History 1200 Focus Question Review

Why is Descartes considered the "founder of modern rationalism"?

"... Because he believed that human beings could understand the world—itself a mechanical system—by the same rational principles inherent in mathematical thinking."

How did Laura Cereta explain her intellectual interests and accomplishments?

Cereta expressed her intellectual interests and accomplishments as a "deeper integrity [which] yearns for virtue." She argues that "...knowledge is not given as a gift but [is gained] by diligence."

How did Portugal and Spain acquire their overseas empires, and how did their empires differ?

-Portugal built its empire on the basis of necessity of trade. [STRONG NAVY; DOMINATED PORT CITIES] -Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella focused on expanding by way of conquering foreign lands with the intent of ruling indefinitely.

How did the Bill of Rights lay the foundation for a constitutional monarchy? What key aspects of this document testify to the exceptional nature of English state politics in the 17th century?

By stripping the monarch of many powers that were absolutist in nature. The Parliament now held the most power with the monarch's role reduced to little more than a figurehead.

What characteristics distinguish the Renaissance from the Middle Ages, according to Jacob Burckhardt?

He believed that the Renaissance was the birth of the modern world. In exaggerating the individuality and secularism of the Renaissance, he failed to recognize the depths. Of religious sentiment which was indeed present at the time.

What was Thomas Hobbes's view of human nature and what conclusions did he draw from it about the best form of government?

Hobbes' view of human nature was pessimistic. "... the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short." It stands to reason that if one's view of humanity is so bleak and distrustful, then perhaps one may conclude that absolutism is the most logical form of government, as Hobbes did.

Why was Descartes critical of the learning of his day?

It relied too heavily on assumptions. "Descartes [ultimately] proposed a different approach to scientific methodology by emphasizing deduction and mathematical logic ... each step in an argument should be as sharp and well founded as a mathematical proof."

Why were Renaissance women rarely taken seriously when they sought educational opportunities and recognition for their intellectual talents?

It was considered a matter of fact that women were lesser than men. With little to no potential for academic greatness, women had to work incredibly hard just to be taken seriously.

Who was John Calvin and what were the main tenets of Calvinism?

John Calvin was a Protestant reformer and a stand-out systematic theologian and organizer. Calvinism adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone and predestination. Based on reports of the Geneva Consistory, Calvinism played an active role in the social lives of the public. An objective morality was held to as the standard on how to be.

In what ways did the account of Bartolome de Las Casas help create the image of the Spaniards as "cruel and murderous fanatics"?

Las Casas deliberately paints these acts as approaching anything that might be done in hell: "Surely, the infernal torments cannot much exceed the anguish that they endure, by reason of that way of cruelty..."

What does Machiavelli have to say about being loved rather than feared? How does this view contrast with that of Erasmus on the characteristics of a good ruler?

Machiavelli argues that while being both loved and feared is ideal, that is difficult to acquire and more difficult still to maintain. He admits that if pressed, a ruler ought to be feared rather than love. Erasmus' view of the ideal prince is one who commits himself entirely to the service of his people.

What were Martin Luther's main disagreements with the Roman Catholic Church?

Martin Luther's main disagreement with the Roman Catholic Church was the sale of indulgences. Luther believed in justification by faith alone.

Who were the leading figures of the Enlightenment, and what were their main contributions?

One of the leaders of the Enlightenment was Montesquieu whose praise for England's system of government "...led to his most far-reaching and lasting contributions." Voltaire advocated religious toleration and condemned intolerance as "the infamous thing." Finally, Diderot's contribution to the Enlightenment was his twenty-eight volume Encyclopedia which he considered to be the great work of his life.

Characterize the Renaissance in your own words.

Period between 1350 and 1550 wherein classical antiquity returned to Europe after the turbulent Middle Ages. It was a time of great agricultural and economic prosperity in Italy.

Based on the image of Ptolemy's map of the world, what can you say about the extent of Europeans' knowledge, and the limitations of that knowledge, of world geography?

Ptolemy's map showed the world as spherical with three major landmasses—Europe, Asia, and Africa—and only two oceans (Indian and Mediterranean). Also, the Earth's circumference was underestimated.

What key aspects of The Bill of Rights testify to the exceptional nature of English state politics in the 17th century?

Some key aspects are: Free elections, no taxation or maintaining a standing army without Parliament's permission. Right to protest.

What can Loyola's "Rules for Thinking with the Church" tell us about the nature of the Catholic reform movement?

The Catholic Reform movement was deliberately dogmatic. Loyola expresses with certainty that the Church and its teachings are as absolute as the word of their god himself. "We must put aside all judgement of our own...If we wish to proceed securely in all things, we must hold fast to following principle: What seems to me white, I will believe black if the hierarchical Church so defines."

What characteristics distinguish the Renaissance from the Middle Ages, according to Jackson Spielvogel?

The Renaissance is less of a rebirth and more of a recovery from the chaotic middle ages, specifically the fourteenth century.

Describe the social structure inherited from the Middle Ages.

There were three estates: The clergy. The nobility, and the peasants/townspeople.

In what ways does Cardinal Bellarmine attempt to refute Galileo's ideas?

Bellarmine argued that Galileo's claims have not been demonstrated so there is no reason to believe his word over the scriptures.

What was absolutism in theory, and how did its actual practice in France reflect or differ from the theory?

"Absolute monarchy or absolutism meant that the sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right." King Louis XIV's France is largely considered to be an absolute monarchy. One way by which he well-represented the theory of absolutism is his construction of the Court of Versailles.

What measures did the Roman Catholic Church take to reform itself and to combat Protestantism in the sixteenth century?

"The Catholic Reformation revived the best features of medieval Catholicism and then adjusted them to meet new conditions, as is most apparent in the revival of mysticism and monasticism." In addition to these changes, many knew religious orders faithful to the church were founded. Of these, the Jesuits (members of The Society of Jesus) were absolutely determined to combat Protestantism. Pope Paul III called for the Council of Trent which eventually, under Pope Paul IV, determined that the Catholic Church and its traditions were valid and that the Pope's authority is well founded within the Bible.

What arguments does Margaret Cavendish make to defend her right and ability to be an author?

A disputation of apparent allegations made against her which claim that she lacks the proper experience and education

What were the main features of the African slave trade, and what effects did it have on Africa?

A main characteristic of the African slave trade with the New World was known as "triangular trade." The effect on Africa was depopulation.

What technological innovations enabled the Europeans to make trans-oceanic voyages?

Axial rudder and learning how to utilize lateen sails with a square rig.

What did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton contribute to a new vision of the universe, and how did it differ from the Ptolemaic conception of the universe?

Copernicus was the first to seriously criticize the geocentric view of the universe. Kepler later confirmed Copernicus' heliocentric view of the system. Galileo caused further conflict between science and the Catholic Church when, after the utilization of the telescope, he again reaffirmed Copernicus' heliocentric theory. Newton's universal law of gravitation was the result of culminating the theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo.

What were the policies of the Renaissance popes, and why was the Catholic Church sometimes criticized?

Papal policy was centered on personal greed. This was reflected by the militaristic expansion of the papal states. As a result, the Catholic Church was often criticized for its lack of regard for spirituality.

What role did women play in the Scientific Revolution?

Women played an underappreciated role in the scientific revolution. Only the privileged few women who were lucky enough to be members of high-status families enjoyed the luxury of education.

In what type of social environment did the philosophes thrive, and what role did women play in that environment?

Philosophes were able to thrive in salons. In this environment, women wielded a fair degree of influence.

How did European expansion affect both the conquerors and the conquered?

The conquerors fared far better than the conquered. To Europeans, the new world to the west was a land of great opportunity. Moreover, the Colombian exchange made accessible new and enjoyable products from the New World.

What motivated Oliver Cromwell's political and military actions?

Cromwell was motivated entirely by his religious convictions. "Sir, this is none other but the hand of God and to Him alone belongs the glory, wherein none are to share with him."

Based on Felix de Azara's description of Paraguay, how were the missions organized to enable the missionaries to control most aspects of the Indians' lives? Why was this deemed necessary?

The individuals in the local community were treated equally in addition to being given all of the bare essentials for a life without complaint. While this had its downside (lack of incentive = slow work pace), it was considered a necessary step in keeping peace among those from whom they stripped many personal freedoms.

What did Rousseau believe was the role of women, and how did he think they should be educated?

The role of women was to be wives and mothers and nothing more. Rousseau believed that the only education that women ought to receive is that which better equips her for pleasing her family.

What is Spielvogel's argument concerning the historical significance of the Scientific Revolution?

The scientific revolution "...stands as the major force in the transition to the largely secular, rational, and materialistic perspective that has defined the modern Western mentality since its full acceptance in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

Why did Galileo's ideas represent a threat to the Catholic Church?

They brought to light an immediately noticeable contradiction within the Scriptures.

Why do historians sometimes refer to the monarchies of the later fifteenth century as "new monarchies" or "Renaissance states"? What distinguished them from earlier political entities?

What distinguishes these monarchies from their medieval predecessors is an accumulation of power concentrated to the throne and a proportionate decline in power of the aristocracy. The feudal system of military responsibility effectively came to an end.

What is the purpose of government, according to Locke, and in what cases, if any, is revolution justified?

According to Locke, the purpose of government is to preserve the people's lives, liberty, and property. Locke also argued that revolutions are sometimes justified and may even occur often, and that they are a necessary measure to take when the ruler has proven himself a true "rebel" by breaking his contract with his people.

What did Cortes focus on in his description of Tenochtitlan? Why do you think he felt justified in overthrowing the Aztec Empire?

Focused heavily on the architecture and way of life within this capital city. Based on the contents of this letter, it is likely that he felt justified in overthrowing the Aztec empire because he felt that Spaniards were superior to the Aztecs, not least of all because of their lack of knowledge of Christianity.

Based on your reading of his letter to Grand Duchess Christina, what does Galileo think is the difference between knowledge about the natural world and knowledge about the spiritual world? What does Galileo suggest that his opponents do before discussing his ideas?

Galileo reveals that one should not accept what the Bible has to say about matters of nature, but respect it only in matters of faith, as that was always its intent. Before discussing his ideas, Galileo urged his opponents to approach them with an open mind.

What role did politics, economic and social conditions, and religion play in the European wars of the sixteenth century?

Religion, politics, and economics all affected the social conditions of the population of people within these nations, which were enduring a different combination of these problems. In England the persecution at the national level of any and all Protestants was severe and often resulted in execution by order of Queen Mary.

What was humanism, and what effect did it have on philosophy, education, and attitudes toward politics?

Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement which took root in 14th century Italy. Humanists examined "studia humanitatis" (the study of humanity). Its effect on philosophy, education, and politics was profound as Cicero's works were again being praised in the dawn of the fifteenth century.

What were the chief ideas of the Christian humanists, and how did they differ from the ideas of the Protestant reformers

The Christian humanists differed from the later Protestant reformers in that they valued the writings and interpretations of past religious figures to a greater extent. Christian humanists wished to return to simplicity within their religion. The main difference between these two Christian sects summed up in Erasmus' view of the Catholic Church versus Luther's.

According to Jacques Bossuet, where does the king get his authority, what limits exist, if any, to the king's authority, and what does the king owe to God?

The King receives his authority from God. While his authority over the public is absolute, he must still answer to God. To God, the king owes everything. Kings must be stand as the example of "goodness," lest they, as God's representative, disrespect the absolute goodness that is God.

Based on your reading of Pascal's Pensées, why might he have questioned whether human beings could achieve scientific certainty?

Pascal believes that the search for certainty through science alone is futile, that faith is a necessary component in achieving certainty of anything relating to the natural world in which we live, which we may never understand in its entirety.

Why was the publication of the Encyclopedia a vital step in the philosophes' hopes for reform?

"Its purpose, according to Diderot, was to 'change the general way of thinking.' It... became a major weapon of the philosophes' crusade against the old French society... the ideas if the Enlightenment were spread even further as a result."

In The Wake-up Call to the French and Their Neighbors, how did French Protestants justify resistance to royal authority in the wake of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre?

"The Politician" makes the argument that magistrates have been put in place by God but for the welfare of the people.

How did the arrival of the Dutch, British and French on the world scene in the 17th and 18th centuries affect Africa, India, Southeast Asia, China and Japan?

-Africa was at the center of a massively overhauled slave trade. -In Southeast Asia, a battle for control between the Dutch, Portuguese, French, and English took place which the Dutch ultimately succeeded. The English were interested in seizing control of the spice trade in the area. -India was the site of the Seven Years' War in the eighteenth century between the English and the French over who would have control over the small nation. -"But by the end of the eighteenth century, some British traders had begun to demand access to other cities along the Chinese coast and insist that the country be opened to British manufactured goods." This request was denied. -Japan was not as affected by the Europeans as those listed above. Ultimately, because the Dutch were the only peoples that had not allowed missionary activities to interfere in the business of trade, their ships were allowed to dock at Nagasaki just once a year and stay for a period no longer than 3 months.

How were the ideas of the Scientific Revolution spread, and what impact did they have on society and religion?

"The emergence of new learned societies and journals that enabled the new scientists to communicate their ideas to each other and to disseminate them to a wider, literate public." These societies including, most notably, The English and French Royal Societies. Though science found acceptance among different societies for a great number of reasons, it found conflict in religion and there were even greater divisions among the religious intellectuals who attempted to reconcile science with religion.

What economic, social, and political crises did Europe experience in the first half of the seventeenth century?

-Economic: "Economic contraction was evident in some parts of Europe in the 1620s. In the 1630s, and 1640s, as imports of silver from the Americas declined, economic recession intensified, especially in the Mediterranean area." -Social: Economic disparity as well as religious division led to growing social discontent. In the late 16th century, there began a craze of witch accusations which persisted well into the seventeenth century. -Political: Though the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 allowed for Princes of political States within the Holy Roman Empire to champion Lutheranism instead of Catholicism, the conflict between these States, as well as within, persisted and eventually manifested as The Thirty Years' War.

What major new ideas did Copernicus discuss in the excerpt from On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres?

Copernicus asserts that "near the sun is the center of the universe. Moreover, since the sun remains stationary, whatever appears as a motion of the sun is really due rather to the motion of the Earth." These ideas came in part from earlier writings by Cicero regarding Hicetas.

What did Immanuel Kant mean by the terms enlightenment and freedom in his essay, "What is Enlightenment?"

By "Enlightenment," Kant was referring to intellectual maturity. To Kant, "freedom [is] the freedom for a man to make public use of his reason in all matters."

What were the main issues in the struggle between king and Parliament in seventeenth-century England, and how were they resolved?

Charles I's economic and religious policies were too much for the English Parliament to accept. The king was not allowed to tax his people without parliamentary consent which he did anyway under the ship money tax. Rebellions forced him to call Parliament into session. When a radical sect demanded too much of the king, he ordered several arrests which started the English civil War. With the King's second capture, he was convicted of and executed for treason, murder, and tyranny.

What are Erasmus's main criticisms of church officials in The Praise of Folly? What do you think he hoped to achieve by his criticism, and how might the circulation of printed copies of the text have affected popular attitudes toward the Catholic Church?

Erasmus' main criticisms of church officials could be described as an opinion that they wished to please God, not by bettering themselves in any kind of impressive way but buy committing acts which they believe are necessary for salvation (empty rituals). He hoped to bring clarity to the public and the circulation of this text would possibly have had a negative effect on the attitudes of the Catholic Church.

Describe Descartes's principles of inquiry or "method," as stated in his Discourse on Method, and compare them with Newton's rules of reasoning. What are the main similarities between these systems of thinking?

Firstly, one must accept nothing to be true which one does not evidently know to be such (Similar to Newton). Second, to divide any of the difficulties examined into as many parts as may be required for its adequate solution. Third, to arrange the learning process in such a way that one begins learning (accepting as true) the most simple and easiest to understand concepts before ascending to the greater complexities. Lastly, to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that one may be assured of omitting nothing Similar to Newton).

In what ways did the political realities of Renaissance Italy impact Machiavelli's works?

He witnessed the Soderini overthrow the Medici and was then tortured by the Medici when they took back their oligarchical power. Machiavelli's The Prince was a failed attempt to convince Lorenzo de Medici, his capturer, to allow him to serve in some official capacity in the newly re-won government.

What has been the political legacy of Hobbes' notion of the state? Explain the similarities and differences in Bossuet's and Hobbes' theory of absolutism.

Hobbes believes that the political legacy of his notion of state would be to protect the people by creating order, security, commerce, and everything that is crucial to a successful state. While both Hobbes and Bossuet were absolutists, Bossuet's absolutism was fundamentally more religious.

Which areas of Europe were solidly Catholic, which were solidly Lutheran, and which were neither?

Ireland and most of the mainland, from Poland to Portugal, was still predominately Roman Catholic, but most of modern Germany was heavily influenced by Lutheranism. This is also true for all of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Calvinism had also gained momentum, but Scotland was the only entire State to embrace it.

What developments during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance contributed to the Scientific Revolution of the seventeenth century? What did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton contribute to a new vision of the universe, and how did it differ from the Ptolemaic conception of the universe?

Leonardo da Vinci devised "war machines," the invention of telescopes and microscopes literally changed the way they looked at the world, and "the printing press had an indirect but crucial role in spreading innovative ideas quickly and easily."

What major social changes occurred during the Renaissance?

Nobles received a well-rounded education coupled with artistic endeavors and valued physical prowess. Regarding peasants, poverty had dramatically increased with most inhabitants working for pitiful wages and/or living in squalor.

What were the chief characteristics of Renaissance art, and how did it differ in Italy and northern Europe?

One of the chief characteristics of Renaissance art was the mastery of techniques for illustrating a scientific observation of the world. Michelangelo's sculpture of David captures humanist values in his depiction and vision of biblical David as the ideal form of beauty. Influenced by Neoplatonism, Michelangelo's masterpiece is a fitting symbol of the Italian Renaissance's affirmation of human power.

What arguments did Mary Wollstonecraft make on behalf of the rights of women? Why did Wollstonecraft suggest that both women and men were at fault for the "slavish" situation of women?

She argued that to deny them such is a waste of potential which might benefit society. With respect to the men's responsibility, she wrote: "would men but generously snap our chains and be content with the rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us . . . better citizens." In assigning blame to women, Wollstonecraft insisted that some women were proud of their weakness.

What are the major ideas of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses and why did they have such a strong appeal in Germany?

That the sale of indulgences wasn't just nonsense, it was wholly immoral and therefore non-Christian. This had a strong appeal in Germany because they were "already dissatisfied with the ecclesiastical and financial policies of the papacy."

What did Pico della Mirandola mean by the "dignity of man"?

The dignity of man is, in his view, the dignity to dignify himself (or not). It is in the dignity of man that one may choose their own way of life, be that acceptable or unacceptable in the eyes of Pico della Mirandola's god. -Think: "free will."

Describe the family structure.

The family structure in Italy during the Renaissance consisted of parents, children, servants (if wealthy), and could include any extended members as well.

Who played what roles in the family?

The father was the head of the family. His wife had no share in his wealth and his children cannot be considered adults until he decides to emancipate them. The primary role of women in the Renaissance was to bear children.

Why did Europeans begin to embark on voyages of discovery and expansion at the end of the fifteenth century?

[GOD, GLORY, AND GOLD] Economic and militaristic expansion were the primary reasons for exploration. Religious zeal was secondary.