History and Systems Exam 1 (Chapters 1-4)

parmenides

Born 515 BC -Opposite of Heraclitus -All change was an illusion -One reality-finite, uniform, motionless, fixed -Knowledge is only attained though rational thought

dark ages

(~400-1000 AD) -Fall of Rome and associated social & political structure, takeover by barbarian tribes -Greek & Roman books & knowledge lost -Little or no progress in science, philosophy, literature -Western world dominated by superstition and anti intellectualism -Church had tremendous power, remnants of the geopolitical structure established by the Empire

what is psychology

Literally, study of the mind (psyche) Includes: -Study of human behavior -Personality development -Nervous system/physiology -Mental processes -Mental illness/psychopathology -Applied areas such as child development, I/O, forensic psychology, psychotherapy, etc.

is psychology a science

Psychology is only a science to the extent that psychologists embrace determinism (assumption that laws explaining human behavior exist & can be discovered). -Biological determinism -Environmental determinism -Sociocultural determinism -Psychical determinism Some accept indeterminism (uncertainty principle). Some hold to nondeterminism, or a belief in free will.

hallmark of science

Regardless of whether it progresses smoothly and objectively (Popper), or in a more "fits and starts" process (Kuhn), the hallmark of science is continual testing and development of theories through empirical observation.

roman philosophies

Skepticism: suspension of belief in anything Cynicism: retreat from society

greek medicine - a natural approach

-Hippocrates (460-377 BC) proposed that all disorders (mental & physical) are caused by natural factors (inheritance, injury, imbalance of bodily fluids or humors). -Belief that the body has the ability to heal itself & the doctor's job is to facilitate healing; led to "cures" such as rest, proper diet, exercise, fresh air, massage, baths -Important to establish a trusting relationship with the patient, and to see the patient as a whole, unique person, not a disease

greek medicine - mental disorders

-Hippocrates classified diseases, including mental disorders: ---mania ---melancholia ---paranoia ---epilepsy -Galen extended Hippocrates' theory of humors to temperament: phlegmatic (phlegm), sanguine (blood), choleric (yellow bile), melancholic (black bile)

renaissance

~1450-1600 -Exploration of the world ---Interest in different cultures ---Need for maps, navigation, banking -Breakdown of church authority -Arts moved from religious themes to human ones, individual achievements in the arts (Da Vinci, Shakespeare, etc.) -Spirit of humanism: intense interest in human beings

classical greek period

~450-300 BC -The classical Greek period, sometimes known as the Greek Golden Age, spanned the lives of Socrates, Plato, & Aristotle. -The city-state of Athens was a center of tremendous achievements in the arts, philosophy, science, and politics. -Greek culture was spread through the Western world by the Romans.

isaac newton

-Mathematician & physicist, developed differential and integral calculus, law of gravity, Newtonian physics -Deeply religious, believed studying universe was a way to study God -However, his view of the universe essentially banished God from it. -Saw universe as complex, lawful machine created by God, set in motion, & left to run on its own (basis of deism -belief that God created & abandoned) -Universe operates according to natural laws, & there are no exceptions

individualism

-One of four themes in renaissance humanism -Concern for human potential & achievement, power of the individual to make a difference in the world

gorgias

487-376 BC -A sophist -Took a more extreme position than Protogoras, all things are equally false -There is no objective basis of truth-nihilism-one can only be aware of one's own experiences and mental states- solipsism -He came to three conclusions: ---Nothing exists ---If it did exist, it could not be comprehended ---If it could be comprehended, it could not be -Spoken words had power but they were essentially deceitful

protogoras

490-420 BC -A sophist -Truth depends on the perceiver ---Perception varies from person to person because each perceiver has different experiences -Truth is partially determined by culture ---To understand why a person believes as they do, one must understand the person -Agnostic toward Greek gods -Philosophy of relativity of truth is still present today in postmodernism

stoicism

A Roman philosophy -"Divine plan" - "whatever happens, happens for a reason; there are no accidents; and all must simply be accepted as part of the plan" -"Every man is an actor in a play, in which God has assigned the parts; it is our duty to perform our part worthily, whatever it may be"

epicureanism

A Roman philosophy -Free will -Experience in the empirical world -Materialists -Believe there was no afterlife ---Soul was made up of freely moving atoms that scattered upon death -Preferred naturalistic explanations to supernatural ones -Hedonistic (self-indulgent)

scientific theory

A good scientific theory has 2 functions: -Organize & explain empirical observations (make sense of what we observe) -Guide future data collection by generating testable hypotheses (predict what we may find in such a way that we can test it) This is an ongoing process.

ancient psychological thought

Ancient civilizations: thoughts & feelings from spirits & gods -External concept of the origin of mental activity -No concept of consciousness or the mind Around 6th-7th cent. BC concept of the mind began to develop -Ability of individuals to think and choose behavior -Brain as seat of mental activity

empedocles

490-430 BC -Disciples of Pythagoras -Not just one physis but four elements that make up the world: earth, fire, air, and water -Postulated love and strife as two universal powers ---Causal powers and the elements operate together to produce unending cosmic cycle of recurring phases -Proposed a theory of evolution -Each of the four elements are found in the blood -Objects in the world throw off tiny copies of themselves called "emanations" or eidola (plural of eidolon), which enter blood through pores in the body, the eidola combine with elements like themselves -The fusion of external and internal elements results in perception, which takes place in the heart

zeno of elea

495-430 BC -Disciple of Parmenides -Zeno's paradox: ---For an object to go from point A to point B, it must go half of the way, then half of the remaining distance, then half of the remaining distance, etc. ---Logically impossible for the object to reach point B ---The fact that it seems to do so it a weakness in the senses

anaxagoras

500-428 BC -Proposed an infinite number of elements called "seeds" from which all things were created ---Seeds do not exist in isolation; every elements contains all other elements -The characteristics of something is determined by the proportion of the elements present -One exception: the mind is pure, contains no other elements ---Mind is part of all living things, but not a part of nonliving things ---Was an early vitalist

heraclitus

540-480 BC -Nothing ever "is", everything is "becoming" -"It is impossible to step twice in to the same river"

xenophanes

570-470 BC -A sophist -Attacked veracity of religion before the Sophists -States that religion is a human invention. His evidence was: ---Olympian gods act suspiciously like humans ---Gods of different peoples look like the people themselves -Humans create religion--moral codes come from man -Was not an atheist -Postulated a god that was unlike any other described during that time

anaximander

610-547 BC -Student of Thales -Early theory of evolution

thales

625-547 BC -Emphasized natural explanations and minimized supernatural ones

theories on reality

Monists: Only one reality exists. -Materialists: The only reality is matter. -Idealists: The only reality is mental. Dualists: Both a physical & mental realm exist, question is how they relate. -Interactionism - mind & body influence each other -Emergentism -mental states emerge from brain states

airstotle on causation and humans

Multiple causes of human behavior: -individual differences -habit -learning -social support -good fortune -freedom of choice

philo

-"Jewish Plato," (25BC-50AD) combined the biblical & platonic views. ---Dualism: body created from earth, soul from God ---Senses can't provide knowledge, which is from God and is received only by a purified soul (mind), free of sensory distractions. (vs. Plato: knowledge from revelation, not reason)

maimonides on faith and reason

-1135-1204 - Jewish physician and biblical scholar, born in Spain, wrote The Guide for the Perplexed to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelianism -Said some parts OT/Talmud could be understood rationally & not necessary to accept by faith; also thought some parts were allegorical and not literal -Thought there were levels of understanding, with children and uneducated people at a simple level and brighter people using their reason to understand deeper truths

martin luther

-1483-1546 -Augustinian priest & biblical scholar, disgusted by church practices -Emphasis on personal religion & salvation through repentance and grace; sola fide (opposition to reason or empiricism) -Reformation - 1517, 95 Theses, new movement called Protestantism -Luther translated the Bible into German so all could read it

francis bacon

-1561-1626 -Contemporary of Galileo & Descartes -Radical empiricist, believed must study nature directly & objectively -Inductive method with no preconceived ideas (i.e., no theories or hypotheses) -Empirical observation as basis of knowledge later called positivism -Believed in classifying observations and drawing generalizations from them -Famous metaphor of ants, spiders & bees: ---Empiricist like ants, simply collecting things ---Rationalists like spiders, "spinning webs out of themselves" ---Bees ("middle way") gather, then transform & digest -Valued reason, even though he emphasized empiricism.

rene descartes

-1596-1650 -Mathematician who developed analytic geometry, making it possible to describe & measure virtually all known physical phenomena -Philosopher whose search for something beyond doubt led to "I think, therefore I am." -Deductive method - rational, use analysis from what is known to arrive at other truths -Humans are different from animals because we have a mind, which allows for consciousness, free will, & rationality. -The mind is nonphysical, but it interacts with the body and influences the body. This interaction occurs in the brain (pineal gland). -Innate ideas: natural components of the mind such as infinity, perfection, God, geometric axioms -Did have an interest in physiology and had a hydraulic theory about movement and nervous system. -Believed God would not deceive us, so sensory impressions are reliable IF they are clear & distinct. -Advocated common sense observations of the world followed by deep thought about the observations. -This demonstrates that he made a place for empiricism, although he emphasized reason.

aristotle

-384-322 BC -Son of the court physician to the King of Macedonia; Plato's student for 20 years; after Plato's death tutor of the young Alexander the Great; founded the Lyceum (rival to Plato's Academy) -Natural scientist, keen interest in biology & zoology, as well as philosophy; also made contributions in ethics, politics, and psychology (On the Soul considered to be the first history of psychology)

plato

-427-347 BC -Student of Socrates, founded the Academy -Emphasized real, unchanging, & perfect world of forms (ideas) vs. inferior, physical world that contains imperfect images of reality; the famous allegory of the cave -Reminiscence theory of knowledge: highest form of thought is reason, a function of the immortal soul. -Before the soul was put in the body, it dwelled in pure knowledge. Therefore, all knowledge is innate & can be attained only through introspection, remembering experiences it had before entering the body.

aristotle on heirarchy of souls

-All living things have a soul, 3 types: ---Vegetative soul possessed by plants; allows growth, nutrition, reproduction ---Sensitive soul possess by animals; can also experience pain & pleasure, remember ---Rational soul possessed only by humans; what makes us human is capacity for rational thought

aristotle on empiricism

-Also interested in essential truths, but contrary to Plato, thought they could be known by studying nature. -Combined rationalism with empiricism, & used both inductive & deductive reasoning. -Emphasis on careful observation and classification of phenomena (including mental processes and human behavior).

pre-civilized views of the world

-Animism - the belief that everything in nature is alive -Anthropomorphism - the projection of human attributes onto nonhuman things (i.e., earth or sky could be angry) -Spirits as explanation - assumes that spirits reside in everything, including humans, & control behavior & events -Magic - elaborate methods to influence spirits -Reification - belief that anything that can be imagined must exist

pluralist school

-Attempted to reconcile Parmenides' rejection of change with the apparently changing world of sense experience -Taught Empedocles and Anaxagoras

dualism

-Because the rational world is the source of knowledge, it is superior to the world of the senses, of experience. -In people, the mind is superior to the flesh, and the body comes to be despised. -The mind, or soul, is believed to be immortal. -This dualistic view was later embraced by Plato and became important in Christian thought through his influence. -It is also consistent with Dionysiac-Orphic religion, which sees the body as sinful and a prison for the soul which seeks release

uses of scientific method in psychology

-Discovery of lawful relationships between classes of stimuli and classes of behavior -Discovery of biochemical correlates of cognitive processes -Discovery of a genetic contribution to characteristics such as intelligence & personality

dawn of the renaissance

-During the 14th & 15th centuries, the authority of the church was still supreme. -Two classes of people, believers & nonbelievers, & latter were to be converted, or else punished or killed (i.e., Inquisition and witch hunts) -Astrology & magic practiced by almost everyone, superstition omnipresent -For centuries, little philosophical, scientific, or theological progress

greek medicine

-Early medicine included temple medicine, healing rituals practiced by priests in secret and guarded, accompanied by much ritual and ceremony by patients -Alcmaeon: naturalized medicine -Hippocrates: father of medicine -Galen: hypothesized personality

roman period

-Emphasis on spirit in roman empire -Began around 7th century BC, Empire began 27 BC, lasted until the fall of Rome in 476 AD -Romans ruled entire Western world, many cultural influences spread, including Greek thought and various Eastern & mystery religions, which emphasized death & renewal, purification, forgiveness of sin, exaltation to new life

hippocrates

-Father of medicine -Humans are made of four humors, which need to stay in balance ---All disorders caused by natural factors such as inherited susceptibility and organic injury, and by imbalances in bodily fluids ---Body has the ability to heal itself, physician's job was to facilitate natural healing-treat the whole patient, not just the disease ---The Hippocratic oath, written by the Pythagoreans

aristotle on the mind

-First functional view of the mind: the "mind" is what the mind does -It is not an immaterial essence, it is the mental processes -Studied these processes: ---senses ---reasoning ---memory ---association

aristotle on causation and teleology

-Four causes: ---Material cause (material made of) ---Formal cause (form of an object) ---Efficient cause (force that transforms the matter into a particular form) ---Final cause (purpose for which an object exists) -Final cause: what is it for? -"Logos" = the point or purpose of something -Teleology -belief that everything has a purpose; Aristotle believed the purpose is built in (entelechy). -Unmoved mover - that which gives the purpose of everything but is itself uncaused. It sets things in motion, is a logical necessity. NOT God.

plato focus on the mind

-Gave philosophy, theology, & psychology the foundational idea that access to the World of Ideas (the "real" world) is by thinking, rather than by observation through the senses. -The soul/mind reveals the real world & is immortal (foundational for Christian thought) -The soul/mind perceives, thinks, & guides behavior. -However, the soul/mind is influenced by irrational as well as rational forces, & these must be guarded against.

epistemology

-How do we know? -Three major ___________ that are important in the history of psychology: ---Authority ---Experience/Empiricism ---Rationalism

breakdown of church authority

-Humanist writers & Protestant Reformation criticized excesses, hypocrisy, greed -Effects of the Plague (Black Death) 1347-1350 -Church dogma susceptible to attack through reason & science (ironically, through methods espoused by Aquinas, under influence of Aristotle) ---i.e. "fixed truths" such as exactly 7 heavenly bodies in the solar system, earth is center ---Church's response to explain, then censor

the study of psychology

-Humanity's interest in "psychology" is as old as humanity. -The history of psychology involves multiple disciplines, such as philosophy, theology, biology, and the arts. -Psychology as a formal science dates from the late 19th century. -Current view: Psychology is a science, & should be based on the scientific method.

galen

-Hypothesized personality -Personality theory created by associating the four humors of Hippocrates with four temperaments

sophists

-In the 2nd half of the 5th century BC, particularly at Athens, "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant intellectuals who: ---Taught courses in "excellence" or "virtue" ---Speculated about the nature of language and culture ---Employed rhetoric to achieve their purposes, generally to persuade or convince others -They held that truth is relative, no single truth exists ---But claimed that they could find the answers to all questions

early christian views on faith and reason

-In the Middle Ages, Christian tradition emphasized faith, and was suspicious of both human reason & study of natural phenomena. -An 11th century Augustinian, Peter Lombard, made a major departure from tradition to argue that reason can and should supplement faith. -Lombard also argued that God could be known by studying nature. Thus, there are 3 ways to learn about God: (1) faith, (2) reason, & (3) the study of God's works.

roman emphasis on spirit

-Interest in Plato among many Roman philosophers -Judaism - one God with interest in human behavior & strict code of behavior for which one could be rewarded or punished

thomas aquinas

-Largely responsible for the assimilation of Aristotle into Christian beliefs (much like Augustine bringing in Plato 900 years earlier) ---Reason & faith not incompatible, both lead to God & God's glory ---Permissible to reason about matters of faith, and even debate church doctrine [REASON] ---Legitimized the study of nature [EMPIRICISM] -Once Aristotle was assimilated into church dogma, not challengeable -Almost as sacred as the Bible

aristotle on knowledge

-Levels of information and knowledge: ---Sensory information (necessary, not sufficient) ---Common sense (synthesize information from senses) ---Passive reason (use synthesized sensory information to function in everyday life) ---Active reason (use synthesized experience to find abstract principles - highest form of thinking) -Active reason gives humans their purpose & greatest source of pleasure. Only humans are capable of it

pythagoras and dualism

-Mathematical laws work perfectly only in the abstract world of mathematics, not in the real world where nothing is quite perfect (i.e. -Pythagorean theorem works only for a "perfect" right triangle). -Thus, there must be a dualistic universe: ---Abstract, unchanging universe known by reason & logic ---Empirical, ever-changing universe know through the senses

alcmaeon

-Naturalized medicine -Proposed a balance of physical qualities needed for health ---Physician's job was to help the patient regain equilibrium (a contemporary concept) ---Through research, concluded that sensation, perception, memory, thinking, and understanding occurred in the brain based on own dissection work

backlash against aristotelianism in religion

-One of four themes in renaissance humanism -Church had embraced Aristotle to the point of making him authoritative in theology; reliance on rationalism led to set of rules/dogma more important than personal relationship with God

personal religion

-One of four themes in renaissance humanism -Desire for more personal & less formal/ritualistic religion

interest in the past

-One of four themes in renaissance humanism -Especially Greek & Roman poets, philosophers, & politicians

beginning of philosophy

-Philosophy ("love of knowledge") begins ~ 6th cent. BC; Greek Golden Age Socrates-Plato-Aristotle -Marks turning point when supernatural explanations (mythos) are replaced by natural explanations (logos) -Some important issues included: ---How to know something (reality) that is always changing. (Heraclitus: "It is impossible to step twice into the same river.") ---The subjective nature of our perceptions/senses. ---Emphasis on logic (& mathematics) as unchanging, thus more reliable way to know.

aristotle on the problem of change

-Plato dealt with problem of how to know an ever-changing world by focusing on dualism and believing in an unchanging "real" world. -Aristotle, on the other hand, was the first major philosopher to focus on the causes of change, motion, etc.

cosmology and beginning of modern science

-Ptolemy's geocentric view part of church dogma & worldview -Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed heliocentric view; seen as opposed to both church dogma and Scripture, heretical -Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): mathematician & inventor of telescope who observed & made mathematical deductions about the universe; disproved much of church dogma & was subjected to the Inquisition -The confrontation between the church and scientists such as Galileo had tremendous implications for the relationship between religion and science after that time. -By trying to dictate (wrong) science, the church undermined its own credibility and authority

aristotle on laws of association

-Recall, an active mental search for a previous experience, is affected by laws of association: ---Law of contiguity -things that occurred close in time and/or in same situation are associated ---Law of similarity - similar things are associated ---Law of contrast - opposite things are associated ---Law of frequency - events that occur together frequently have a stronger association -Laws of association are basis for most theories of learning.

saint paul

-Roman citizen with education in Judaism and Greek philosophy -Especially influenced by Plato & idea that the body is inferior (bad); knowledge can be attained only by escaping from sensory experience -More of a neoplatonist - instead of emphasizing reason, he emphasized faith. -Humans divided into 3 parts: body (source of evil), mind (caught between body & spirit), and spirit (spark of God within, immortal part) -Dualistic in views ---Eternal struggle between flesh and God's law -Paul's ideas combining Judaism and neoplatonism formed basis of doctrine for first 300 years of Christianity (but many debates concerning doctrine)

christian scholasticism on faith and reason

-Scholasticism - a movement in the 12th & 13th centuries that synthesized Aristotle's philosophy & Christian theology; i.e., brought faith & reason together -Peter Abelard (1079-1144) ---Believed all methods of inquiry would lead to God's truth, including reason & study of nature ---Used dialectic method to describe & debate 158 questions answered inconsistently by Scripture & various Christian theologians

what is science

-Science is systematic. (organized, logical, methodical) -Science is rational in its explanations. (using reason & logic to organize & explain info) -Science is based on empirical observations. (based on measurable, testable facts; direct observation of nature)

laws

-Science traditionally involves the search for laws, or lawful relationships. -Scientific law: a consistently observed relationship between 2 or more empirical events. -Laws can be correlational or causal. -Correlational laws- describe how classes of events vary together in some systematic way (allows for prediction) -Causal laws- describe how events are causally related (allows for prediction and control) -The search for causes is a major goal of science. -The assumption that causes exist for everything is called determinism. -ALL SCIENCES ASSUME DETERMINISM.

difference between empiricism and rationalism

-Science uses both E and R. -Empirical observation (use of sensory observation, direct study of nature and natural phenomena, measurement of data) is used to collect data. -Rationalism (logic) is used to formulate theories.

beginning of enlightenment

-Scientists at the end of the Renaissance period ushered in the Enlightenment or Age of Reason (in contrast to the irrational & superstitious Dark Ages). -This is the foundation of the "modern" period, which has continued to the present, although not without significant critics (to be studied later).

middle ages

-Sometimes Dark Ages & Middle Ages are combined and referred to by either name -By 11th - 12th centuries, increased peace & stability in Europe, also Crusades-- travel & education, rediscovery of Greek classics, especially Aristotle -Increasing tension between philosophy & religion, as Church still had tremendous power and resisted change -Islam was a powerful force in the world

black plague

-Source: oriental rat flea -Killed 1/3 of European population (25 million) -People tried to stop scents and church bells, used charms, spells, and fire -Affected economy, church, arts

saint augustine

-St. Augustine lived after Constantine & just before the fall of Rome, during very difficult times as the Empire was invaded by barbarian hordes & experiencing internal decay. -Augustine was a notorious "sinner" until a miraculous conversion, then became a radical Christian, totally opposed to fleshly pleasures (even church music!). -He combined neoplatonism, Judaism, and Christianity into a powerful Christian worldview that dominated Western life & thought until the 13th century.

neoplatonism

-Stressed the mystical aspects of Plato's philosophy & minimized the rational aspects.

atomist school

-Taught that the hidden substance in all physical objects consists of different arrangements of atoms and void ---Both atoms and void were never created, and they will be never ending -Taught Democritus

augustine's views

-The Will - freedom to choose ---Internal sense ---Doctrine of predestination -Instrumental in shifting the locus of control of human behavior from external to internal -Dualism: ---body vs. spirit (contempt for the flesh) ---God vs. Satan for souls ---City of God vs. city of this world -No interest in this fallen world, what is important is the spiritual realm. -True knowledge is knowing God. God is known through: (1) Scripture and (2) inner experience. -Greatest need is for repentance & salvation, human responsibility & will emphasized -Rejected study of nature, including natural study of people

beginning of modern science

-The history of the modern period is about the development of the scientific method, a combination of empiricism and rationalism. -Empiricism and rationalism developed separately, at times in opposition to each other, but more often overlapping. Both schools ultimately made major contributions to the scientific worldview.

plato on the soul

-The soul has 3 parts which are often in conflict: ---Rational component: immortal, existed with the "forms" ---Courageous (or emotional) component: emotions ---Appetitive component: needs such as hunger & sex that must be satisfied -To attain knowledge, both the emotions and the appetites of the body must be suppressed. The rational part must control. -The belief in immortality of the soul & contempt for the body were adopted by early Christianity.

thomas kuhn

-The traditional view held that the scientific method guaranteed objectivity, and science progressed steadily to a greater understanding of truth. - ____ showed science to be highly subjective, governed by paradigms, or beliefs shared by members of the scientific community. ---Changes to the paradigm are resisted and come only after a large number of anomalies mount up. ---A change is called a paradigm shift.

karl popper

-Traditionally, science was seen as beginning with empirical observation. _____ ________ said scientists don't wander around observing at random. Rather, they are interested in a particular problem, they have ideas about the problem, and they make observations that relate to it. The process is problem-theory criticism. -Principle of falsifiability: A theory is only scientific if it can be tested and potentially disproved. -Theories should make risky predictions. -Theories that are not falsifiable are usually vague postdictions (explain something after the fact, or may rely on unsupported opinion or anecdotes). -The process described by _______ is thought to lead to a continual refining of theories, gradually developing theories with greater explanatory power.

persistent questions in psychology

-What is the nature of human nature? -In other words, what is universally true about humans? What are we all born with? -Are we inherently good, inherently evil, or neither? -How are humans related to animals? -Are they quantitatively or qualitatively different? -Can we learn anything from studying animals? How are the mind and body related? How many realities are there? One? Two? -What is the "self"? -Are we the same person from day to day and year to year? In what ways are you the same as you were 15 years ago? In what ways are you different? -Does the self have a separate existence? What do you mean when you say "I said to myself" or "I watched myself" or "I am critical of myself"? Who is the "I" and who is the "self"?

separation of religion and science

-With the emphasis on scientific study of the natural world, and the discrediting of the church, came a separation between the realms of faith and science. They were seen as knowable through different means. -One powerful influence on the modern worldview was Sir Isaac Newton.

authority

1/3 types of epistemology -We know because someone in ___________ told us so. -This could be a respected person, religious book, etc. -A very powerful source of knowledge because of our emotional connection to the _____________.

empiricism

1/3 types of epistemology We know through experience and observation of the world. The mind is a passive receptacle. -Personal experience -Scientific observation/measurement

rationalism

1/3 types of epistemology We know through using reason and logic. The mind actively organizes and evaluates what we observe.

emperor constantine

272-337 AD Signed the Edict of Milan (313) -Made Christianity a tolerated religion in the Roman Empire -Reduced social turmoil, increases his power -Debates concerning the nature of Jesus -Convened as Nicaean Council of bishops ---Decided God and Jesus were equal status ---Defined a single set of documents to be defined as "Scripture" ---Established the "Constantine Bible" whose contents are lost today -Current NT decreed by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (367) -___________ also embraced pagan beliefs -Sympathy toward Christianity was more political than religious

democritus

460-370 BC -First completely naturalistic description of the universe ---All things were made of tiny particles called atoms ---Characteristics of things are determined by shape, size, number, location, and arrangement of atoms -All things and events, animate, inanimate, and cognitive can be reduced to atoms and atomic activity -Atom's behavior is lawful (determinism) ---All things explained by atomic activity (elementism) ---Events and phenomena explained in terms of another, more elemental level (reductionism) -Described sensation and perception in terms of atoms emanating from the surface of objects and entering the body through the sensory systems and then transmitted to the brain

socrates

470-399 BC -Believed that objective truth exists and can be found logically. -Emphasis on the power of reason; believed we can actually "recall" knowledge from within us. ---Foundation of later philosophical and psychological beliefs about innate or inborn abilities -Doing bad results from ignorance, knowledge key to virtue

definition of science

Developed as a way to answer questions about nature by directly examining nature, in contrast to unquestionable acceptance of church dogma, past authorities, superstition, or by using abstract thought alone. "Traditionally, the systematic attempt to rationally categorize or explain empirical observations."

empiricism and rationalism

Two ancient methods of attaining knowledge: -Empiricism (direct observation, use of senses and measurements) -Rationalism (use of logic and reason) After centuries of debating which was better, we found that neither alone is sufficient to advance knowledge. The power of science comes from the combination of E and R.

early greek religion

Two major theologies in 5th & 6th cent. BC: -Olympian religion - valued intelligence, rationality, noble deeds; saw gods as arbitrary and unconcerned; the religion of the elite -Dionysiac-Orphic religion - emphasized mysticism and experience; central idea was the transmigration of the soul, rituals were designed to atone for sin & free the soul to go to heaven; the religion of the lower classes -Dualism: reason vs. emotions