HIST 202 EXAM 3 ID TERMS

Social Darwinism

When: 18th c (1809-1882) Charles Darwin On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) Advocated by Herbert Spencer and others in the late 19th and early 20th c Where: Europe and the United States What: the theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals Significance: Natural selection and survival of the fittest applied to society. The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. - used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism and to discourage intervention and reform. - monopoly in capitalism and a large gap between the rich 1% and the middle and lower classes.

Liberalism

When: 17th century (John Locke) Did not refer to a specific political doctrine until the 19th century Where: Europe Russia What: A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity. The liberals were eager to curb the states' restrictions on trade, destroy the churches stranglehold on education, and give more people the right to vote - all while preserving the free market, the Christian churches, and the rule of law. Proponents of liberalism insisted on individual's right to think, speak, act, and vote as he or she pleased, so long as no harm came to people or property. Liberals feared that powerful states would become corrupt or tyrannical and held that the proper role of government was to foster civil liberties and promote legal equality. Significance: - Nationalism was a cause that was dear to liberals and radicals. - Liberals in the United States. -Boxer Rebellion -The Great Depression -Russian Revolution in 1917. Eventually leads to civil war.

Karl Marx

When: 18th century (1818-1883) Where: Germany/ England What: German economist, philosopher and socialist who proved to be the most important Restoration-era radical. He is remembered as the Father of Socialism because he made socialism a political movement. He was tired of capitalism, which he believed was the latest form of oppression and exploitation. To overcome this he suggested getting rid of social classes and creating equality. He believed that society went from feudalism to capitalism to socialism to communism. Significance: - He came up with Marxism and wrote the Communist Manifesto, which calls all workers of all nations to unite in overthrowing capitalism. His writing on communism laid the foundation for later political leaders like V.I. Lenin and Mao Tse-tung to impose communism in Russia and China. These countries still practice communism today. - Worked against the Industrial Revolution and inspired socialist movements and took root in unions. He believed that the industrial revolution allowed the rich to get richer and the poor to get poorer. He went against the norm.

Sigmund Freud

When: Mid 19th c - early 20th c (1856-1939) Where: born in the Czech Republic. Lived in Vienna. What: Freud excavated layers of the human subconscious, where irrational desires and fears lay buried. He did not believe human nature was as simple as it had seemed to enlightenment thinkers. He asserted that humans were driven by sexual desires and childhood traumas. He was an Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. he is remembered as the Father of psychoanalysis. Exploring the subconscious Dreams Sexual desires Significance: - Modernism - Human development > Id, Ego, Superego. Psychoanalytic stages. Freud's dark vision would become central to the 20th c's understanding of the self and human development. -Freud's most obvious impact was to change the way society thought about and dealt with mental illness. Before psychoanalysis, which Freud invented, mental illness was almost universally considered 'organic'; that is, it was thought to come from some kind of deterioration or disease of the brain. Research on treating mental illness was primarily concerned-at least theoretically-with discovering exactly which kinds of changes in the brain led to insanity. Many diseases did not manifest obvious signs of physical difference between healthy and diseased brains, but it was assumed that this was simply because the techniques for finding the differences were not yet sufficient. psychoanalysis has enormous historical significance. Mental illness affects an large proportion of the population, either directly or indirectly, so any curative scheme as widely accepted as was Freud's is important to our history in general. - Freud gave people a new way of thinking about why they acted the way they did. He created a whole new way of interpreting behaviors: one could now claim that a person had motives, desires, and beliefs-all buried in the unconscious-which they knew nothing about but which nonetheless directly controlled and motivated their conscious thought and behavior. This hypothesis, derived from but independent of Freud's psychiatric work, was the truly radical part of his system of thought.

Decembrist Revolt

When: early - mid 19th c (1825-1855) Where: St. Petersburg Russia What: The Decembrists (a group of military officials) in St. Petersburg staged a revolt against Tsar Nicholas I, who was a reactionary (not a liberal). These rebels were liberals who felt threatened by the new ruler's conservative views and they wanted a free Russian state with a federal government and constitution instead of government under the tsar. Nicholas established orthodoxy (very little religious tolerance), autocracy (no Parliament - Nicholas is only ruler), and nationality (Russia is for Russians) Significance: -The rebels lacked organized leadership and were defeated by the tsar's forces and Nicholas I implemented a variety of new regulations to prevent the spread of the liberal movement in Russia. Inspired related uprising in Russia that were also easily put down. Liberalism now appeared a major threat so Nicholas initiated a nation-wide censorship, placing tighter controls on all aspects of public life and set a network of spies and informers to enforce censorship. The restriction forced the people's loalty to the tsar and the Russian Orthodox church. A form of Russian nationalism developed, but this later led to racist suppression of minority groups. - Tsar Nicholas I demanded that the dispute be resolved in favour of the Orthodox Church and sent his representative Menshikov to Constantinople (now Istanbul) with demands on the Porte (the Turkish court). These demands were not met however and Nicholas took the opportunity to mobilise the Russian army against Turkey, which at this point was beginning to lose its grip on its empire. Nicholas referred to Turkey and its weakening empire as the 'sick man of Europe' and historians have argued that he had ambitions of his own in the eastern Mediterranean. The British and French, for their part, were concerned about Russian expansion in the region and the potential threat to their trade routes.

Telegraph

When: early 19th c (Developed in the 1830s and 1840s) Where: sent first message form Washington to Baltimore What: the telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse (1791-1872) and other inventors. The telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication. It worked by transmitting electrical signals over a wire laid between stations. Significance: - Because the telegraph was a device that used electrical signals to send messages quickly over long distances using Morse code and a telegraph cable was established across the Atlantic, the world was more connected. - The civil war

Great Depression

When: early 20th - mid 20th c Where: America (New York) and Europe What: a huge crash in the stock market result of WWI A time of utter economic disaster; started in the United States in 1929 Significance: - the American stock market collapsed, plunging not only the American economy but also international financial and trading systems into crisis. European investors heavily affected, which negatively affects the European economy. After the Great War, European nations were left in deep debt as they struggled to rebuild their economies and pa off war debts. To restore stability, Europeans borrowed heavily from the United States, which ultimately resulted in bank closures. -Financial turmoil produced a major contraction of world trade. -The Great Depression soon spawned rethinking of the tenet that markets should govern themselves, which is the core of laissez-faire liberalism. LIBERALISM -The typical response was strike, march, protest. It led people to question if liberalism was worth it. It made my consider communism or fascism.

Joseph Stalin

When: early 20th - mid 20th c Where: Russia What: Lenin's successor. Communist dictator of the Soviet Union. Significance: - He implemented the "5 year plan" which achieved some significant success in the economy and led to a cultural revolution. He murdered and exiled a lot of older educated people such as doctors, lawyers, etc. which led to the country being led primarily by young people.

Communism

When: early 20th c Where: China and Russia What: Redistribution of income at a national level. the idea that society should be based on public ownership and communal control of property Significance: - Stalin and Communist Russia. Religion and family life suffered greatest in Russia after the Communist takeover. Religion was considered an enemy of the Communist state. Respect for the sacredness and indissolubility of marriage was disregarded and easy divorce was made possible. A couple simply signed a governmental paper to get married or divorced. Children also had to spy on their parents and if they practiced any religion they were to report them to the Communist police. LDS missionaries are not allowed to proselyte. - Communist China. current state -cold war and the Red Scare

Fascism

When: early 20th c Where: Italy, Japan (kind of) What: a political philosophy, movement, or regime (such as that of the Fascisti) that exalts nation and often race above the individual and that stands for a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition. Focuses on Nationalism, militarism, omnipotence of the state. A totalitarian form of government where one person rules. Significance: - led to the invasion of Ethiopia, which failed and wounded Italy's pride and caused them to be kicked out of the League of Nations for breaking international law. Mussolini - Japanese Fascism is a controversial topic. Japan was an empire with limited democracy and a strong military where military hierarchy became increasingly important and Zaibastu (state-controlled cartels) controlled the economy. -Nazism is a form of fascism

Herero-Namaqua Genocide

When: early 20th c Where: Modern-day Namibia What: Herero and namaqua warriors fought against the German occupation. They were trapped together with their women and children in the Namib desert. The Germans shot anyone who came out. Significance: - This has since been labeled as genocide - When the war finally ended on 31 March 1907, the Herero and Nama societies as they had existed before the war were completely destroyed. In the end the German war against the Nama and Herero had claimed between 65,000-80,000 Herero lives and around 10,000 Nama lives, almost completely annihilating both peoples. The survivors lost their homelands, their cattle and their freedom. They became exploited wage labourers for the Germans, and the British who came after. The genocide of the Herero and the Nama is an incredibly important but also brutal part of Namibia's history. Since the early 1990s, the Herero and Nama people have been working hard to ensure that this brutal crime that was committed against them is not forgotten.

Armenian Genocide

When: early 20th c Where: Ottoman Empire What: Armenian Genocide, campaign of deportation and mass killing conducted against the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire by the Young Turk government. The massacre of Armenians conducted by Turkey during WWI. 1.5 million Armenians are killed Eyewitnesses recall seeing mountains of skulls Ottomans fear Armenian collaboration with Russia because they are Christian Shot or forced to march to Syrian Desert. Significance: - Due to the Ottoman wartime alliance with Germany, many German military officers, diplomats, and relief workers witnessed firsthand the atrocities committed against Armenians. Their reactions ranged from horror and formal protests to, in some instances, tacit support of the Ottomans. This generation of Germans would carry the memory of these violent events with them into the 1930s and 40s, coloring their view of actions against Jews in under the Nazis. - Tens of thousands of orphans, however, found some refuge in the protection of foreign missionaries.

Treaty of Versailles

When: early 20th c Where: Versailles, France (signed) What: On June 28, 1919, Germany and the Allied Nations (including Britain, France, Italy and Russia) signed the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the war. Treaty particularly known for its harsh reparations towards the Germans after World War I. Significance: - Ended WWI - Germans didn't do what they signed to do. -League of Nations. The military and general terms of the Treaty of Versailles both concerned weakening Germany as a country, and the establishing of the League of Nations. Germany's army was to be no more than 100,000 soldiers serving at any one time. Germany was also not allowed an air force and her navy was limited to six warships (Godfrey, 2013). The most significant of the general terms of the Treaty was clause 231, which stated "Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected" (Facing History, 2014). Most of the other general terms of the Treaty regarded the formation of the League of Nations. -Germany's overseas colonies were given to the League of Nations. What this meant for Germany was that many of its best regions for farming and production, were now gone. For example, West Prussia and Upper Silesia, which was some of the country's best farmland and most abundant coal fields, respectively, were both given to Poland which meant that Germany would struggle even more to regain any of its former economic footing. In terms of financial reparations, Germany had to pay a sum of "£6.6 billion - in instalments, until 1984" (Clare, 2014), a vast some of money for a country just defeated in a war and robbed of some of its best land to pay. -• US never joins League of Nations • The new Weimar Republic is saddled with huge debt, angry population, territorial and material losses, etc. • Bolsheviks officially win civil war in December 1922, form Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) • Numerous new democratic European states created, but not all stable. Economic problems abound, authoritarian regimes take over many of them. • Irish War for Independence (1919-1921) results in Britain's loss of Ireland. • Italy displeased with results of treaty, great unrest and social upheaval o 1922: Mussolini and Fascists take power • Puppet states set up in Middle East, oil concessions granted to European Nations • Mustafa Kemal Ataturk leads turkey in nationalist revolution, creates modern republic of Turkey. • China resents lack of territory awarded, nationalist May 4 movement created, won't sign Treaty

Maji-Maji Revolt

When: early 20th c (1905-1906) Where: German East Africa What: In late July 1905, The Matumbi people decided to declare war on the Germans by destroying a symbol of their oppression under German rule, the cotton plant. The common thread in many of the revolts, was the role of the maji; Kinjikitle's medicine that promised to turn German bullets to water. Heavily armed, the German soldiers purposefully eradicated the rebels food sources, so as to weaken their men. While not an initial tactic, the famine following the Maji Maji Rebellion was orchestrated deliberately by German forces. This, along with superior weapons, lead to the brutal destruction of the African rebels. Significance: - Herero-Namaqua Genocide - The most significant challenge to colonial rule during the brief period when Germany had African colonies. A prophet—Kinjikitile Ngwale—emerged, who claimed to know the secret to a sacred liquid that could repel German bullets called "Maji Maji," which means "sacred water." Thus, armed with arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors of the rebellion began to move against the Germans, attacking at first only small German outposts, such as at Samanga, and destroying cotton crops. The rebellion spread throughout the colony, eventually involving 20 different ethnic groups all of whom wished to dispel the German colonizers. As such it was the first significant example of interethnic cooperation in the battle against colonial control. - A broad uprising against German officials in East Africa. Germans brutally suppressed the revolt. Although the Maji Maji Uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, it forced Kaiser Wilhelm's government in Berlin to institute reforms in their African colonies as they realized the potential cost of their brutality. Furthermore, the uprising would become an inspiration for later 20th Century freedom fighters who called for similar interethnic unity as they struggled against European colonial rule. - There was massive destruction of property (villages and crops were burnt down when the Germans applied the scorched earth policy), which led to a severe famine. This coupled with the massive loss of life left the Africans at a huge disadvantage that is still seen today. It also led to the idea that the Germans were superior to the Africans, which has resulted in racism. After the war, local power was primarily bestowed upon those loyal to the Germans during the rebellion, which strengthened German power.

Balfour Declaration

When: early 20th c (1917) Where: Palestine What: A document which allowed Jews to return to Palestine, which was dubbed the "national home for the Jewish people." Significance: - The Balfour Declaration led to mass emigration of Jews during the period between the world wars, which resulted in the dispossession and exile of the Palestinian people from their own land. This led to a lot of violence between Jews and Arabs in Palestine, which continues today. The Balfour Declaration laid the foundation for Jewish-Arab enmity that is now posing a major threat to the world peace. - Zionism: a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now) the development and protection of a Jewish nation in what is now Israel.

Lithograph

When: invented in the late 18th c Where: invented in Germany What: A print made by printing from stone. Significance: easy to print lots of the same image; even in color - Popular culture - Middle class art lovers who could not afford original paintings eagerly purchased lithographs and mass-produced engravings -advertisement (makes consumer products possible) Posters (propaganda) Sports Comics

Peter the Great

When: late 17th - early 18th c (1689-1725) Where: Russia. Traveled to the Europe to learn about the west. What: Russian czar who is best known for his extensive reforms in an establish Russia as a great nation. He Westernized Russia and built up a massive Russian army. Decides to reform Russia in same way Forced Modernization Rules as an absolute monarch Conquers Ottoman, Finnish, and Swedish land Religious tolerance If you are good at what you do you can progress Major reforms - table of ranks, western military technology, western advisers/craftsmen invited to Russia, religious tolerance, forces European fashion on the nobles, state-sponsored trade, heavier taxes on the peasants Significance: - He forced modernization and ruled as an absolute monarch. - He built St. Petersburg and increased overseas trade. He also conquered Ottoman, Finnish, and Swedish land. Both of these feats made Russia larger and stronger. -Decembrist Revolt

Romanticism

When: late 18th - 19th c Where: Europe England France Germany United States What: the return of emotion in reactions to the rationality of the enlightenment. A movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual. 19th century artistic movement that appealed to emotion rather than reason. Significance: - Break away from the enlightenment. Focused on individual experiences and interpretation of the world. Lead to a culture of rebellion - romantics searched for deeper, subconscious appeal. This lead to art work such as... that people are still drawn to and admire today.

Charles Fourier

When: late 18th - early 18th c (1722-1837) Where: France What: French social theorist who advocated a reconstruction of society based on communal associations. He is considered the grandfather of socialism. Lost his fortune during the French Revolution and became a writer and intellectual. He believed that society should be reconstructed to be based on the idea of the natural passions of man. He believed that if people did the job that fit them the best they would work hard and be happy. This is what he built his utopian society off of. Rich people would still exist, but merchants would not. He didn't want to suppress diversity. He thought that capitalism and industrialization was making people bored and selfish. Utopian society = phalanx Most visionary and influential of all Restoration-ear alternative movements Significance: - He was responding to the changes in society that were brought about by industrialization and capitalism. Fourier's thinking did not really change the world in that it was not adopted by any governments. However, it did have a major influence on thinkers of his time. >Influenced other socialists through his utopian socialism, such as, Karl Marx, who read Fourier with great care and there are many remnants of utopian thought in his work. Karl Marx came up with Marxism and wrote the Communist Manifesto, which calls all workers of all nations to unite in overthrowing capitalism. His writing on communism laid the foundation for later political leaders like V.I. Lenin and Mao Tse-tung to impose communism. >In Russia, his work fired the imaginations of the young writer Fyodor Dostoevsky. While Dostoevsky supported just economic arrangements for workers and the peasantry, he also vehemently rejected the atheism and materialism that underpinned so many socialist ideals. - Father of Feminism -Transcendentalists

Tenskwatawa

When: late 18th - early 19th c (1775-1836) Where: America What: Native American Shawnee prophet that led an extensive revival of traditional Native American culture and religion after having a dream in which he went to a heaven where the virtuous enjoyed the traditional Shawnee way of life and a hell where evildoers suffered punishment. More revelations followed and he stitched together a new social gospel that urged disciples to abstain from alcohol and return to traditional customs. He promised freedom from the white men. Significance: - His teaching resemble the beliefs of the Ghost Dancers that would become popular later in the 19th c. He exhorted Indians to reduce their dependence on European trade goods and to sever ties to Christian missionaries. He told them to return to traditional dress, hunting technique, and culture. He promised that if they would do this the dear would return in abundance and Indians killed in conflict with colonial intruders would be resurrected and Americans would depart from the country. This supported uprisings against the Americans. - His brother, Tecumseh believed in his teachings and helped circulate the message of Indian renaissance among Indian villages from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. He did more than just spread the message. He linked them to the idea of a renewed and enlarged Indian confederation and he preached the need for Indian unity and urged Indians to resist any American attempts to get them to sell more land. In response, thousands of followers renounced their ties to colonial ways and prepare to combat the expansion of the United States. In addition, he aligned himself with the British and recruited many Indians to the British cause, but the British withdrew their support and left them to fend for themselves. He unified the Indians.

Shaka

When: late 18th - early 19th c (1787-1828) Where: the Zulu Kingdom in southern Africa What: Fierce African war leader who used terror to intimidate his subjects. He was known for his reforms and infamous for his brutality. Significance: - Mfecane movements ("The Crushing;" a period of widespread chaos and warfare among indigenous ethnic communities in southern Africa) were initiated as king Shaka created the militaristic Zulu Kingdom his forces caused a wave of warfare and disruption to sweep to other peoples. The movement of people caused many tribes to try to dominate those in new territories, leading to widespread warfare. Mfecane refers to the period when Mzilikazi reigned and ordered widespread killing and devastation to remove all opposition. The whole region became nearly depopulated. This type of tribal warfare is still seen to some extent today. -No one dared oppose him and he was able to conquer lots of territory in Africa. He drove populations out of the region and forced small clans to join a larger community. He initiated military innovations and created a large centralized warrior state. He became a symbol for African unity. - He strengthened the Zulu Kingdom. The British were the most successful imperialistic power in Africa. The imperialist policies of British created wars with the Africans. For example, Boers hated the British repressive policies and clashed with them. Zulus also clashed with British. In both wars, Britain won and the Africans were defeated. -Zimbabwe

Nationalism

When: late 18th c (French Revolution) Where: France is the first to experiment with it. France> a nation built on popular sovereignty Germany> a nation built upon language. unification in 1871. etc. What: A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country or a natural grouping of people based on ethnicity and language. It is a set of invented and fabricated traditions and an imagined community. Significance: - During the 19th c nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history and is listed among the top causes of WWI - Nationalism leads to racism and genocide. This is seen in events such as the holocaust and the Armenian Genocide. - Italian Fascism. Mussolini -Antisemitism in Germany. Hitler

Popular Culture

When: late 19th - early 20th c Where: Europe and America What: Popular culture emerged and delivered affordable and accessible forms of art and entertainment to the masses. The world of popular culture expanded mainly from new urban settings, technological innovations, and increased leisure time. Non-elite members of society could now enjoy entertainment that was now available to the masses. cultural patterns that are widespread among a society's population always existed Ephemeral > exists one day but not the next consumer oriented Mass production Mass media give culture to the masses supplanted, co-existed with forms of entertainment Significance: - The kind of culture one consumed became a reflection of one's real or desired status in society, a central part of one's identity. - Education became more universal - It strengthened interactions between people and increased nationalism.

Carl Peters

When: late 19th - early 20th c Where: Germany and London to East Africa What: a German colonial ruler, explorer, politician and author, a major promoter of the establishment of the German colony of East Africa and proponent of Social Darwinism Forms society for German colonization Conquers land in East Africa Reichskommissar in East Africa >abuses local girls Returns as a hero Significance: - leads to the scramble for Africa. Opens up Africa. Gains in territory. Led to the African holocaust - sends Germans around the world. German settlers are better. German imperialism. 1. He formed the Society for German Colonization. This furthered German interests in colonizing lands in Africa to establish itself as a modern empire and leads to the colonization of East Africa. After returning to Germany in 1914 as a hero, he sends Germans to many different lands to settle and make footholds in those lands. The idea was to preserve German language and culture in foreign lands and set up enduring colonies there. This failed, which is significant because it exemplifies the idea that time and space separate a colony from its host country, leading to different political systems and cultures (this could be a stretch for an answer, but whatever). -The Maji-Maji revolt

Mustafa Kemal

When: late 19th - early 20th c (1881-1938) 1922 Where: Turkey What: Nationalist, army officer, and war hero Leader of Turkish nationalists who overthrew the last Ottoman sultan Significance: - Drove out the occupying Greek forces in Turkey. He made some great reforms as the president. e introduces the Turkish language to the Latin alphabet and westernizes Turkey in a way. - Of all the postwar anticolonial movements, none was more successful or more committed to Europeans models than that of Mustafa Kemal, who helped forge the modern Turkish nation-state. harnessed Turkish nationalism and used it in opposition to Greek troops who had been sent to enforce the peace treaty. Reconquered most of Anatolia and the area around Istanbul and secured international recognition for the new state at the Treaty of Lausanne. With the Ottoman Empire gone, Kemal and his followers moved to build a state based on Turkish national consciousness by deposing the sultan, abolishing Ottoman caliphate, and proclaiming Turkey a republic whose authority would be an elected House of Assembly. Kemal insisted that the people adopt European-style surnames. He is known as the "father of the Turks" In forging the Turkish nation, he looked to construct a European style secular state and eliminate Islam's hold over civil and political affairs. The Turkish elite replaced Muslim religious law with the Swiss civil code, instituted the western (Christian) calendar, and abolished the once-powerful dervish religious orders, and he suppressed Arabic and Persian words from Turkish and substituted Roman script for Arabic letters.

Boxer Rebellion

When: late 19th - early 20th c (1898-1901) Where: China What: an uprising of liberals in China because they feared foreign influences and believed the gods were angry about foreign presence and Christian activity. Significance: - Empress Dowager China > corruption/more modern> exiles reformers> sun yat-sen > liberal nationalist Chinese intellectuals > guomindang > qing dynasty gone > dictatorship> communism Destabilized China, which leads tot he end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-Sen forms alliances with warlords which leads to an establishment of a dictatorship that fought a long civil war with communists. -The Boxer Uprising, which was aimed at ending foreign influence in the country, was eventually suppressed by a foreign army made up of an 8 Nation Alliance including Japanese, European, and American troops combined with forces of Qing soldiers. This rebellion laid the ground work for the military intervention of the imperialist powers.

Adolf Hitler

When: late 19th - mid 20th c Where: Germany What: was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party and the Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer ("Leader") of Nazi Germany. Significance: -defied the Treaty of Versailles - Influenced by Hitler, Mussolini instituted discrimination policies against the Jews in Italy. -Austrian born Dictator of Germany, implement Fascism and caused WWII and Holocaust. The Holocaust -He wrote Mein Kampf in which he blames the Jews for being responsible for all of the problems and evils of the world, particularly democracy, Communism, and internationalism, as well as Germany's defeat in the War. Jews were the German nation's true enemy, he wrote. They had no culture of their own, he asserted, but perverted existing cultures such as Germany's with their parasitism. As such, they were not a race, but an anti-race. He believed that Germany could stop the Jews from conquering the world only by eliminating them. He wanted to rebuild the German Reich. -Hitler ordered the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland in 1938. Hitler's army invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, sparking France and England to declare war on Germany. A Blitzkrieg (lightning war) of German tanks and infantry swept through most of Western Europe as nation after nation fell to the German war machine. In 1941, Hitler ignored a non-aggression pact he had signed with the Soviet Union in August 1939. Several early victories after the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, were reversed with crushing defeats at Moscow (December 1941) and Stalingrad (winter, 1942-43). The United States entered the war in December 1941. By 1944, the Allies invaded occupied Europe at Normandy Beach on the French coast, German cities were being destroyed by bombing, and Italy, Germany's major ally under the leadership of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, had fallen. -Holocaust: death of 6 million Jews. more on page 750

Benito Mussolini

When: late 19th - mid 20th c Where: Italy What: He was an Italian dictator who created the Fascist Party in 1919 and eventually held all the power in Italy as the country's prime minister from 1922 until 1943. Significance: - Italian Fascism served as a model for other countries -To his credit, Mussolini carried out an extensive public works program and reduced unemployment, making him very popular with the people -In 1935, determined to show the strength of his regime, Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. The ill-equipped Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes, and the capital, Addis Ababa, was quickly captured. Mussolini incorporated Ethiopia into the new Italian Empire. Italy was kicked out of the League of Nations for breaking international law. -Allies with Hitler

Cecil Rhodes

When: late 19th c Where: Britain to South Africa What: a British business man who went to Africa with his brother and created a diamond monopoly in South Africa. He served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony. He was one of the most committed British imperialists. Significance: -He establishes peace with Matabeleland in the area that came to be named Rhodesia. This opened up this area for mining exploration. - war between the Dutch and British -He sends Europeans to administer his mines in Rhodesia and this leads to de facto slave labor -Rhodes was the ultimate imperialist, he believed, above all else, in the glory of the British Empire and the superiority of the Englishman and British Rule, and saw it as his God given task to expand the Empire, not only for the good of that Empire, but, as he believed, for the good of all peoples over whom she would rule. Rhodes was both ruthless and incredibly successful in his pursuit of this scheme of a great British Empire. -the Berlin Conference - In death, Rhodes fortune allowed him to leave behind a legacy that is still relevant today. Rhodes left 6 million pounds, most of which went to Oxford University to establish the Rhodes scholarships to provide places at Oxford for students from the United States, the British colonies, and Germany. land was also left to eventually provide for a university in Rhodesia

Berlin Conference of 1884-85

When: late 19th c (1884) Where: Held to divide Africa What: The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 was a meeting between European nations to create rules on how to peacefully divide Africa among them for colonization. It was called to prevent war over African colonies and decide where borders will be between African locations. It divided tribal and language groups, regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Significance: - Before the Berlin Conference, most of the Africa was in the hands of Africans and Europeans had only colonized coastal areas. At the conference, the European countries divided up essentially all of Africa and decided which Europeans countries would get to own which parts of Africa, which doomed the African continent to decades of colonization by European powers. This harmed Africa because the colonial governments and economies were set up to help the Europeans not the Africans and because the Europeans divided Africa up however they wanted and did not take into he account the human geography of Africa (they divided the people of one ethnic group into different countries and made countries of multiple ethnic groups that did not get along) which led to ethnic conflict. The division of African lands by the Europeans without considering the tribal, ethnic and cultural boundaries led to series of tribal conflicts and it is still continuing today. - The Africans were treated as inferior by the Europeans and forced to preform manual labor. European countries were benefited and dominated Africa -Maji-Maji Revolt

Vladimir Lenin

When: late 19th c - early 20th c Where: Russia What: Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. Lenin was the founder of the Russian Communist Party, leader of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, and the architect, builder, and first head of the Soviet Union. Significance: - Joseph Stalin was Lenin's successor, who worked to control every aspect of life in the Soviet Union. He ruled as a dictator. -Russian founder of the Bolsheviks and leader of the Russian Revolution and first head of the USSR -If the Bolshevik Revolution is—as some people have called it—the most significant political event of the 20th century, then Lenin must for good or ill be regarded as the century's most significant political leader. Lenin was the leader of the radical socialist Bolshevik Party, which later became the Communist Party. The party's stated goal is to establish a new, modernised form of socialism in Russia. Immediate goals of the party include the nationalisation of natural resources, agriculture and large industries within the framework of a mixed economy that allows for the growth of small and medium enterprises in the private sector. The current state of Russia is a result of this. He established the Soviet Union. For the first several years of leadership, Lenin fought a civil war against the anti-Bolsheviks. He was a brutal leader. He stomped out all opposition, killing anyone who spoke out against his government. Like the Tsar before him, he forced peasants to join his army and also took food from the peasants to feed his soldiers. The civil war destroyed much of Russia's economy and millions of people starved to death. During the Russian Civil War, Lenin established War Communism. Under War Communism the government owned everything and soldiers could take what they needed from the peasants. After the war, with the economy failing, Lenin began the New Economic Policy. This new policy allowed some private ownership and capitalism. The Russian economy recovered under this new policy. When the Bolsheviks finally won the civil war, Lenin established the Soviet Union in 1922. It was the first communist country in the world.

Modernism

When: late 19th c - early 20th c (1890-1914) reactions to modernity Where: America, Spain, France, Germany (U.S. and Europe) What: Rejection of tradition and its motifs and the enlightenment and its faith in progress. The belief that the irrational, the inexplicable, the subconscious, and the darker sides of humanity needs expression as well, because the enlightenment has failed in achieving its ultimate goal. It breaks away from the idea that the world is perfect. There are problems that cannot be solved or understood. You cannot always know and you cannot get around nature. The sense of having broken with tradition. The intellectuals, artists, and scientists wrestled with uncertainty, increasing social tensions, and the acceleration of the pace change just as did revolutionaries and reformers. came to prominence in many fields. Physics, architecture, painting, social sciences, etc. originated from the experimental thinking shaped by turn-of-the-century anxieties and opportunities. Insecurity, paradox, experimentation Significance: - WWI - Freud - Darwinism - Pablo Picasso - modern art -controversial - it meant break the rules and sometimes terrorize the rule makers -artistic and literary movement sparked by a break with past conventions impressionism > trying to capture the light. emotion expressionism > emotional world. doesn't use image. thoughts and feelings. cubism> multiple contests and angles of single object -popular culture -the first political version of modernism - the liberal democratic one - confronted economic failings without sacrificing market economies or parliamentary democracy. It did so through wider participation in governance but also gave greater power to state regulatory bureaucracies.

Ghost Dancers

When: late 19th century(1870-1890) Where: United States What: the Ghost Dance was a religious ceremony introduced by the Paiute tribe that became popular and was adopted by many tribes. Wovoka had a dream that the Ghost Dance would make the buffalo return and that Indians (including their dead - redemption by ancestors) would be reborn to live in eternal happiness. The Ghost Dancers were Native Americans who believed that they would come back into power of their land and people if they refrained from alcohol and did the Ghost Dance. Significance: - The Ghost Dancers believed that the Ghost Dance would protect them in war. Because of this false confidence there were many uprisings. They shunned the white ways and were trying to fight the expansion of the United States. -In the long run, it made the white American imperialists look like they had more power and were superior to the Native Americans. -The current state of the Native Americans living on reserves was foreshadowed by this history. - Lead to the Battle of Wounded Knee, which was the massacre of Sioux Ghost Dancers. The massacre at Wounded Knee, during which soldiers of the US Army 7th Cavalry Regiment indiscriminately slaughtered hundreds of Sioux men, women, and children, marked the definitive end of Indian resistance to the encroachments of white settlers. The war between the white and the Native Americans was evidence that forced assimilation between the two races would not work. - The Ghost Dance, in the eyes of the white colonizers, was a sign of being uncivil. They believed that the Indians needed to be reformed and changed into a normal human being that worshiped God, spoke the same language and spoke the same as everyone else. The government required that tribal elders had to learn English and they enacted the Dawes act which introduced private land ownership to American Indians. The act slashed millions of acres from the existing land base, broke up tribes as communal units and threatened tribal sovereignty. -Maji-Maji Revolt

New Imperialism

When: mid 19th - early 20th c (1850-1914) Where: new imperialist powers = Germany, Italy, Belgium, U.S., and Japan What: A new wave of imperialism that did not include demographic catastrophes characteristic of old imperialism. New technology and tools of empire were used to conquer/subdue natives. Racial hierarchies (Social Darwinism) was a new characteristic. Nationalism played an extremely large role in the formation of colonizing empires. Significance: - the rise of a European centered world deepened rivalries within Europe and promoted instability there. Unification of Germany and Italy at the expense of France Austrian Empire smashed the old balance of power in Europe and new alliances were formed. Ethnic nationalism spread Britain, Germany, France, and Russia entered into a massive arms race. - Imperialism, or extending a country's power through military force, drew enormous strength from Darwin's theory of evolution. The late-nineteenth-century drive by European countries to create vast political empires abroad. competition, glory, social Darwinism, raise the lower peoples, desire of exotic places -Boxer Rebellion -Carl Peters and German imperialism -The growing popularity of the idea of racial hierarchies allowed Europeans to somewhat justify their conquer and exploitation of other peoples. The growth of nationalism and the desire to prove the strength of one's country led to more countries establishing colonies. -WWI

Taiping Rebellion

When: mid 19th c (1850-1864) Where: Qing china What: a peasant revolt in China that was a result of the Opium war and Nanjing treaty and strict policies. The people fought for a new era of economic and social justice. Taiping = "great peace" Significance: - Because of these visions, Hong Xiuquan believed he was called to rid the world of demons, which to Hong were the Manchu. He was successful in stirring up followers and tried to establish a Heavenly Kingdom without opium, alcohol, and had strict guidelines such as living segregated by gender. Tens of thousands of people joined the "Heavenly Kingdom," which made it a formidable force that conquered and settled many cities [Heavenly kingdom (no opium, alcohol; sexual segregation; strict guidelines)]. It led to a sense of nationalism and encouraged clinging to Chinese tradition and rejecting modern trends of the Europeans. - It was the largest rebellion in the history of China and it seriously weakened the Qing dynasty. To suppress the uprising the government was forced to rely more on foreigners, which opened up China even more to the west. This made it more vulnerable to being dominated by the West. -The strict moral code embraced by Tenskwatawa has uncanny parallels with that of Hong Xiuquan, the Taiping leader.

Crimean War

When: mid 19th c (1853-1856) Where: fought in the Crimean Peninsula (Black Sea area) What: war between the Russians and the British, French, and Ottomans over the dispute about the "Christian authority" in the Holy Land (Russia made an issue of the fact that the holiest sites in Christianity - Jerusalem, Bethlehem, etc - were under Turkish control) and because Russia wants a warm water port and had expanded into Turkish controlled land. Significance: - Treaty of Paris was signed and as part of the treaty, the Russian naval base was suppose to ave been run down to reduce Russian power in the Black Sea, but this never happened. -Conflict in which the Ottoman Empire halted Russian expansion near the Black Sea because Russia loses due to inferior technology and because everyone sides with the Ottomans.

Sepoy Rebellion

When: mid 19th c (1857) Where: India What: Unsuccessful rebellion against English rule by Indian troops known as Sepoy's because of certain practices that violated Muslim and Hindu religious customs Greased cartridge rumor (rumor that the English greased the cartridges with pig and cow fat. They had to bit off the ends of the lubricated cartridges and thus had oral contact with the lard. This was an insult to the Muslims and Hindus) Significance: - Sepoy is a derogatory term - The British won and the East India Company was abolished in favor of direct rule of India by the British government -demonstrated one of the many examples that was against modernity -Led to the building of more railways in India so that the British could keep more control.

Meiji Restoration

When: mid 19th c (1868) Where: Japan What: The restoration of the Emperor Meiji to power in Japan, overthrowing the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868. A group of reformers toppled the Tokugawa Shogunate and promised to return Japan to its mythic greatness. The Meiji ("Enlightened Rule") Emperor became the symbol of the new Japan. His reign was called the Meiji Restoration. The formation of industrialization and a non-democratic government. Significance: - By founding schools, initiating a propaganda campaign, and revamping the army to create a single national fighting force, the Meiji government promoted a political community that stressed linguistic and ethnic homogeneity, as well as superiority compared to others. In this way the Meiji leaders overcame age-old regional divisions, subdued local political authorities, and mobilized the country to face the threat from powerful Europeans. -They stressed slogans such as "rich country, strong army," the energetic new government unified the currency around the yen, created a postal system, introduced tax reforms, laid telegraph lines, formed compulsory foreign trade associations, launched savings and export campaigns, established an advanced civil service exam, began to build railroads, and hired thousands of foreign consultants. They also introduced a constitution - One of the Meiji period's remarkable achievements was the nation's economic transformation. The government banned the feudal system and allowed peasants to become small landowners, farmers improved their agrarian techniques and saw their standard of living rise. -Industrialization in Japan and non-democratic government leads to accelerated prosperity during WWI. This led to the formation of Zaibatsu (cartels), which led to a better control of the economy. The positive effect on the economy is responsible for the current state of Japan.

Franz Ferdinand

When: mid 19th c - early 20th c Where: Archduke of Austria - assassinated in Serbia What: Archduke of Austria-Hungary assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. Significance: - -A major catalyst for WWI. This assassination was the immediate cause of the first world war. Austria-Hungary blamed the Serbian government for the assassination. Germany supported Austria-Hungary while Russia, France, Belgium and Great Britain supported Serbia. The war was horrifying it killed more then 12 million people, empires collapsed and large parts of the worlds map was redrawn.

Caste War (Mayan Revolt)

When: mid 19th c - early 20th c (1847-1901) Where: Yucatan, Mexico What: a small band of Mayans, fed up with rising taxes and ebbing autonomy, used firearms to drive back white intruders and sparked a war. They wanted to dismantle old definitions of Indians as a caste - status that deprived the Indians of rights to defend their sovereignty on equal legal footing with whites and that also subjected Indians to special taxes ( legal caste system: peninsulares (officials born in Spain) were at the top, the criollos of Spanish descent in the next level, followed by the mestizo population (of mixed European-Amerindian descent), then descendants of the natives who had collaborated with the Spanish conquest of Yucatán, and at the bottom were the other native indios). It was a rebellion of the Maya people against the government of Mexico in 1847. Significance: - The Mexican government repressed the Mayans revolt, which leads to the Caste War. - The Cult of the Talking Cross. Inspired by the persistent Talking Cross sect, the Maya of Chan Santa Cruz remained actively hostile to the Mexican government well into the twentieth century. For many years, any non-Maya who entered the jungles of what is now the Mexican state of Quintana Roo was at risk of being killed outright. The combination of new economic factors, such as the entry of the Wrigley Company's chicle hunters into the region, and the political and social changes resulting from the Mexican Revolution, eventually reduced the hatred and hostility.

Neville Chamberlain

When: mid 19th c - mid 20th c Where: United Kingdom What: Prime minister of the United Kingdom who advocated peace and a policy of appeasement Significance: - He supported the policy of appeasement toward Adolf Hitler. He advocated "peace with honor." - In a futile attempt to sway Fascist Italy away from German influence, he agreed (April 16, 1938) to recognize Italian supremacy in Ethiopia and kept Great Britain out of the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), in which Italy was deeply involved. -Winston Churchill

Pierre de Brazza

When: mid 19th- early 20th c late 19th c (1875-1882) trading mission Where: Italian born. French citizen. Expeditions in Africa in the Congo region What: Italian-born French explorer and colonial administrator who formed trade agreements with natives in the Congo. He was named governor-general of the French Congo in 1886.[5] He was dismissed in 1897 due to poor revenue from the colony and journalist reports of conditions for the natives that some said were "too good." For his part Brazza had become somewhat disillusioned with the exploitative and repressive practices of the concessionary companies, which he had witnessed first-hand. Significance: - Trade agreements lead to outright colonization and exploitation of natives. The oppressive conditions in the French Congo continued for decades. -As governor he was removed from his position for being "too nice" to the natives. This caused complete supremacy over the natives after his removal. - the scramble for raw material and exploitation of African resources led to the Berlin Conference. The Congo River was a prime target for this new conquest

League of Nations

When: organized in the early 20th c - dissolved in the mid 20th c Where: headquarters in Switzerland What: The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes and to promote cooperation and peace. Significance: - United Nations, NATO, European Union - failed - WWII - League of Nations created by the Treaty • Goal = collective security, world peace • Germany was not allowed to join initially • Neither was Russia (later they refused to join, until they did join in 1934, then expelled in 1939) • And, US did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, and this was not part of the League.

Wahhabism

When: starts in mid 18th c (1744) Where: Arabian peninsula (birthplace of Muslim faith) and Najd. Saudi Arabia What: A conservative and intolerant form of Islam that is practiced in Saudi Arabia. It was a movement to revitalize Islam and return to Islamic tradition. It was a religious movement started by Wahhab who attacked lax religious practices Significance: - Became militant religious campaign and they sacked Shiite shrines and overran the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and tired to recreate a purer Islamic state. They became a major threat to the Ottoman Empire. It initiated a trend of rejecting and attacking any type of religion that was not purely Islamic. This is seen later in history in the Armenian genocide. -Today it is accused of being a source of global terrorism because it inspired the ideology of the Islamic State of Iraq and caused disunity in Muslim communities by labeling Muslims who disagreed with the Wahhabi definition of monotheism as apostates and justifying their killing. It led to the formation of ISIS. -