including regular meetings, free elections, free speech), and individual rights (freedom from cruel punishment, right to arms [for Protestants], no taxation without Parliamentary approval). *Established the principle of a social contract between the monarch and the people (represented by parliament). - Limited revolution: politically it was an imperial coup orchestrated by higher-ups in parliament; it did little to expand suffrage; socially it had little to no impact; and culturally it was conservative and actually reduced religious tolerance. Today it has been championed as a revolution for liberty.
Building an Independent State
- Organized a state based on Enlightenment principles. - 1787 constitutional convention put forth the US Constitution, ratified in 1789 with a promise of a Bill of Rights. - Constitution established a government based on popular sovereignty and separation of powers. - Bill of rights conferred freedom of speech, press, religion, etc... - Did not grant rights to landless men, women, slaves, indigenous peoples, or those under 21. Rights that would not be granted for most until the 20th century.
American Revolution
- Revolutionary ideals found fertile ground in the N American colonies. - No sign before 1763 that NA would be a center of revolution: most happily regarded themselves as British subjects and enjoyed the privileges and protections that afforded them (trade, rights, protection). - The colonists had also come to enjoy a degree of independence from Britain due to distance and the fact that most had their own governmental institutions. - The French and Indian War (1754-1763): British forces wage an immensely expensive war in the colonies that will become part of the 7 Years War. - In order to recoup losses for the 7 Years War, British parliament levied new taxes (e.g. the Sugar Act [64], the Stamp Act [65], the Townsend Act [67], and the Tea Act [73]). - Colonists were also expected to provide accommodation to British troops (Quartering Act [65]). - Referencing the Constitution of 1689, Colonists claimed that they could not be taxed by the British parliament or crown because they had no representation in parliament. - Colonists resisted by boycotting British goods and by 1775 British troops and a colonial militia skirmished at Lexington, MA. - On July 4 1776, the Continental Congress passed a Declaration of Independence that asserted "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness," echoing Locke. - The declaration also declared the colonies free and independent states with full power to levy war and conclude peace. - British advantages: world's best navy, divided loyalties among the colonists, money, population, native Americans; disadvantages: an ocean away - American advantages: good leadership, homefront, guerilla tactics, exploited foreign interest (French). - Americans will emerge victorious at Yorktown in 1781 and sign a peace with the British in September 1783 (Peace of Paris). - In 1787 they formed a state that reflected Enlightenment principles guided by a constitution.
Frederick II (1740-1786)
- Ruler of Prussia - Befriended and even housed Voltaire when he was exiled from France. - Host philosophes and imperial salons. - Policies *Religious toleration: all religions enjoy equal protection of the law (excepting Jews). *Legal code abolishes torture and capital punishment. *Provides compulsory education. - Military genius.
Political Impacts on the Continent
- With the exception of France, revolutionary ideas found less fertile ground on the European continent among the masses. - Why no revolution in S, C, or E Europe: smaller civil society, less urbanization, smaller middling strata, and with the exception of Germany low literacy. - In many cases rulers were more "enlightened" than their constituents. In reality, they are trying to use elements of the enlightenment to expand their own power (knowledge of their population, more effectively mobilize all of their population, greater tolerance for skeptical reasons). - Most rulers treated philosophes with skepticism because they questioned established authority. - Most philosophes however did not go as far to denounce God or advocate for democracy (which they considered rule of the mob), which left some common ground for monarchs and philosophes. - In most of Europe the 18th century is the age of enlightened despots.
