HIST289A Takeaways
A discovery of sources from classical antiquity in Latin Europe in the 12th century, as they were translated by Iberian, Byzantine, and Sicilian scholars from Greek and Arabic into languages such as Latin and Hebrew, led to a Renaissance period where scholarship was vastly expanded upon by scholars in pluralistic communities. Philosophers such as Maimonides and Ibn Rushd vastly expanded analysis on Aristotle's works, and despite not being Christian became authorities often cited by Christian philosophers. (Almería)
After the 1502 edict that forced all Muslims in Castile to convert or leave Spain, there were a large group of Muslims that had been forcibly converted to Christianity, known as moriscos. Despite their conversion, this group was still subjected to many restrictions and prejudices which manifested in the form of laws. For example, the script that moriscos used, known as aljamiado, was banned, the use of Arabic names were banned, moriscos were forced to send their children to priests to receive a Christian education, and morisco communities were disbanded to prevent the preservation of Muslim culture. Thus showing that moriscos, similar to conversos, were still treated differently even once they converted and became Christians. Religious equality did not mean equal treatment for ethic minorities. (Seville)
After the 1526 expelling of Mudejars in Aragon, the whole of Spain was ostensibly Christian. However, amid fears and concerns of Moriscos, or the Muslims converts, continuing to practice Islam, laws banning Arabic script as well as Muslim culture would culminate in their expulsion under the rule of Philip III from 1609 to 1614. Later idolized by Spanish nationalists in the 20th century, these events would be evoked in a search for a Unified, Grand, and Catholic Spain, notably under Francisco Franco. (León)
After the failure of the Marinid conquest against King Alfonso XI of Castile, the borders of Christian and Muslim territory remained relatively stagnant for the remainder of the fourteenth century. Continued conflict did occur within Christian families as they tried to claim power. In particular, Alfonso XI's sons Pedro (legitimate heir) and Enrique (illegitimate heir) fought over the Castilian crown. The war between these two half-brothers served as proxy conflict for the Hundred Years' War occurring between the French and English, as these nations provided military aid to Pedro (English support) and Enrique (French support). Enrique also relied on arousing anti-Jewish sentiment amongst nobles and powerful townspeople (in assemblies known as Cortes), which contributed to him to eventually winning the conflict between him and his half-brother and becoming King Enrique II of Castile. This anti-Jewish propaganda was successful because there was much hatred toward Jews at the time, primarily due to their role as tax collectors. (Toledo 2021)
Alfonso VI actively sought to foster closer alliances and cultural exchange between France and León-Castile. The growing popularity of pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela was another point of entry for French influence in northern Iberia. While Cataluña had always considered itself closely tied to France, other parts of Christian Iberia used this connection to enhance their status among other Latin European kingdoms.
Alfonso VII of León-Castile claimed the title of emperor based on his domination of other Iberian rulers, especially Christian ones. However, this domination was much less absolute than the title implied. Later historians memorialized him as "emperor" in part because of pro-Castilian sympathies, including an ongoing tendency toward neogothicism.
Although ethnic Arabs enjoyed the highest status in al-Andalus, few members of the conquering army actually had Arab ancestry. Most of the ruling elite were mawalis, assimilated to an Arab identity through longstanding service to Arab elites. This kind of assimilation, rather than immigration, was ultimately responsible for producing most of al-Andalus's "Arab" population.
Although many historians now argue that the models of convivencia vs. Reconquista or tolerance vs. intolerance aren't adequate for understanding medieval Spain, no new model has succeeded in replacing them.
Although rates of conversion to Islam in early al-Andalus were slow, there were certain incentives to do so, including religious conviction, social advancement, and the reduction of punishments. One could also change to a Muslim master as a slave, or if they were a woman, get a divorce through conversion; however, once a person converted to Islam, it was irreversible as long as they were under a Muslim ruler. (Valencia)
As Christian frontiers advanced to include former Jewish and Muslim communities, Christian monarchs began enforcing their own rules, which consisted of forming separate Muslim (morería) and Jewish (judería) quarters of the city. However, to avoid having to restart these communities from scratch, they offered incentives for the native population to stay, which included having their own form of governance and taxation in the form of aljamas. One of the common themes uniting this segregation between all religious leaders was to prevent interreligous sex. For the Christians, this mattered most when a Christian woman had sex with a non-Christian male, as the act was seen as the man dominating over the woman. This was not allowable as nothing could dominate over Christianity. (Granada)
Both Andalusi Muslim and dhimmi communities worried about their members assimilating into another religious identity. The Córdoban martyrs' movement was a minor but extreme response to the tensions some Andalusi Christians and Jews experienced as a result of their subordinate status.
Collaboration amongst Muslim, Jewish, and Christian thinkers, specifically the translations of classical texts, allowed for sharing of information throughout Al-Andalus and led to a renaissance of knowledge, known as the 12th-century renaissance. Also, the cooperation amongst the Almohads and the northern Christian kingdoms hints that this period of what some may call "religious intolerance" was not as simplistic as it may seem. (Oviedo)
Cortes were a kind of parliamentary body in Christian Iberian Kingdoms that were the product of Kings' Courts and could help control taxation and resolve succession crises. Their significance resides in their gateway role for towns to exercise significant political and economic power. Cortes were made up of leading members of individual towns, and the more influential towns were, the more they could manipulate affairs. (Málaga)
Despite a dearth of knowledge about germ theory and infectious disease, cities during the Black Death often enacted pragmatic measures based on observation that bear resemblance to modern preventative methods. This included establishing quarantines for infected individuals and limiting entry into cities. (Málaga)
Despite the Almohads' reputation for being intolerant, fanatical fundamentalists, there was an earlier flourishing of culture (as compared to the 15th century renaissance) thanks in part to their contributions. Iberian translators translated classical works from Arabic and Hebrew to Romance and Latin, making them more accessible for people in Latin Europe. Scholars like ibn Rushd contributed intellectually, both in Almohad territory and in Latin Europe. Lastly, there were artistic contributions, like the muwashshah, which indicated that the intended audience was trilingual (high levels of intellectualism). (Lisbon)
Despite the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in the wake of conflict between the descendants of Caliph Hisham II and al-Mansur, the taifa kingdoms allowed for a period of economic and cultural growth. This era extended to dhimmis in Andalusian society, most notably the viziers Samuel and Joseph ha-Nagid, although these positions of power could eventually lead to resentment and hostility towards dhimmis from the Muslim general population. (Valencia)
During Alfonso III's rule as King of Asturias, he exerted his legitimacy to the crown by emphasizing his lineage to the Visigothic rulers of past Iberia (which may or may not be true). Sources and scholars interpreted this message as Alfonso inherently claiming his believed right to govern and control the entire peninsula as the Visigoths had, leading to the rise of Reconquista ideology. The Andalusi caliphs did not view Alfonso's claim as much of a threat during the time, believing they were the rightful rulers of the peninsula. (Seville)
During the 13th century, the relationship between Christians and religious minorities became more confrontational though new religious orders like the Dominicans and Franciscans, who sought to use logic to prove false the elements of other faiths. At the same time, increasing Christian conquests made it necessary for Jews and Muslims to have legal and religious protections as they provided economic benefits and were a large part of the overall population; this was especially important during King Alfonso X's reign, where due to the absence of partible inheritance, there was infighting and economic pressure between the King and his younger siblings. (Valencia)
During the Spanish Inquisition, anti-converso sentiments ended up muddling with anti-Jewish sentiments. This gave way to the term "limpieza de sangre", which revolved around having "pure blood". Those who had Jewish blood still in their bloodline, even if they had converted, were still acted against. This is seen to give way to the modern forms of anti-Semitic sentiments seen in Nazi propaganda. (Córdoba)
Elsewhere in Latin Europe, knighthood was not a status just anyone could achieve. In Iberia, any man could become a knight (a caballero villano within the municipal militia of a frontier town) regardless of their upbringing. Being a caballero villano would provide opportunities to move up in the militia, and this possibility for social mobility was partially supported by direct privileges by the crown which used the municipal militias to support their reign and keep nobles in check. (Málaga)
Following the chaotic and economically dire 14th century, the marriage between Queen Isabel I of Castile and King Fernando II of Aragon aimed to solve these problems; one of the main ways that the two rulers tried to solve this situation was through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition and the highlighting of the Jews as the source of these problems. In 1491, the case of the Holy Child of La Guardia brought to the surface many of the themes common at the time through the propagation of blood libel and other tropes. To the horror of many in the Spanish royal court, the Crown eventually released the Edict of Expulsion in 1492, which forced many Jews out of Spain and into areas such as Portugal, where they were either enslaved or forcibly converted if they were unable to pay for a temporary residence permit; many Iberian Jews also fled to the Ottoman Empire where they were granted the more favorable dhimmi status. (Valencia)
Following the passing of Francisco Franco in 1975, there was a rise in Spanish conversions to Islam, partially due to the political motive of defying Franco's message of Una, Grande, Catolica. Many of these so-called New Muslims encouraged the idea of convivencia and of al-Andalus as a space of religious coexistence, and as a result, al-Andalus has been romanticized in recent years to further convivencia for commercial value. However, as Moroccan immigration to Spain has increased despite already existing economic tensions within the nation, surveys have shown that Spaniards, while otherwise tolerant of most religions, still have underlying tensions aimed towards Muslims within the country; this prejudice is due to flawed interpretations of medieval Spanish history. (Valencia)
Following the unification of Spain under Isabel and Fernando, anti-Jewish and anti-converso sentiment rose as they founded the inquisition. One of the most notable and public cases of anti-converso and anti-Jewish sentiment was the case of the holy child of la Guardia. Some historians believe that the crown purposely publicized this case to increase anti-Jewish sentiment, as a few months later they issued the edict of Expulsion, forcing the Jewish community to leave, convert to Christianity, or be killed. Overall, Fernando and Isabel's reign can characterized as the fall of convivencia in Iberia. (Lisbon)
Franco's domination of Spanish politics for much of the twentieth century had a profound impact on how Spain interpreted its history. A corollary to Franco's vision of national unity and national Catholicism was a belief in Spanish culture as purely Christian—a belief that, obviously, had origins long before Franco himself.
From Roman times onward, politics, culture, and institutions in Iberia were highly localized. Urban areas were largely autonomous and disconnected from each other.
Hisham II ascended the throne at only 11 years old, causing a power struggle in the court over who would be his regent. Al-Mansur, who eventually won the contest of becoming Hisham II's regent, led numerous military campaigns. After al-Mansur's death, the struggle for power became so intense that (eventually) the Umayyad caliphate disintegrated, leading to the creation of the various taifa kingdoms. In turn, the creation of the taifa kingdoms eventually led to the erosion of Islamic autonomy, as more and more taifa kingdoms began to rely on northern Christian kingdoms for military assistance. This cascade of events, beginning with Hisham II, gave the northern Christian kingdoms more leverage over the Muslims. (Lisbon)
Historians disagree about how to interpret the Visigothic law codes. Are they evidence of an internally fracturing society trying to regain cohesion by blaming its problems on perceived outsiders? Or are they more rhetorically than practically extreme, evidence only of the late Visigothic kings' ambition for greater central control? If the latter, what do we make of their extreme hostility toward the Jews?
Historians of medieval Iberia are now, by and large, advocating the idea that Iberia isn't so different from the rest of Europe after all. But this is a pretty recent historical development.
Iberian frontiers of the 13th century were not distinguished by borders; rather, they were governed according to town fueros and consisted of a wide area. Fueros protected the rights of the townspeople and established a form of self-governance that allowed social mobility through those who achieved the status of a caballero villano but also established independent municipal militias that created conflicts between nearby Christian frontier towns of the same kingdoms. (Murcia)
Iberian influence flowed north as well. The summons of the First Crusade in France was partly inspired by the pope's previous involvement with war against Muslims in Iberia. Crusade ideology developed hand in hand with the ideology of Iberian "reconquest." The parallels are most obvious in the Second Crusade, part of which was officially directed against al-Andalus.
Ibn Tumart's journey to educate himself on Islamic doctrines led to his own unique Islamic creed which was based on keeping true to the original texts of the Qu'ran and the hadith. Fundamentalism was a large part of this brand of Islam, meaning that interpretations by jurists and scholars were not to be relied on. Additionally, his doctrine included the declaration of himself as Mahdi and strict adherence to divine unity with emphasis on not anthropomorphizing God. These key features of the doctrine were used by Ibn Tumart to undermine Almoravid power, which was already dwindling from the Second Crusade in Iberia and religious and political pressure in North Africa. (Burgos)
In 1492, the kingdom of Granada was officially seized, ending the Reconquista efforts. Muslims living in the Christian kingdoms during this time faced pressure from Muslim communities abroad to keep their religious identity and to return home to Muslim communities. They also faced Christian pressure to stay in Christian kingdoms because of financial gain for the Christians. The Christian leaders placed restrictions on Muslims- especially limiting their prayer. There were especially restrictions on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, because the Christian leaders were afraid that people leaving for the pilgrimage would not return. As a result of this, Muslims were not able to make this pilgrimage because they were required to place a large financial deposit down before they left, and could only get it back upon their return, making this unrealistic for many Muslims because they could not afford it. (Lisbon)
In Christian frontier towns, specific areas were reserved for Muslim and Jewish populations: juderías for the Jews and morerías for the Muslims. These were motivated by reasons of religious segregation, protection of religious minorities against aggression, and financial gain from taxes paid by Jewish and Muslim communities to the crown. Segregation was also self-enforced from minority religions. These religious minority quarters represent the fears of religious mixing that was prevalent in medieval Iberia. In reality, the segregation between these communities was not as clear-cut as the laws and rhetoric surrounding them; there were interactions between the groups and some people did not follow the law. (Seville)
In Christian-dominant frontier towns, fueros granted Jewish and Muslim communities judicial and administrative autonomy though aljamas, which incentivized Muslims and Jews to populate vital frontier towns. Christian communities as well as Jewish and Muslim aljamas wanted to keep their communities separate in fear of assimilation and corruption, but in practice, this was not always the case. (Almería)
In Iberian frontier cities, the use of fueros and caballeros villanos created a unique environment of social mobility and rights of townspeople within these frontier cities, which was unusual in comparison to the rest of Latin Europe. This increased rights to townspeople gave more incentive for greater settlement and therefore defense of towns. (Toledo)
In modern society, many Spaniards converted to Islam following the death of Franco. Franco's regime highlighted a unified Catholic church identity, so a conversion to Islam by modern Spaniards was a rejection of that identity and the former Franco regime, becoming both a political and religious statement. These Spanish Muslim converts seek to legitimize their interpretation of Islam by rooting it in medieval Andalusi history, even trying to reclaim some of the country's historically Islamic monuments, like the Great Mosque of Cordoba. The usage of historical narratives applied to modern issues is a thoroughly used tactic by supporters of both Convivencia and Reconquista ideas alike. (Seville)
In spite of attempts by the Muslim elites to demote dhimmis to a position of reduced social status, historians recognize that 'Abd al-Rahman III's centralization of government and strengthening of the military contributed to a period of Umayyad stability wherein religious minorities were granted diplomatic and religious responsibility. It further cemented the Umayyad caliphate as a center of power in the Iberian peninsula even as the Fatimids threatened their caliphal authority in the East. (Oviedo)
In the 12th century there was a significant growth in religious intolerance and hostility, with Christian scholars and orders (Dominicans and Franciscans) seeing a need to convert minority religions through disputations. Despite the advance of the Reconquista, Christian kings had to keep religious minorities in their cities because of their economic influence. This represents a form of convivencia where different religions exist together despite mutual distaste for each other's ideologies. (Santiago)
In the 13th century, Christian scholars would study Jewish literature in order to challenge Jews to religious debates called "disputations". Convinced that they were in the absolute right, and that their logic based reasoning was infallible, they would debate them in the presence of other Jews in order to convert them. This was due to the so-called 12th-century renaissance, which led to many Christian thinkers to logically prove the dominance of Christianity, and convert those who in their eyes were not following the true religion. (Córdoba)
In the kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Pamplona and Asturias, there were many prominent female figures, often queens, who held substantial power. This was highly unusual during the time for Christian kingdoms. Additionally, Al-Andalus recognized these female rulers and the two Iberian powers often established treaties. (Córdoba)
Jews and Muslims under Christian rule were protected for different reasons. Jewish acceptance was undergirded by their theological value because they represented the origins of Christianity and that they were once God's chosen people. Muslim acceptance was based primarily on legal tolerance and surrender treaties, both of which were susceptible to change. (Málaga)
Just as jihad was a tool of legitimization for the Almohad rulers, crusade served as a tool for legitimation and power consolidation for Christian monarchs. This form of religious war was also used to de-legitimize other Christian Kingdoms that were believed to be following incorrect or flawed practices of Christianity. The Christian monarchs in medieval Iberia used crusade ideology to further their own military efforts against both the Almohads and their rival rulers. This can be seen in the case of Alfonso IX of León, who allied with the Almohads in order to defeat Castile, and the later issuing of crusading privileges to anyone who attacked Alfonso IX because of these actions. That indicates how dangerous the pope considered alliance with Muslims against Christians to be. (Seville)
Originally, the Almoravids were attractive as Muslim rulers in al-Andalus due to their Islamic fundamentalism. They only enforced taxes from the Qur'an and did not allow dhimmis political power. However, over the years, these regulations were relaxed; new non-Qur'anic taxes were introduced and dhimmis were allowed in positions of military power. This led to the decline to Almoravid popularity and support and provided the opportunity for the rise of the fundamentalist Almohads from North Africa. That encouraged the Almohads to rise and to flourish in al-Andalus. (Seville)
Our sources for the Islamic conquest are very sparse, due in part to logistical and ideological biases. The lack of reliable information has made it easy for legends to dominate our historical memory, such as the tale of Julian, Rodrigo, and Tariq.
Roman rule, and later the Byzantine presence along Iberia's southern coast, ensured that the peninsula stayed closely connected to Mediterranean networks of trade and communication.
Spain's tourism industry, particularly in the south, has taken advantage of the convivencia narrative to appeal to convivencia-based historical tourism in areas with previous evidence of religious co-existence. However, the romanticizing of this narrative doesn't account for and seemingly contradicts the current religious prejudices, specifically against Muslims. Due to high levels of immigration, domestic unemployment, and fears of terrorism, many Spanish citizens feel threatened by the influx of majority-Muslim populations moving into Spain and though we see slight progressive movement into the future towards a more united people, there is still a lot of bias and prejudice to overcome. (Pamplona)
The 1200s marked a period of significant Christian expansion in Iberia, as Christian rulers took advantage of the civil war and unrest that had broken out within the Almohad empire. The use of military power and diplomacy with Muslim rulers led to the success of Fernando III of León-Castile in the growth of his territory. This follows a common historical trend in Iberia, where both Christian and Muslim rulers ally with each other against their own enemies to consolidate power. Fernando III's conquests would not have happened the way they did without his alliance with other Muslim rulers, such as Ibn al-Ahmar of Granada. Moreover, the huge political conflicts that arose within the Islamic kingdoms in al-Andalus helped weaken them and ease the way for Fernando III to take power. (Seville)
The Great Mosque of Córdoba is a monument to the artistic and cultural brilliance of Umayyad al-Andalus. It has also become a modern cultural battleground: should its legacy emphasize its history as a site of both Muslim and Christian worship, or the fact that it is now exclusively a Christian building?
The Iberian Peninsula under the rule of the taifa kingdoms created a cultural renaissance of art, science, scholarship, and poetry, and also offered a variety of new positions and opportunities for dhimmi people and women. The most famous example was Samuel ha-Nagid, a Jewish man who was an accomplished poet and scholar - uniquely versed and fluent in both Hebrew and Arabic -, a powerful military leader, and was granted the position of vizier by the king of Granada. This extent of power was unheard of during this period as dhimmis were legally barred from holding positions of authority over Muslims due to the Pact of Umar. Ishraq al-Suwayda, a Muslim servant woman, became similarly accomplished in poetry and language in the 11th century, though records of her life and poetry are scarce and remain only in the writings of some male scholars. In both cases, taifa rule began opening the doors that were previously closed to people of dhimmi status or lower social standing. (Pamplona)
The Islamic conquest of Iberia was part of a century of conquests that produced the early caliphate. Like the rest of the caliphate, al-Andalus was under Umayyad rule from the time of its conquest; unlike the rest of the caliphate, al-Andalus remained under Umayyad rule after the Abbasid revolution of 750.
The Muslim conquerors of Iberia were very much in the minority, both religiously and ethnically, when they began to govern the peninsula. The indigenous population evidently found it easy to cooperate with their new rulers, because indigenous opposition and rates of conversion were both quite low.
The Reconquista (the Spanish Christian reclamation of what is essentially modern Spain) was an important historical event that has been the foundation for nationalism in Spain. This is most notably seen in former dictator Franco's admiration for Isabel and Fernando because they completed the Reconquista, created a Catholic Spain, and expelled those of other religions. This shows how the Reconquista ideology has thrived over the centuries and is used in highly nationalistic rhetoric and content. (Barcelona)
The Spanish Inquisition, though modeled on the Medieval Inquisition, differed in two key ways. First, the Spanish inquisition focused solely on conversos (Jews who had converted to Christianity), and more specifically potential crypto-Jews (conversos accused of practicing Judaism in secret) within them instead of heresy as a whole. Second, the Spanish Inquisition was under the authority of the crown, whereas the medieval inquisition was run by the Church, though the Spanish inquisition was staffed largely by clergy. Under the Inquisition's Edict of Grace, conversos could confess to their secret practice of Judaism, or others, through denunciations, could accuse a converso of secretly practicing Judaism. These confessions and denunciations were documented and led to numerous trials, leading to a variety of outcomes ranging from simple acquittal of the charges to being forced to wear penitential garments or even execution. Despite the overarching and widely-held anti-Semitic and anti-Converso sentiments of the 15th century merging together and fueling the Spanish Inquisition, some people were openly against the inquisition and opted that conversos be taught what Christian doctrine and practice actually were, instead of punishing and publicly embarrassing them. (Pamplona)
The War of the Two Pedros served as a proxy for the 100 Years' War between the French and English due to personal involvement of these kingdoms with these two rulers of Iberia, and victory for King Enrique II of Castile was fueled largely by anti-Jewish sentiment. Even though Enrique II used anti-Jewish propaganda against King Pedro I of Castile to garner support from the people and the anti-Jewish parliament (Cortes) of Castile, who had asked Pedro I to bar Jews from office and positions, King Enrique, upon his victory, retracted his anti-Jewish ideas to a certain extent by allowing Jews to maintain positions of public office, for which he had criticized Pedro I. (Pamplona)
The bubonic plague is a bacterial disease that has hurt human communities for thousands of years, but its new emergence in 1348 was spread through the movement of rodents and fleas from Asia west to Europe; the spread of this virus was only aided (but not controlled) by human activity and constant trade. Communities that experienced the most trade were thus hit the hardest by the disease, and in May of 1348 Barcelona and Catalonia as a region began to experience its effects. Following the economic and societal impacts of the spread of the plague, citizens of the hardest hit towns screeched for an explanation, eventually attributing human failures as a cause of the disease, which they believed incited God's wrath. Eventually, citizens of Catalonia blamed the Jews for these issues because they were already experiencing financial hardships and Jews happened to be money-lenders in the community. This scapegoating reached its apex at the town of Tàrrega, where over 300 Jews were brutally massacred by angry Christians. (Valencia)
The concept of partible inheritance, first used by the Visigoths, was a way to ensure that all children were taken care of after the parents' death. It was used for peasants and nobles, but oftentimes, problems arose using this system after the death of a king. In using the system of partible inheritance, Sancho III divided up his territory among all his sons, making the oldest son the king (and the younger ones subordinates). In doing so, he unintentionally split up the unified Christian territories of the north, and created many small, mutually hostile states. This action would lead to the creation of Aragon and Castile, the two kingdoms that would dominate most of Spanish history. (Lisbon)
The concept of partible inheritance, while commonly not practiced in Latin Europe at the time, was utilized in Iberia due to the Christian monarchs' expectation of territorial expansion. The most prominent example is the division of Leon-Castile by Alfonso VII into Leon and Castile. This was the starting point for border wars between the two kingdoms, eventually devolving into a marriage alliance between Leon and Castile. This border war caused by partible inheritance also indirectly demonstrates the increasing power of the papacy, as the pope both excommunicated Alfonso IX and granted crusading privileges against León, and put pressure on the marriage alliance between León and Castile (due to consanguinity concerns). (Lisbon)
The convivencia narrative grew very popular in the late twentieth century, both because of backlash against Franco and because of concerns about diversity in an increasingly globalized world. But the Madrid terrorist attacks of 2004 made the Reconquista narrative newly attractive again too.
The division of León and Castile, through Alfonso VII's partible inheritance, led to warring and conflict between Christian Kingdoms, where they wanted not just to gain land and power from al-Andalus, but from other Christian Kingdoms. This can be seen as an addition to the Reconquista narrative, as they sought to take land not just from Islamic kingdoms but also from other Christian kingdoms. (Santiago)
The emerging Christian kingdom of Asturias looked to the Visigothic kings as its source of legitimacy via the semi-mythical Pelayo. The counties of Cataluña looked instead to the Frankish-Roman ideal embodied by their conqueror, Charlemagne.
The frontiers, or areas between kingdoms, in Iberia were mainly a military enterprise rather than an economic one (as seen in most of Latin Europe) due to the municipal militia and the caballeros villanos. This allowed for individual towns to wage war independently of the crown, which allowed for more quick responses to outside threats. The evidence for this is that sometimes the conflicts waged by individual municipal militias did not align with the crown's actions or goals. (Granada)
The long 12th century saw a cultural, and specifically intellectual, flourishing in Latin Europe partly due to interaction with the Islamic Almohad empire in Iberia. The combination of religious, and thus bilingual or trilingual, communities enabled translation of the Greek classic scholarly works that Islamic civilizations had obtained centuries before and circulated through their empires. Jewish scholars would translate the Arabic or Hebrew texts into romance, and Christian scholars translated them into Latin. In addition to Iberia, these interactions and translations occurred in other cultural melting pots in Sicily and Constantinople. (Burgos)
The middle of the 13th century marked a period of vast and rapid expansion for the kingdoms of León-Castile and Aragón. Namely, Fernando III conquered Córdoba and Seville, following alliances with Muslim rulers in al-Andalus. This came after a period of political instability in the Almohad caliphate, which eventually resulted in their complete loss of al-Andalus. Varying alliances between Muslim rulers and León-Castile further contributed to the political instability. The conquest of Seville and Córdoba was also socially significant, as Seville was the old capital of the Almoravids and Córdoba was the old capital of the Umayyads. (Lisbon)
The pogroms of 1391 resulted in Jews being given the decision to forcibly convert to Christianity or face death. In disagreement with the Pope, these converted Christians, or conversos, were labeled as New Christians and treated differently than the Old Christians. Although they were supposed to be treated equally to Old Christians, anti-Jewish sentiment translated into anti-converso sentiment with the fear that New Christians were practicing Judaism in secrecy, or judaizing. The Spanish Inquisition was the result of the Old Christians trying to out and reveal these crypto-Jews. (Granada)
The practice of forced conversion by the Almohads marked a change in the application of this practice, as they enforced it on monotheist peoples and groups as opposed to pagans and polytheists as had been done in the past by other ruling groups. Despite the forced conversion of all individuals, including Christians, Jews, and Muslims who did not practice Islam under the same ideals of the Almohads, to Almohad Islam, Jewish converts to Islam particularly were heavily discriminated against and accused of continuing the practice of Judaism secretly in their homes. As such, they were asked to wear clothes that identified them publicly as having been Jewish, and most converts continued to feel that although they had converted to the Islamic majority, their status under Almohad rule was still insecure and less than that of the original Almohad Muslims. (Pamplona)
The reign of Leovigild was a significant moment of transition in early medieval Iberian history. He made unified Visigothic rule in the peninsula a reality for the first time, providing a model for Christian rulers after the Islamic conquest.
The religious segregation between Christian, Jewish, and Muslim peoples within frontier towns was considered to be mutually beneficial to all involved, by a means of preserving safety, culture, and religious wishes of the groups. Such an example could be seen in the approach to inter-religious sex, where we can see similar laws enforced not only by the dominant Christian laws, but the laws within the aljamas — minority religious communities— as well. (León)
The restrictions that were administered to mudéjars (Muslims who lived under Christian rule) paralleled the systematic discrimination that Iberian Jews were subjected to. Discrimination against Jews was more prevalent and severe than those of mudéjars because Christians feared Muslim leaders would persecute their Christian subjects in retaliation for Christian rulers punishing Muslim subjects. There was no fear of retaliation or consequences due to there being no Jewish leaders ruling over Christian subjects. (Barcelona)
The spread of the plague in Iberia was host to another disease of increasing violence and pogroms against the Jewish community. A few years previous to the spread of the plague across Iberia, many cities and kingdoms were facing economic instability and famine which many had attributed to the Jewish community due to their large presence in the banking business (loans particularly), fueling further hatred that piled onto the hatred present in Iberia in the 14th century. Upon the apex of the plague in 1348, Christians continued to spread their anti-Jewish sentiment, blaming the Jews for the plague and claiming that they were trying to poison their Christian "enemies". Despite individuals and powers like the Pope supporting and debunking that the Jews were not responsible for the spread of the plague as they were dying at the same rate as Christians, communities, individuals, and fanatical groups led pogroms that killed and massacred a large number of Jews and evoked further fear and terror in the Jewish community beyond what was already felt by the presence of the plague. (Pamplona)
The struggle between Juana, King Enrique of Castile's daughter, and his half-sister, Isabel, led to a civil war for rule over Castile after his death. This resulted in Isabel and her husband, Fernando, gaining power and rule over the kingdom. During their rule, they founded the Spanish Inquisition, resulting in the expulsion of Jews from Andalucia and then eventually from the entire kingdom in 1492 with the Edict of Expulsion. These events were caused by increased anti-Jewish sentiment, including the growing rumor of blood libel and poisoning of wells. After their expulsion, many of the Jews fled Castile for Portugal, Northern Africa, and the Ottoman Empire. (Granada)
The weakened state of the Almohad empire due to the death of al-Nasir, who left a young heir who died young, led to multiple people claiming the title of Caliph. This greatly weakened the Almohad empire by causing civil wars in the empire. This shows a repeated pattern in history in which when a powerful ruler dies and leaves a weak heir the kingdom that was previously ruled tends to fall apart. This weakness of the Almohad empires allowed for the Cristian rulers in Iberia to conquer land and be able to start to reconquer the peninsula for themselves. (Burgos)
The word jihad is best defined as striving or struggle. The concept incorporates both greater jihad (an internal struggle for righteousness) and lesser jihad (external struggle, including warfare on behalf of Islam). In Maliki law, the legal school that was dominant in al-Andalus, the emir was obligated to conduct jihad, so the Umayyad emirs used jihad to legitimate their rule.
Throughout history, there have been many recurrences of anti-Jewish tropes, such as the blood libel. The blood libel is an old claim that accuses Jews of systematically and ritually crucifying Christian boys during Passover to mock the death of Jesus. This concept became prevalent in Iberia in 1491 with the case of the Holy Child of La Guardia, where a young Christian boy was alleged to have been murdered by conversos and Jews. Despite the fact that historical evidence shows no indication of an actual boy's death, the blood libel narrative was perpetuated in Castile and Aragon, becoming a public sensation and setting the stage for an increase in anti-Jewish sentiment and the eventual expulsion of the Jews from Spain. (Seville)
Under medieval Islamic rule, People of the Book (non-Muslim monotheists) could live as protected religious minorities, or dhimmi. That status gave them rights, such as religious freedom, but also imposed restrictions, such as additional taxation.
Under the rule of the Nasrids, Granada amassed lots of wealth from being the middleman for the sub-Saharan gold trade between North Africa and Iberia. This continued until Prince Henry's expedition down the Western African Coast where he discovered a way to circumvent the Islamic middlemen of Granada in the gold trade. The loss of wealth led to the formation of factions within the Granadan government where there was a power struggle between King Abu al-Hasan Ali, his son, Abu Abd' Allah Muhammad, and his brother, al-Zaghal. Ultimately, this led to Fernando and Isabel conquering the entire territory of Granada where they provided protection for the Muslim residents to convince them to stay. (Granada)
Visigothic laws against Jews represent the harshest surviving measures taken against Jews anywhere in this period. Their intolerance is partly a result of Leovigild's and Reccared's efforts to create a unified, Catholic Christian society that united both Visigoths and Hispano-Romans.
When we think of religious conflict in medieval Iberia, we often think of conflict among Jews, Christians, and Muslims. But conflicts within these religious groups—such as the contest between Arian and Catholic Christians—could sometimes be just as dramatic.
While Andalusi society was culturally and religiously diverse and meshed, it was also subject to a complex hierarchy that was institutionally built on a foundation of religious separation, gender separation, and intrareligious separation. We can see the intersection of gendered and religious hierarchy when it was revealed that Muslim men could marry outside of their religion, yet Muslim women did not have such rights. When looking at intrareligious separation we can see that muwallads were not socially equal to the mawali and the result was social tension. (Barcelona)
While Spain has increased anti-Muslim sentiments when compared to the rest of Europe, these sentiments don't stem from medieval ideas of the Reconquista. Instead, they stem from a number of terrorist attacks in the 21st century, as well as immigration from North Africa to Spain. However, when bringing up these modern social issues, many conservative platforms use medieval rhetoric and the Reconquista to justify and rally for their cause. (León)
Historiography is not stable; it changes to reflect both new evidence and new social and cultural interests on the part of historians.
The debate between Américo Castro and Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz has set the terms for all subsequent historical arguments about religious diversity and interaction in medieval Iberia. Castro's work gave rise to the convivencia narrative, which Sánchez-Albornoz countered by endorsing the Reconquista narrative.