History and Systems Midterm

What does James mean when he says that pragmatism "is a method only"?

"At the same time it (Pragmatism) does not stand for any special results. It is a method only." The focus of the pragmatic method is on consequences and outcomes, the one goal of the method is "set it at work within the stream of your experiences." Pragmatism is focused on outcomes, means to ends Pragmatism is answering questions by casting them in terms of the effect they have on our behavior

What is the Rosenthal effect and what does it have to do with the concept of intelligence?

AKA Pygmalion Effect or Rosenthal-Jacobson Effect Higher expectations → higher performance When teachers informed children were of higher IQ, they had better performance than kids labeled as not so hot; influence of labelling even know kids didn't really have higher IQ necessarily

Over which issues did Freud break with Adler?

Adler- Both Freud and Adler believed that a psychological/mental complex was a constellation of highly-charged and conflict-laden issues stemming back to childhood. Unlike Freud's notion that motivation is based in sexual attitudes and impulses, Adler emphasized the role of inferiority feelings during childhood and believed that the greatest human motivating factor was the need to overcome inferiority and become a master of their own environment. Adler also altered the therapy environment by removing the couch and facing the patient to show equality. Adler's Individual Psychology also placed more focus on conscious misconceptions of the self rather than deeply repressed memories that Freud would attend to.

What did each of the following contribute to the understanding of intelligence: Binet, Terman, Yerkes?

Binet - published intelligence scale as goal of identifying children who may benefit from special education; functional and pragmatic view of intelligence testing; introduced concept of mental age Terman - Can sort individuals based on intelligence test; Terman was source of Binet scale popularity; Stanford-Binet (1916); standardized scale with mean of 100 and SD of 15; associated IQs with professions; IQs of historical figures; interested in "giftedness" and future successes/performance (longitudinal assessment of intelligence) Yerkes - Intelligent people spend more time in school; turn test into industry; impact of testing on profession (sort out and maximize skills)

What was Binet's vision of intelligence and how was it thwarted by several subsequent intelligence researchers?

Binet warned of the dangers of categorizing people for labels (structural approach) -He wanted to sort people in a functional way so he could help -Put children into an environment that best supports them (more humanitarian goals) Vs. (Examples) 1. William Stern - comes up with intelligence quotient (IQ) in order to quantify 2. Henry Goddard - wanted to determine heritability of intelligence; institutionalize those of lower intelligence and keep those of lower intelligence out of America; beliefs in sterilization 3. Terman - wants to sort kids, particularly gifted children 4. Jensen - intelligence as mostly biologically-determined, so compensatory education (like Head Start) fails; racial differences in intelligence

What was The Psychological Care of the Infant and Child (1928)? What was its impact on American society?

Book written by Watson and Rayner (1928) Very detailed/scheduled training on how to care for children Provided one of the first psychology informed parenting books-used behavior principles

How did Goddard use the Jukes and Kallaks to advance his social agenda?

Kallikak family - extended case study to discuss role of genetics in deviant behavior; Goddard suggested inheritance of "feeble-mindedness" so society should limit reproduction by people possessing these traits -1912 book by Goddard -Family member incarcerated at Vineland school Jukes also part of family case studies conducted in early 20th century to determine role of environment vs. genetics in criminality, disease, and poverty Families often used as arguments in support of eugenics - Goddard went along with idea

What does the Hampton Court Maze have to do with the history of American psychology?

Learning experiments Combined physiological and comparative psychology Rats were still able to complete the maze under various types of sensory deprivation Records of behavior -Watson engaged in these types of experiments

Describe Watson's early work as a psychologist. How does this contribute to his development of behaviorism?

Learning focused- nerve mylenization First project: learning occurs only when myelinization of nerve fibers in brain is advanced, learning to press a lever to open a box with food in it Dissertation: animal education Became a full professor at JHs- focused on animal behavior

What is the significance of letters in the history of science? To what did letters give rise?

Letters were written to self-publish and circulate research to other colleagues. At the time it was an instant means of communication and way of sharing ideas. Letters served as an informal precursor to scientific journals.

What role did women psychologists play in the development of psychological testing? (reading)

Served as associates (e.g., to Goddard, Terman) Catherine Cox (Terman's student) - method of estimating IQs of historical figures) , estimated correlation between IQ and eminence; involved in genetic studies of intelligence

Describe two similarities between Freud and Skinner

Similarities: i. The belief that there was a cause and effect to human behavior (although the two explained these aspects very differently) and that the mechanism influencing complex behaviors can be understood. ii. Both incorporated environmental events in influencing human behavior, even events that are not always temporally close to the exhibiting behavior. Freud accounted for this with the unconscious while Skinner described it as the formation of a behavioral repertoire.

How did faculty salaries for psychologists influence the spread of behaviorism?

Universities had begun to see psychology as a teaching profession rather than a research one. The only way to make more money before applied psychology research, was to teach more. Applied studies were more likely to get research funding because they showed their usefulness to society. Adopting behaviorism allowed psychologists to create applied research studies that had "practical" outcomes

What are the main tenants of Watson's behaviorism as expressed in the "behaviorist manifesto"? What does he want psychology to be and not to be?

Wants psychology to be a natural science Theoretical goal of control and prediction of behavior Wants psychology to be concerned with the control of human and nonhuman behavior Does not want psychology to use introspection Does not want psychology to research consciousness

1920

Watson and Raynor conduct Little Albert experiment

1913

Watson published "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"; Münsterberg publishes Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (first IO book)

What was the great disconnect that psychology attempted to bridge in its earliest days?

What the physical world IS vs. what the observer's mind observes. Our interpretation is different from reality, and what accounts for that?

Explain why intelligence might be considered a hypothetical construct. Explain how the criticisms of hypothetical constructs have been manifest in the concept of intelligence.

When it is treated as a "thing", it has significant social implications (e.g., labelling) Should be considered a hypothetical construct b/c concept is inferred based on statistical differences Once something becomes a "thing", it is treated as a "cause" of behavior Spurs other research/theories on the basis of it being a "thing" E.g., identifying the gene/biomarkers of intelligence

1879

Wilheim Wundt founds first experimental psych lab in Leipzig, Germany

What forces come together to create change in psychology?

o Facts, interpretation, "scientific findings"- changes as a function of facts o Funding priorities: university gets a portion of grants (distorts science to what the agency is interested in) o Disciplinary/University/Departmental politics and financial demands and pressures- e.g., faculty at WVU were behavioral, so WVU became behavioral o The vicissitudes of life- people come and go, changes the character of science

19th century Associationism

o James Mill (1773-1836) Ø Argued that people are motivated by self-interest and will strive to advance their own interests, even at the expense of others, unless some higher authority restrains such actions Ø Believed all children are born alike, with little variation in their potential for learning Ø Added muscle sense; disorganized sensations; and sensations from the alimentary canal to the original 5 senses Ø Noted that some associations are more compelling than others; three criteria of strength: permanence, certainty, and facility o John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Ø Saw need for subdivision of psych called "ethiology"- the influence of various external circumstances, whether individual or social, on the formation of moral and intellectual character Ø Certain qualities that make us human: sympathy, caring, compassion, dignity, love of beauty o Alexander Bain (1818-1903) Ø Was concerned with developing physiological explanations of human actions and thoughts Ø Added the "organic" sense (to the original 5), which provides sensations from our muscles and is closely involved in the coordination of movements

Distinguish the ideas Kuhn, Laudan, and Lakatos on how science in general changes. Which do you think offers the more useful perspective on change in the history of psychology? (KUHN)

o Paradigm/Worldview/Context: believed everyone was operating in paradigm; paradigm determines the way scientists make sense of the world, without it there is nothing about which to construct theories o Incommensurability ("relativity of scientific truth") o Revolutionary Paradigm Shifts: We stick with paradigm, until a better idea is presented (run from one model to another) -> paradigm shift Ø This change occurs in short amount of time (following Gould model) o Did not believe psychology was a science o One acceptable paradigm at a time

Distinguish the ideas Kuhn, Laudan, and Lakatos on how science in general changes. Which do you think offers the more useful perspective on change in the history of psychology? (Lakatos)

o Replaced Kuhnian paradigm with "Research Programs"- which involved a succession of theories Ø An acceptable new theory must both accommodate the successes of its predecessor and explain the data that brought the earlier theory into question o Plurality/Concurrent Coexistence: we can have multiple paradigms at a time; assumed that simultaneous existence of several research programs is the norm o Progressive Program: theory is " theoretically progressive" if it leads to new predictions; theory is "empirically progressive" if some of the new predictions receive empirical support o Degenerating Programs: may mean that program has temporarily ceased to yield new predictions or empirical successes o Growth and regression for these paradigms (we come back)

Distinguish the ideas Kuhn, Laudan, and Lakatos on how science in general changes. Which do you think offers the more useful perspective on change in the history of psychology? (Laudan)

o Research traditions (replaced research programs): sets of theories with common ontological (nature of being) and methodological bases o Theories not tied to experimental success or failure o Core commitments (immune from direct refutation, "functionally metaphysical"): pass unchanged through successor theories in a research program

What is the significance of J. S. Mill's four methods discussed in class?

o Wanted to find out how to establish "causes"- makes this significant o Uses the experimental method- makes this significant o Method of Agreement (first way to find "cause") o Different situations with one common element (bed-time problems, sibling problems, etc.) o The common element in all situations where there is a problem o Mills proposed 1 cause and 1 effect, but we know it is much more than that o "Causes" may be health issues, inconsistency in reinforcement, etc. · Method of Differences o Stemmed because of issues with Method of Agreement o Everything stays the same but change one thing o Similar situations that differ in only one respect o Example: Daddy- getting ready for bed, school; No Daddy- getting ready for bed school (did anything change?) · Joint Method of Agreement and Difference o Observation of common elements (agreement) leads to their isolation (differences) o Try to isolate "common elements" and then use Method of Differences to find if actually "causes" · Method of Concomitant Variation o When one phenomenon varies as a function of changes in another, then one is either a cause or an effect of the other o Correlation o Suggests parametric statistics

What are the core assumptions of Gestalt psychology? Why is it a field theory?

-Assumptions: -Field theory = looks at interaction between the individual and the total field/environment. Gestalt looks holistically at perception and the perceptual field as a whole.

Pavlov is sometimes considered the Messiah of philosophical associationism. Why?

-Classical conditioning = modernized version of associative learning (teaching animals to learn new associations between stimuli) "association reflexes" -Philosophical associationism: originated with Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) & Hume's Treatise of Human Nature (1739) - theory on how perceptions ("impressions" from the external world) determine succession of ideas (internal world).

Why is Pavlov a pivotal figure in the history of psychology

-Demonstrated the value of the experimental method in psychological research -Value of single-case designs -Introduced intensive study of living organisms rather than vivisection (operating on dead animals)

What is elementalism and how did the Gestalt psychologists view it?

-Elementalism: breaking things down to their constituent parts -Gestalt psychologists believe the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, not as much to be gained by breaking things down to parts and studying each part individually

Why is the paper by Yerkes & Morgulis (1909) so important in the history of psychology?

-Introduced the importance of classical conditioning/animal research to U.S. Psych -Later lead to Watson's interest in conditioning

How do Koehler's experiments on insight and the umweg problem illustrate the Gestalt psychology framework.

-Koehler (1935-1959) : expanded Gestalt framework from perception to cognitive problem solving in research with monkeys -Learning not by training but by "insight" (restructuring of perceptive field)

Why is Lewin's theory of personality considered a field theory?

-Kurt Lewin(1890-1947): father of social psych -Person is seen as a field operating within a field, operating within a field. Inseparable. -Life space = a field -Forces & vectors act upon individual in field

When did Americans first learn of Pavolv? From whom?

-Pavlov: 1849-1936 -Yerkes & Morgulis (1909)/Watson?

What is the significance of the phi phenomenon?

-Scientific backing for a Gestalt perspective on perception -Max Wertheimer (1912): lights appear to be moving when they are actually blinking in sequence

What three major themes does Darwin's work contribute to psychology, in the long run?

1. Adaptation = Adjustment; influenced John Dewey (educational reform) and the functionalist school also Carl Rogers and congruence 2. Understandable change, evolution (evolution of the individual is like G. Stanley Hall's (1846-1924) developmental psychology) deterministic systems (outcomes defined by physical causality) 3. Feedback systems - later influenced Skinner's behavior analysis and the mechanical nature in which cognitive psychology is understood. (Remember the discussion of the steam engine which heated the water to a certain temperature by letting off a certain amount of steam accordingly when needed).

Identify three rationalist philosophers who contributed their ideas, and what their ideas were, before 1800.

1. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) o Psychophysical parallelism o Ideas are innate, not derived from experience o Innate predispositions activated by experience o Everything we know, we are born with (e.g., IQ, mental health issues, etc.) o Environment just shapes what's already in our heads o Still having this debate now (nature vs. nurture) 2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) o Reasserted the importance of innate ideas; natural world conforms to the mind o Rationalism o Psychological as opposed to physiological account of knowing 3. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) o Getting back to nature o Emile: little boy inhibited in school, when allowed to "run wild"- his innate ideas develop o Natural education o Corrupting influences of society: people naturally good, society corrupts us

What are psychophysical methods and why are they important?

1. Method of constant stimuli: Participant has to classify which stimuli are the same as, stronger, or weaker than a standard stimuli. Stimuli stronger and weaker than the standard stimuli are presented in random order preventing the participant from making a cutoff somewhere in the lineup if they were presented in decreasing or increasing intensity. 2. Method of average error: Given a standard stimulus, participants attempt to adjust it to the level of another strength of stimulus. 3. Method of limits: Participant has to increase or decrease a stimulus relative to a standard stimulus until a just noticeable difference is achieved.

Identify three empiricist philosophers who contributed their ideas, and what their ideas were, before 1800.

1. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) o Memory, dreams originate in the senses (experience) o Motivation determined by external events o Determinist: behavior has causes that we can understand o No innate ideas: getting away from internal causes 2. John Locke (1632-1704) o "Tabula Rasa" o Wrote: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) o No innate ideas o Origins of ideas in sensation, reflection o "Mind is a blank slate that experience influences" o Wants to find new ideas, specifically o Qualities of ideas: primary (inseparable from physical world) and secondary (separable from physical world) o Knowledge derives from reflection on ideas o Coined term "association of ideas" o Maybe ideas change as a result of experience 3. George Berkeley (1685-1753) o Associations between ideas are learned o Perception of a 3D world from a 2D retinal image (comes about as a function of experience) o We perceive things a certain way because of experience

What did Wundt contribute to psychology?

1879 starts the first Institute for Experimental Psychology in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was a physiologist studying sensation and perception (attention, memory, association, vision, audition, touch, time-sense). He systematized things. Method of study came to be known as experimental introspection—introduced lab apparatus that standardized and mechanized presentations of stimuli subjects would report on. Manipulated conditions of internal perception to approximate external perception. Wanted subjects to be as passive as possible—rely on observation over memory.

Dewey was suspicious of the reflex arc. What's the story?

1896 - "The reflex arc concept in psychology" Psychological Review, most famous In it Dewey argued that neural circuitry of the reflex arc was being misinterpreted by behaviorist psychology, which was using stimulus and response as basic units. Physiology implied a unity of coordinated action, but psychology was treating "stimulus'" and "response'" as separable: one isolatable and independent event as "cause'" and a subsequent and isolatable event as the "effect" In the behaviorist view, learning at all ages involved the gradual strengthening (due to experience) of S-R associations. Any complex behavior (even language) could be built out of a series of simple connections - associated chains of neurons e.g. Skinner's pigeons playing ping-pong. "It being admitted that the sensorimotor apparatus represents both the unit of nerve structure and the type of nerve function, the image of this relationship passed over into psychology, and became an organizing principle to hold together the multiplicity of fact.'' (Dewey, 1896)

Anna Freud

(20th cent) Austrian-british psychoanalyst, daughter of Sigmund Freud. Extended psychoanalysis to children.

Godfried Leibniz

(late 17th, early 18th cent) German philosopher. Rationalist. Psychophysical parallelism, Everything we know, we are born with (e.g., IQ, mental health issues, etc.), Environment just shapes what's already in our heads

Mary Calkins

(late 19th - early 20th cent) American psych. 1st female president of the APA.

Ronald A. Fisher

(late 19th - early 20th cent) British statistician. Invented ANOVA

William Stern

(late 19th - early 20th century) Born in Germany, moved to US. Created the intelligence quotient. IQ = MA/CA x 100.

W. S. Gossett

(late 19th - early 20th century) British, worked @ Guinness. Published the 1st T-test under pen name "student"

Karen Horney

(late 19th - early 20th century) German psychoanalist, practiced in U.S, questionned Freud on treatment of women and theories of sexuality.

J.R. Kantor

(late 19th - mid 20th cent) @ Chicago after Watson. Behavioral field theorist. Believes in inter-behaviorism. Cannot experiment because things are too interconnected. Looks at individual in context.

Kert Koffka

(late 19th - mid 20th cent) German gestalt psychologist who established Gestalt psych w/ Wertheimer & Koehler.

Jean- Martin Charcot

(late 19th cent) French clinician. one of the best-known clinicians of the second half of the 19th century; director of Salpetriere (in Paris) who turned it into a research hospital; made important contributions to the understanding of diseases of the nervous system; studied hysteria; Freud studied with him and learned hypnosis

Margaret Floy Washburn

(late 19th early 20th) American psych. one of 1st-gen women psychologists; the first woman PhD in (Cornell University) wrote The Animal Mind: A Text-book of Comparative Psychology, which mainly covered sensory function and learning (was the standard textbook in the field for 25 years). 2nd woman APA pres.

E. G. Boring

(late 19th, early 20th cent) American Psych @ Clark & Cornell. Trained by Titchener. Studied sensation perception, history. Wrote about "the woman problem" (outlining difficulties for women in the field). Worked with Yerkes on Army testing but didn't think it was rigorous enough. "Intelligence is what the intelligence tests test"

Bertha Pappenheim

(late 19th, early 20th cent) Anna O. client treated by Breuer using the "talking cure," where she would talk about her emotions and her father, for 18 months

Josef Breurer

(late 19th, early 20th cent) Austrian neurologist some 14 years Freud's senior; Freud's friend, confidant, and perhaps equally important, an important source of referrals; published Studies on Hysteria (1895) together

Wolfgang Koehler

(late 19th, early 20th cent) Founder of Gestalt, interested in insight.

Hugo Munsterberg

(late 19th, early 20th cent) German psychologist, earned his PhD with Wundt in 1885; wrote Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913) and On the Witness Stand (1908) about psychologists in court; recruited to become director of the Harvard Psychological Laboratory by James

Kurt Lewin

(late 19th, early 20th cent) Trained by Koehler, personality field theory (life space)

Max Wertheimer

(late 19th, early 20th cent) started Gestalt theory as an alternative to Wundtian tradition with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler.

Robert Yerkes

(later 19th cent- mid 20th cent) American psychologist, developed Army's Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests; believed that comparative research was best way to understand human sexual behavior, wrote article on Pavlov w/ Morgulis

Johann Spurzheim

(mid 18th-mid 19th cent) German physician, chief proponent of phrenology.

Franz Joseph Gall

(mid 18th-mid- 19th cent) French physiologist, neuroanatomist. Phrenology.

Vladimir Bechterev

(mid 19th - early 20th cent) Russian neurologist, father of "objective psychology". Contemporary of Pavlov, also worked with conditioned reflexes, but in humans. Disagreed with Pavlov often.

Adolf Meyer

(mid 19th - early 20th cent) Swiss. first psychiatrist in chief @ Hopkins. Empiricist, scientific approach to psych.

Charles Sanders Peirce

(mid 19th, early 20th) American phil. How to Make Our Ideas Clear (1878); his version of pragmatism (scientific ideas and knowledge can never be certain and therefore should be judged according to the work they do in the world) influenced James to create his own; competed with James for a Harvard position and lost out

Renee Descartes

(16th century) French philosopher. cogito ergo sum, dualism, mechanics of behavior. 2 kinds of behavior: 1. voluntary (operant, mind) 2. Involuntary (respondent, body)

John Locke

(17th Century) English philosopher & physician. "Tabula Rasa", no innate ideas, coined term "association of ideas"

Jean-Jaques Rousseau

(18th Century) French philosopher. Getting back to nature, wrote Emile: little boy inhibited in school, when allowed to "run wild"- his innate ideas develop, proponent of natural education & the corrupting influences of society: people naturally good, society corrupts us

George Berkeley

(18th Century) Irish philosopher. 1st to say that the association between ideas are learned. Perceive 3d world via 2d retinal image as a function of experience.

David Hume

(18th cent) Scottish philisopher. suggests a new science of enquiry. Sense are key, associated with ideas/impressions. Associated by 1. Resemblance, 2. Contiguous in time/space 3. Cause-effect.

Kant

(18th century) German philosopher.importance of innate ideas, natural world conforms to mind, psychological vs physiological account of knowledge

Julian de la Mettrie

(18th century) Man as machine, materialist

What did Mary Cover Jones do that Watson and Rayner did not do?

(1924) A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter extinction of conditioned fear, counter conditioning observe other children playing with the rabbit "The mother of behavior therapy"

Francis Galton

(19th - early 20th cent) British statistician @ UC London. Founded eugenics, wrote on hereditary intelligence. Measuring physical characteristics that correlate with success in life @ Anthropomoetric lab.

Thomas Huxley

(19th Century) English biologist. Comparative anatomy. "Darwin's Bulldog"

J. S. Mill

(19th cent) British philosopher/political economist. Son of James Mill: How we establish causes: 1. Method of agreement, method of difference, 1&2 combined, or method of concomitant variance (correlation). Mind is greater than the sum of its parts.

Bell (scottish) and Magendie (French)

(19th century) Bell Magendie law of nerve function: Dorsal root = sensory, ventral = motor.

George Romaines

(19th century) Canadian & British physiologist. influenced by Darwin, wrote Animal Intelligence on anthropomorphic analysis which was the foundation for comparative psychology (study of behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the adaptive significance and development of behavior). Assigned human characteristics to animals. One of the first to study psychology of animals, but used anecdotal evidence and inferences.

Gustav Fechner

(19th century) Polish, worked in Leipzig Germany. Provided objective method to measure connections between physical and mental life. Developed psychophysics, building upon the work by Weber with sensation to understand the connection of the mind and body. He created a psychophysical curve (logarithmic function, mathematical law) to describe and predict the relationship between the physical world and our subjective experience of it. He helped prove "man and nature are in harmony," quantification in psychology was possible, and measurement had clear methodological procedures.

Alfred Wallace

(19th century) contemporary of Darwin, discovered natural selection @ same time, wrote joint letter re: findings on natural selection.

Karl Pearson

(19th century) formalizes a lot of Galton's ideas, Pearson's r (formal way of correlating data)

Herbert Spencer

(19th century) published Principles of Sociology (1876); James used this book in his classes; "social Darwinism" guy

Rosalie Rayner

(1st half 20th cent) American psych. conducted Little Albert experiment with Watson; they had an affair, had babies—all very scandalous behavior for Boston society

Lauretta Bender

(20th cent) American gestalt psych. Created Bender-Gestalt test of visual motor maturation in children.

What is the significance of the split plot in the history of psychological research?

Based on agricultural work and "plots" of land; counterbalance if difference in temperature or soil and compare effects (between and within) Became basis of analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a statistical calculation of sources of variation due to IVs, interactions between IVs and error (uncontrolled sources)

How do changes in journals reflect the evolution of the field?

Based on the lecture I believe he is referring to journals being created, or the content being altered to incorporate contemporary issues. He had discussed how certain societies and journals were born out of special interest groups or dissenters of certain organizations (e.g., APS and APA). Changes in a particular area of research will likely be reflected in journals dedicated to that topic area, after the 3-6 month publication lag period.

Compare Bechterev's views of respondent conditioning (classical conditioning) with those of Pavlov.

Both believe that conditioned reflex is central to scientific study of the mind Pavlov: -Study of conditioning = insight to basic functions of brain Bechterev: -Applies classical conditioning to humans -More interested in skeletal movements than glandular secretions (shock w dogs) -Thought brain activity could be localized - wanted to know WHERE in the brain associations occur (I.e. search for lesions that would abolish trained movements) Conflicts: 1. After exposure to procedure with lights in varied color, dogs' conditioned response to one light could be distinguished from response to another -Bechterev interprets this as dogs ability to distinguish between color -Pavlov says it was actually intensity differences in perceived brightness -Failed to replicate Bechterev's results, 2. Removal of the cortex in area associated with salivary reactions abolished conditioned salivary reflexes. -Un-replicated by Pavlov & co-workers -At a demonstration, Pavlov is able to get one of Bechterev's dogs to salivate

What were Gould's criticisms of Yerkes's approach to intelligence?

Bought together major hereditarians to write the army mental tests Picks apart statistical arguments around IQ Says had a problem with equating correlation and causation Systematic bias in administration of Army Beta vs. Alpha against illiterate persons The average mental age based on testing was just above edge of moronity (illogical) Had racial implications Not enough attention to environmental influences

Over which issues did Freud break with Breuer?

Breuer- There is not much on Breuer in the chapter. Breuer was responsible for Freud's foray into hypnosis and hysteria, but Breuer only ever treated one patient and then was not active in the field. Freud did expand on the original cathartic method that Breuer endorsed.

1890

Cattell published Mental Tests and Measurements; James published The Principles of Psychology, Galton develops correlation

What does Pavlov bring from Claude Bernard to the methods of psychology?

Claude Bernard (1813-1878) -Claim that the set of reflexes involved in salivation is sensitive to differences in oral stimulation -Scientific rigor of physio experimental psych

What is the significance for psychology of the Watson and Rayner (1920) experiment with Little Albert?

Conditioned reflex in infants, emotional responses in infants Emotions (such as fear) can be conditioned in humans First experiment to go beyond simple reflex (emotions are complicated responses) Showed the generality of the Pavlovian paradigm

What is the significance of Gestalt psychology in the history of American psychology?

Crucible for modern cognitive psych, social psych, therapies such as ACT

July 1, 1858

Darwin and Wallace wrote a letter introducing evolution and natural selection

What happened at the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858?

Darwin and Wallace wrote a letter introducing evolution and natural selection.

1859

Darwin's Origin of the Species published

Darwin's theory was one of adaptation. How does that theme play out in American psychology before 1920?

Darwinism + Pragmatism = Functionalism. Theory of adaptation and adaptive behavior similar to James' view of functionalism. Whatever is functional remains. Charles Peirce -

Explain Weber's law and its significance to the development of psychology.

Delta I/I = K Change in intensity over intensity equals a constant "just noticeable difference" (how much change in stimulus e.g., light source, to notice the change in intensity). Provided objective method to measure connections between physical and mental life. Created psychophysical methods.

Describe two differences between Freud and Skinner

Differences: i. One key difference is how each viewed behavior. Skinner viewed behavior as the dependent variable, or the "primary datum" of research. Freud on the other hand viewed behavior merely as an expression of underlying mental disturbance. Ii. Freud believed a mental apparatus, whether it be a mental state or process, was linked between an environmental event and the behavior as opposed to Skinner's view that an organism merely reacts to its environment. Also, Freud allowed for a much more lenient temporal association between environmental event and behavior than Skinner.

What role did Goddard play in the history of intelligence testing?

Director of Research at the Vineland Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls and Boys (Jukes & Kallikak's) Coined the term "moron"; agreed with Binet that tests could identify people just below normal range = "morons" -Goddard believed scores as measure of "intelligence" (described as a "thing") - could use to recognize limits, segregate, and curtail breeding -Wanted to sterilize people of less than average intelligence; felt if we had better breeding, could rid America of some of its problems -Viewed low intelligence as posing a threat (linked with criminal bx) Discussed degrees of mental deficiency Strict hereditarian - inborn, inherited intelligence Advocated for institutionalization of those of low IQ (b/c sterilization was more impractical, though he was not opposed to it) Testing of mental "defectives" - Ellis Island; 50% morons by Goddard's scale -Rejected ideas about potential other influences (e.g., lack of speaking English, fear, testing conditions) -Influenced rates of deportation based on "mental defectiveness" Focus on visual identification of "morons" Later changed his mind; became supporter of Binet, but did not fully abandon ideas about inherited mentality

What is E.L. Thorndike's importance in the history of psychology?

E.L. Thorndike -Comparative psych - learning (association) in animals, research with objectivity and scientific rigor -Learning curve: Conceptualizes behavior as a function of intelligence -Puzzle boxes to test learning in cats -Law of effect: precursor to operant conditioning. Responses producing a satisfying effect in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in that situation -Study behavior, not consciousness

What is Watson's academic lineage? How does it differ from that of most other psychologists of his era? How does his lineage, including that of his Ph.D. shape his views of what psychology should be?

English Empiricism (i.e. Hume, Mill, Darwin)->American Functionalism (i.e. Dewey)-> Behaviorism Influenced by the pragmatist tradition Studied at University of Chicago with Functionalist researchers Dewey, Angell and a biologist (Donaldson)

Why is Kantor's theory considered a field theory? Briefly describe one other behaviorist field theory.

Field theory because shares concept of a psychological field; consider that the organism is affected by factors in the field which surrounds it Kantor - Behaviorists wanted to set up a field theory w/o mentalism -Interbehaviorism - interbehavior (IB) is a function of the organism (O), the stimulus (S), the meda (M), the setting factor (SF), and the reactional biography (RB) Tolman's Cognitive Field Theory Learning as a cognitive matter involving the whole organism rather than sa simple chain of responses; Learning as a function of the expectancy and its conformation -The need system -The belief value matrix -The behavior space Lewin's field theory - Comes out of quantum mechanics; forces operating in fields (vectors); borrowed concept of fields also from Gestalt psychologists Bx exists in a totality of interacting facets that comprise a dynamic field Field theory of personality -Person is a field operating within a field operating within a field -The two are inseparably entangled -Forces act on both to stimulate/goad/push and pull change -Forces(vectors) are physical, mental, and social Life space - all influence (psychological facts) operating on an individual at a given point in time; conflicting forces

1892 (two seminal events this year)

First APA meeting called by G. Stanley Hall; James's "A Plea for Psychology as a Natural Science" appears in the Philosophical Review; Münsterberg becomes director of the Harvard Psychological Laboratory

Identify the "firsts" attributed to G. Stanley Hall (by himself as well as others)

First American Ph.D. in psychology (Advisor: William James) Maybe first trained psychologist (can be argued) First research laboratory Johns Hopkins Founded American Journal of Psychology (America's first psychology journal) First President of Clark University First rat maze experiment at Clark By 1898, Hall had supervised 30 of the 54 Ph.D.s awarded in psychology in the United States to that date (some claim to being father of scientific psychology) July 8, 1892 - Founded APA, First President

What role does Pavlovian conditioning play in Watson's thinking about psychology? When and in what forum does he first articulate his views on Pavlov's work?

First articulates Pavlov's work during 1915 APA presidential address References Bekhterev-interested in conditioned motor reflex describes use of the conditioned reflex with children conditioned reflex can be a unit of measurement, and can be learned

What is the significance of James's 1890 book on Principles of Psychology for the history of psychology?

First psychology textbook, essentially launched psychology as its own discipline. Its topics set guidelines for what is included in the future of psychology. He claimed psychology was a natural science. Psychology = science of mental life, study of conscious processes and mental activity (which can be studied objectively). All natural sciences assume a world of matter that exists independently of the human mind—shouldn't worry ourselves 3 methods for psychology = introspection, experimentation, comparison. Introspection - looking into our minds and reporting (consciousness).

Explain how pragmatism has and has not been manifest in the evolution of intelligence as a construct.

Focus on facts and concreteness, success in terms of practical applications -Binet's approach as functional and pragmatic - use intelligence testing to match environment to child's needs 1. Envisioned tasks related to everyday life; established criterion/method of measuring intelligence; practical, empirical focus 2. No theoretical basis to his view of test; didn't assign meaning to scores; viewed IQ as more of a rough guideline with practical/functional implications for how to help Hereditarians believe measures of intelligence are markers of permanent, inborn limits (theory of limits); however, this argument may also have potential practical applications - e.g., training, careers Can describe other examples based on above notes of how intelligence has become more of a "thing" and is used to label/categorize, etc. Examples of how not always viewed as hypothetical construct, but as real entity

What is the evidence for and against a hereditary basis for intelligence?

For: Formula for predicting IW predicts regression toward the mean and the amount of regression for a trait depends on heritability, relatively stable over lifetime of individual; predictive of a variety of social outcomes Against: many studies with methodological/statistical limitations; if heritability of I.Q. is .80, then it would still be amenable to the influence of environment, race differences much more complex than just heritability; compensatory programs don't always work

How did Boring and Stevens (1939; "Operationism and the Science of Science") use operationism to keep mental constructs in psychology?

Found this online: Behaviorist psychologists took up operationalism (or operationism, as it was more often called in psychology) as a weapon in their fight against more traditional psychologists, especially those who prized introspection as the most important source of psychological knowledge. The Harvard psychologist Edwin Boring (1886-1968) saw operationalism as a modern substitute for positivism (everything can be verified; oposite of theism). It was Boring's student Stanley Smith Stevens (1906-1973) who was perhaps the most aggressive promoter of operationism in psychology. Stevens saw operationism as a sure method of increasing rigor in psychological experiments and discourse.

What is the significance of Clark University in the history of American psychology?

Founded in 1887 as first all-graduate school in US Hall first president at Clark Freud's only honorary degree at Clark and site of his "Clark Lectures" in 1909, which introduced psychoanalysis to the country Lectures part of the series planned to celebrate Clark's 20th anniversary- Freud and Jung attend. APA considers this the most famous conference in the history of American psych

What's the connection between hypnotism and Freud?

In his early career, Freud was mentored and supported by Josef Breur. Breur was a physician that stumbled on to a treatment known as the cathartic method, to treat symptoms of hysteria (Bertha Pappenheim). During treatment, Breuer would hypnotize her and ask her to recall events from her past that resulted in similar symptoms to the current issue. See more in the next bullet.

What is the significance of "Studies in Hysteria"?

Freud and Breur collaborated in writing Studies on Hysteria, which is a book describing the cathartic method in which they referred to the case of Anna O (Pappenheim). The hypothesis was that "hysterics suffer mainly from reminiscences" and that these emotionally charged memories have been forgotten and placed out of consciousness. These emotions ultimately become pathogenic ideas until stimuli eventually activate these emotions and result in hysteric symptoms. Freud concluded that hypnosis could allow the patient to access these feelings and ultimately resolve their issue. Later Freud would realize that the cathartic method only worked with individuals who could be deeply hypnotized and developed further theory.

7 Sept. 1909

Freud comes to U.S. for 20th anniversary of Clark University, 5 lectures given on psychoanalysis (history of psychoanalysis, psychopathology of everyday life, infantile sexuality, transference and wish fulfillment), Freud receives only honorary degree,introduces psychoanalysis to US

Describe in general terms why Freud's theory is called a "psychodynamic" theory.

Freud proposed many forces and aspects of the human psyche that were constantly in conflict. One example would be the regulation of the id by the ego and superego. Freud postulated that throughout early development that individual is experiencing a wide array of strong emotions and conflicts related to sexuality and death. Freud's theory attempts to incorporate the ever-changing dynamic of human behavior.

What three events/people/ideas come together to yield behaviorism? Elaborate on each.

Functionalism = Uncover the functions of the mind, not its structure or contents. To understand what something does is to understand what it in -3 events that open the door to Functionalism 1. James's unhappiness with Wundtian notions of consciousness 2. James's personalized version of Peirce's pragmatism 3. Darwinian selectionist theory -Influences of Dewey, Angell, and Carr on functionalism Comparative psychology = second stream after functionalism, study of animals to find out more about humans -Romanes, Morgan, and Thorndike Pavlov (late 1800s to early 1900s) = "What difference does a revolution make when you have work in the laboratory to do?" -Pavlov's Legacy 1. Intensive study of living, intact organisms rather than vivisectionist methods 2. Importance of conditioned reflexes

Why is functionalism so important in psychology's evolution? What does it take psychology away from, and what does it instill in psychology?

Functionalism = physiology of the mind, how the mind works, what mind can do not what mind is, functionalism is behaviorism w/out consciousness Influences of Dewey, Angell, and Carr Importance of capability of the mind than with the process of thought. The movement was interested primarily in the practical applications of research According to James, the point of a scientific psychology was to uncover the functions of the mind, not its contents or its structure. Take psychology away from structuralism mindset and helps pave the way for behaviorism, functionalism serves as a link between the structuralist's concern with the anatomy of the mind to the concentration on the functions of the mind and, later, to the development and growth of behaviorism Dewey's contributions towards being the "father" of American education -> stimulated the progressive-school movement, which attempted to apply functionalist principles to education

What is the connection between learning and functionalism? Why was this a topic of interest to functionalists?

Functionalists emphasize the function of behavior, and learning has clear functionality for adaptation and societal change. Key Functionalists @ U Chicago (concerned with learning) 1. John Dewey (1859-1952): -Developed the concept of the reflex arc - stimulus and response interact and are changed by contexts. -Feeds into his conceptualization of learning: education and learning must be a social and interactive process. -Education as a social institution through which social reform can take place 2. J.R. Angell (1869-1949) -Focuses on adjustment and adaptation & operation (interaction of mental and physical processes) -Defines functionalism in his book 3. Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954) -Focuses on adjustment and adaptation & operation -Concerned with learning & memory as crucial for adaptation Adaptive act: A behavioral unit consisting of (1) a motive [functions as stimulus], (2) an environment [provides a sensory stimulus] (3) a response [which satisfies these motives]

Distinguish the single-case and group statistical approaches to data collection. To data analysis.

Group statistical approaches = larger n; statistical calculations of similarity and differences, such as t-test, analysis of variance, and correlations; can assess behavior based on paper/pencil tests; can statistically examine relation between 2Ds & IV Single-case/small n design = "each subject serves as its own control; exposing each subject to each treatment condition; steady state; visual inspection methods/limited statistical analysis

Who first proposed psychophysical methods?

Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) - Provided objective method to measure connections between physical and mental life. Fechner developed psychophysics, building upon the work by Weber with sensation. He studied sensation to understand the connection of the mind and body. He created a psychophysical curve (logarithmic function, mathematical law) which allowed him to describe and predict the relationship between the physical world and our subjective experience of the world. He helped prove "man and nature are in harmony," quantification in psychology was possible, and measurement had clear methodological procedures.

How do forces outside of psychology influence the development and distribution of psychological journals?

He did discuss how technological advances (the internet) has allowed online publication immediately after acceptance. He also discussed how for-profit journals and journal bundling has affected the publication landscape.

What were Gould's criticisms of Goddard's approach to intelligence?

Hopped on eugenist bandwagon It is impossible that one gene accounts for intelligence; and if several genes, then idea of eugenic breeding will fail/be hopeless effort Rejected the influence of environment as alternative explanations (e.g., Ellis Island-testing conditions, fear, inability to speak English, poverty, weak from voyage) Guesswork/focus on visual identification Goddard himself eventually recanted on many of his points

Why are Darwinian ideas so pivotal in the history of psychology?

Humans part of larger evolutionary context with animals. Influenced more animal research like comparative psychology and behaviorists' animal work. See question 8.

What is Herrnstein's main thesis in his Atlantic article?

IQ and mental abilities are inherited; where you are in life is determined by genetics Meritocracy - people that get ahead are more intelligence -There are limits to "enrichment" - will only help to a certain point, but there will always be an underclass (inevitable)

What is introspection and why was its role critical in some peoples' views of what psychology should be? How did Titchener's views of introspection fit with his hardnosed view of science?

Introspection = looking inwards, examination of one's own mental state, Wundt started but Titchener tried to perfect, make objective science of experience Concerned with conscious experience -Nothing about unconsciousness (no Freud) -Nothing about personal adaptation or adjustment -Nothing about the lives of people Titchener was a key figure in bringing Wundt's ideas of to America. However, Titchener misrepresented some of Wundt's ideas to the American psychological establishment, especially in his account of introspection which, Titchener taught, only served a purpose in the qualitative analysis of consciousness into its various parts, while Wundt saw it as a means to quantitatively measure the whole of conscious experience Unlike Wundt's method of introspection, Titchener had very strict guidelines for the reporting of an introspective analysis. The level of detail Titchener put into his manuals reflected his devotion to a scientific approach to psychology. He argued that all measurements were simply agreed-upon "conventions" and subscribed to the belief that psychological phenomena, too, could be systematically measured and studied.

How does James's view of psychology differ from Wundt's and Titchener's?

James eschews Wundtian psychology: "microscopic" experimental psychology, he doesn't like lack of flexibility of Wundt, James is more free spirited/ philosophical/ conceptual. James' unhappiness with Wundtian notions of consciousness help open the door to functionalism Titchener is more of a Structuralist- break down to its elements, James said can't break down/ the whole greater than sum of its parts.

How does James's views of psychology influence the development of the school of psychology known as functionalism? Behaviorism?

James' unhappiness with Wundtian notions of consciousness help open the door to functionalism James believes consciousness = function, wants to know what consciousness does, personal (unique), continuous, constantly changing, selective, functional (adaptive) Behaviorism is fuctionalism to the extreme. Behaviorism is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind. Therefore, psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. James opposed the structuralist focus on introspection and breaking down mental events to the smallest elements. Instead, James focused on the wholeness of an event, taking into the impact of the environment on behavior (Functionalism) Functionalism- how mind works in terms of kind of things it does, cognition/ emotion/ motivation vs. Behaviorism- break everything down to stimuli and responses

What has Frankenstein to do with the history of psychology?

January 1, 1818; Changing attitude toward science in the 19th century. This book was a warning about the dangers of science - people are leery of psychology. Questioning the idea of creating consciousness and humans as machines to be studied. The idea of man playing God.

Over which issues did Freud break with Jung?

Jung- Like Freud, Jung believed that the unconscious had sexually-laden content. However, Jung believed sexuality was just one variety used the term libido to represent "general psychic energy." Jung also believed in archetypes (universal images and ideas) which originate not from personal experience but from the collective unconscious. Jung believed archetypes were the basic inspiration for dreams rather than sexual impulses or the unconscious.

Given the distinctions between materialism and idealism, be able to associate at least one person important in the history of psychology with each of these philosophical positions.

Materialism: Nothing exists except matter, its movements and modifications. Mental functioning and consciousness all result from material interactions. Julien de la Mettrie (1709-1751) France VS. Idealism: Reality, as humans can know it, is fundamental mentally constructed and immaterial. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) German, Prussia

How does American psychology assimilate religion, spiritualism, and psychic phenomena into it? Why does it address these, from our 21st century vantage, rather fringe issues?

Mesmerism -Mesmeric state (similar to a trance/being hypnotized) -Primarily a tool for healing -Thought of as a way to understand unconscious workings of human mind -Early psychology tried to scientifically investigate the questions, claims, etc. made by Mesmerism Spiritualism -Drew upon technological advancements (e.g., wireless telegraph, x-rays) -Thought that it was possible to communicate with the dead Psychical phenomena -Wanted to scientifically investigate psychical phenomena (e.g., transference, hypnotism, telepathy, etc.) -Although topics are somewhat different than what psychology studies, study of mental phenomena was legitimized -Also brought public attention to these issues -Finally, laid out a bunch of claims/questions that psychology could come along and prove/disprove Religion -In the 19th century, a new religious revival swept over the North and Midwest of America. -Out of this revival, new religious and philosophical movements emerged that helped create a psychological sensibility in the United States Above were all instrumental in creating a psychological sensibility, or everyday psychology, among Americans from all walks of life. By the time the new disciplinary psychologists came on the scene, Americans had already begun to think psychologically and to be open to their own internal experiences

What factors led Midwestern state universities to be more practically focused, and how did this affect the diffusion of behaviorism?

Midwestern state universities were state-controlled and dependent on public funds for support and therefore needed to be more practical in their research interest. They needed to be able to "sell" their worth by showing efficiency, expertise and service.

Given the distinctions between monism and dualism, be able to associate at least one person important in the history of psychology with each of these philosophical positions.

Monism: The mind and the brain/body are the same. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) German, Prussia believed only the mind or spirited existed. VS. Dualism: The mind and the brain are separate AKA the physical and non-physical world (transcendence) both exist. Typically humans are characterized as having both a mind (nonphysical) and body/brain (physical). Dualism is the view that the mind and body both exist as separate entities. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) France, Plato (42X-34XBC) Greece

What were the most modern topics in "Jimmy's" table of contents? The least modern?

Most modern - sensation and perception, functions of the brain, emotions, memory, attention Least modern - imagination, hypnotism, will, the consciousness of self

What does operationism have to do with methodological behaviorism?

Operationalism (sometimes called operationism) is the theory in the philosophy of science that presupposes that all physical entities, properties and processes can be defined as a set of operations by which they are apprehended.

1904

Pavlov's nobel prize in medicine, Angell writes Psychology: An Introductory Study of the Structure and Function of Human Consciousness textbook, Bechterev publishes objective psychology, Titchener founds Society of Experimentalists, Hall publishes 2 volumes on Adolescence , Spearman publishes on General Intelligence

What is the history of eugenics in psychology? Who was a eugenicist and who wasn't (just a couple of each).

People have been interested since Darwin by ideas of survival of the fittest, selective breeding,mapping traits onto genes etc Eugenicists/hereditarian: Goddard, Terman, Jensen, Yerkes, Sir Cyril Burt, Francis Galton Not a eugenicist/hereditarian: Kamin, Rosenthal In-between: Herrnstein (but leaning toward hereditarian?) -Environmental determinants of bx, but genetic limitations; incorporates eugenist idea of survival of fittest

What problems does the pragmatic truth criterion create, and what problems does it solve?

Pragmatic Truth Criterion or the pragmatic method = This method allows unanswerable questions to be answered based on workability. For Example, "Does God exist?" James would say yes because religion serves a purpose in the lives of many. Pragmatists believe that there is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism differs from practicality in that it applies the pragmatic truth criterion to determine the reality of a thing. Individuals who are practical may or may not find this position useful i.e. a practical person may still adhere to the belief that things that do not meet the pragmatic truth criterion are true, and vice versa. Truth is verifiable to the extent that thoughts and statements correspond with actual things and these are in turn verified by the observed results of the application of an idea to actual practice Could be seen as problematic when James' extended his pragmatic theory well beyond the scope of scientific verifiability, and even into the realm of the mystical (less credibility)

How do the Gestalt principles, like closure or similarity, reflect the conceptual framework of Gestalt psychology?

Principles: -Continuity -Proximity -Similarity -Closure -Figure ground distinction All the principles refer to a top down organization of sensory input

What is the connection between applied psychology and the diffusion of behaviorism?

Psychology had turned toward applied investigation and had stopped focusing its concern on introspect. Behaviorism claimed it was a science of outcome-defined as behavioral responses. Interest in applied psychology united the discipline around the definition of psychology as a scient of the prediction and control of behavior

What is the significance of mathematical models of psychological processes?

Quantitative description of psychological data; explaining and predicting behavior

Given the distinctions between rationalism and empiricism, be able to associate at least one person important in the history of psychology with each of these philosophical positions.

Rationalism: The truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma, or religious teaching. Reason is the chief source and test of knowledge. The source of truth is not sensory but intellectual or deductive. Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Decartes, Gottfried Leibnitz (1646-1716) Germany VS. (British) Empiricism: All knowledge is derived from sense-experience -> experimental science. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) England, John Locke (1632-1704) England, George Berkeley (1685-1753) Ireland/England, David Hume (1711-1776) Scotland

What is Woodworth's importance in the history of psychology?

Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962) 1. Seminal psych textbooks - Psychology 1921, Experimental Psychology 1938 -Popular functionalist text and standard experimental psych text 2. Introduces S-O-R formula of behavior: Stimulus, organism, response -More dynamic than stimulus response as a 1-1 reaction -Stimulus elicits a different response depending on the state of the organism 3. Interest in motivation

Why do some think of Titchener as the "backbone of American psychology"?

Titchener tried to perfect introspection from Wundt, make objective science of experience Titchener was a key figure in bringing Wundt's ideas of to America Hard core = held people to high standard of objectivity, Titchener gives psychology a backbone through this and had very strict guidelines within his research, he had a narrow scope of his psychology and a strict, limited methodology he deemed acceptable

What do the field theories share with functionalism, structuralism, and behaviorism? Considered together, how does the "field theory approach" differ from each of the other here schools just noted?

Structuralism = is the form of the mind, logical organization of things, anatomy of consciousness Functionalism = physiology of the mind, how the mind works, what mind can do, not what mind is Behaviorism = behavior explained in terms of primarily observable stimulus-response patterns as opposed to internal events Similarities: Behaviorism similar to functionalism in focus on functional reasons behind behavioral responses; elementism; analytic -Behaviorism similar to structuralism in that it involves identifying and describing patterns Differences: Behaviorism less concerned with internal/covert events and mental processes as compared to structuralism and functionalism

How did functionalism differ from structuralism? From psychoanalysis (thought question for you)?

Structuralism = is the form of the mind, logical organization of things, anatomy of consciousness vs. Functionalism = physiology of the mind, how the mind works, what mind can do, not what mind is From psychoanalysis = well-known by the general public, many psychoanalytic terms were common household terms in America. People believed in it and it was very popular. However, experimental psychologists challenged its veracity, as it hadn't been tested scientifically. But, the popularity of psychoanalysis threatened experimental psychology as the dominant "science of the mind." Like the structuralists and functionalists before him, Freud believed in studying covert behavior, but unlike his predecessors, Freud was not content with examining only conscious thought; he dived head-first into the unconscious Despite their differences, structuralism, functionalism and psychoanalysis all shared an emphasis on mental processes

How do functionalism and structuralism contribute to the establishment of behaviorism?

Structuralism- Psychology's scapegoat, has difficulty arguing for application, something that behaviorism can compare itself to Functionalism: Dewey, Angell, and Carr, still studies consciousness, but more interested with what we do with it than what it is -Developed out of pragmatism, and Darwin's selectionist theory -Sets groundwork for applied psychology -Interest in adaptation

Why is James McKeen Cattell a pivotal figure in American psychology?

Studied with Wundt Worked with Galton Established a laboratory and developed mental measurement tests for college students Research on intelligence testing Powerful advocator of practical psychology Founds PsychCorp, Psychological Review, Popular Science, American Nature; edited Science for 50 years President of APA Promoted psychologists engaging in research

Which of Darwin's books offered the most direct challenge to the status quo concerning the nature of humankind? Why did they do so?

The Blind Watchmaker. Deterministic view that there was no God, just recurring variation and selection for all animals including humans. Pitted "design" against "chance." Talked about feedback systems/loops.

How does the mind-body problem relate to the beginning of psychology?

The mind is about mental processes, thought and consciousness. The body is about the physical aspects of the brain-neurons and how the brain is structured. The mind-body problem is about how these two interact. Early psychology debated the importance of this concept. Should it be studied via introspection? Is consciousness a unique entity? Are humans and animals simply machines that can be reduced to simple behaviors and consequences? This problem divided the different schools of philosophy and therefore psychology.

What were Gould's criticisms of Terman's approach to intelligence?

Too much attention on limits and inevitability Insensitivity to the influence of environment Test stressed conformity with expectation Closed professions and opportunities for monetary reward from persons with lower than average IQs Argues doesn't make sense to use innate biology of pathological individuals as basis for ascribing normal variation within a group (extrapolating from within group variance to between group variance) Terman himself eventually changed his mind and went more silent on the role of heredity later on

What is pragmatism? How does pragmatism play into the development of psychology?

The pragmatist clings to facts and concreteness, observes truth at its work in particular cases, and generalizes. It is a logical and practical way of getting things accomplished. Scientific ideas and knowledge can never be certain and therefore should be judged according to the work they do in the world, or according to their degree of practical effectiveness Philosophical movement in the US in the 1870s, started by Charles Sanders Pierce (philosophy), Dewey, and James (scholars of psychology) -Charles Sanders Peirce = late 1800s, known as father of pragmatism, influenced James, "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), influence James and Dewey, chemist/ scientist, contributed to field of psych, logic, mathematics, and philosophy Lineage of pragmatism = comes out of british imperialism captures spirit of american (can do attitude), James giving framework for thinking about what doing, individuality emphasized James's pragmatism -Harnessing nature -Relativistic: Things are as they seem, not as they are -Methodological: A means to truth -Personal truth criterion: Useful working to the individual

Who was "the silent majority" alluded to in the reading for this unit?

The reading is referring to the rapidly increasing number of psychologists that were becoming interested in the practical application of psychology. However, they were not united on their ideas and therefore the structuralist psychologists remained in charge because they had a systematic conception and program.

What aspects of Freud's therapeutic approach are relevant in contemporary clinical settings? What aspects are not relevant to our work as clinicians?

There are a number of techniques and ideas that are still relevant to contemporary clinicians. Freud was one of the pioneers in establishing talk therapy and allowing for patient insight, although the clinical environment that Freud created was something that has been altered (couch, not facing patient, etc.). Freud discussed the therapeutic dynamic and popularized ideas like transference. You can also argue that aspects of psychoanalysis were precursors to exposure treatments and trauma-focused therapies. Some aspects of Freud's theory that have not held up could be his notion of life being driven by sexual urges, his views on femininity, and dream analysis.

Name three early American psychologists who studied with Wundt (either Ph.D. with him or just an "internship"). What did they go on to do after returning to America?

Titchener = doctoral student, set up program at Cornell with Angell, very formal/ structural/ systematic, structuralism -Discover basic elements of thought -Discover laws by which mental elements combine into more complex mental experiences -Determine neuropsychological correlates of mental experience G. Stanley Hall = did "internship" at Leipzig, head of Clark, "father" of adolescence and coined term, first president of APA Cattell = did "internship" at Leipzig, helped establish psych as legitimate science, published the journal Science, first American to publish dissertation in psychology, mental tests including measure of reaction time that could be used to generate data about the distinctions of individual differences

Titchener receives mixed reviews concerning his place in the history of American psychology. Why are they so mixed?

Titchener in nutshell = The "Dean" of American Psychology, Shaped psychology to be a science, No friend of applications of psychology Also, he helped many women advance their careers (his first student was Washburn) but no women allowed in his organization -Margaret Washburn (late 1800s-early 1900s) -First woman awarded PhD - Cornell University -The Animal Mind: A Text-book of Comparative Psychology — covered sensory function and learning -Washburn was a standout because she was the first woman awarded a PhD in psychology, a male-dominated field. She also wrote her textbook which became the standard book in the field for 25 years Titchener was a charismatic and forceful speaker. However, although his idea of structuralism thrived while he was alive and championing for it, structuralism did not live on after his death. Some modern reflections on Titchener consider the narrow scope of his psychology and the strict, limited methodology he deemed acceptable as a prominent explanation for the fall of Titchener's structuralism after his death. So much of it was wrapped up in Titchener's precise, careful dictations that without him, the field floundered.

Trace the path to the conditioned reflex, as outlined in class an in Boake's chapter on Pavlov

Wolfsohn: 1898 - elicited responding when a dog was shown sand Snarsky: ~1900, train dogs w/ black-dyed acid, then black-dyed water elicits same response Tolochinov: ~1901 first experiments on extinction with Pavlov Babkin: 1902: disinhibition (recovery from extinction using a strong but irrelevant stimulus)) & spontaneous recovery Bayliss & Starling 1902: receptors in mouth give advance warning of arrival of certain substances via chemical signals/hormones. -Leads to a shift from digestion to conditioning by Pavlov -Originally thought that reflect associations occurred in nervous tissue only, this shows it can occur through other stimuli Nobel Prize in Medicine: 1904 for work on digestion in dogs 1906: Pavlov spoke @ Thomas Huxley memorial lecture in London, frames a psych interpretation of conditional reflex -Control over human behavior 1924: Conditioned reflexes - lectures

What was the significance of phrenology in the history of psychology?

§ Circumvented mind-body dualism - no division of body and mind · Gall (1758-1828): o Austrian physician & anatomist o Argued that the brain was the organ of the mind and that its faculties were empirically demonstrable o Gray matter and white matter in brain, connection between 2 brain hemispheres o Known for organology (later renamed phrenology): method of discerning mental abilities by reading bumps on person's skull o Brain composed of distinct parts which each had a function, & size reflected strength of those functions -the brain was the organ of the mind and its workings could be understood entirely by empirical means created controversy

Distinguish between history as fact and as interpretation

· "History is bunk" - Henry Ford (people take history and do things the same way instead of forward thinking) · History is collection of facts and interpretation of facts · "Indisputable" Facts: Facts as facts where there is a permanent record ("The Magna Carta was signed at Runnymead on June 15, 1215") · Disputable "Facts:" What really happened between Lyndon Johnson and Martin Luther King before the Selma march in 1965?

Is psychology a chimera?

· A long history of "Chimeraism-like" activity (sticking different things together) · Two roots of psychology are philosophy and physiology o Philosophy + Physiology = Psychology

Distinguish a "society" and an "association."

· A societies sole purpose is to advance scientific knowledge · Associations also have a mission of professional advancement which may include ethics, legislation, and lobbying.

What was the first American journal devoted exclusively to psychology? Who was its founding editor?

· American Journal of Psychology -1887. The journal was founded by G. Stanley Hall and was edited in its early years by Titchener, E.G. Boring, and Madison Dallenbach

What are boutique societies and what function do they serve?

· Are highly specialized or specific to a particular area of research—similar to Special Interest Groups.

Why is British empiricism so important in the history of American psychology?

· Because of our language, we have rich tradition of empiricism (since empiricism was big in England) · American pragmatism comes from these guys from England

What did Descartes contribute to the evolution of ideas that became psychology?

· Starts thinking of a human as a machine in the form of behavior · Starts thinking of reflex (automatic reaction) · Creates animalistic and voluntary behavior o Involuntary (mechanical) o Voluntary (mind) o Used pineal gland as place where mind/body interact (believed in Dualism of mind and body) · Believed the mind and body follow different laws in their functions · Believed in two major classes of ideas: (1) innate ideas, inborn and do not depend on experience; and (2) derived ideas, which arise from experience · Defined six primary passions: wonder, love, hate, desire, joy, and sadness

Name two Nobel Prize winners whose work for which they received the prize was closely tied to psychology and describe their prize-winning work.

· Daniel Kahneman (collaborator Amos Tversky) 2002 for Economics—The research related to applying psychological insights to economic theory (behavioral economics), particularly in the areas of judgment and decision-making under uncertainty. The most notable contribution is Prospect Theory, which is a model showing how people decide between alternatives that involve risk and uncertainty. This model incorporates probability of risk as well as the potential gain of a decision. Demonstrated that people can be risk-seeking or risk-averse. · Georg von Bekesy 1961 in Audiology and Otolaryngology. Studied the process of the cochlea receiving sound waves and converting them to the brain in the form of auditory impressions. Sound waves vibrate membranes and bones. These are then converted into electrical impulses that are passed on to the brain. Prize was "for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea."

What was/is associationism? Where does it show up in the history of psychology?

· Early empiricists analyzed the mind into component parts, Hume and Hartley began the search for laws that would describe how these parts come to connect or blend together in associations · Hume (1711-1776) o Believed in causal connection between impressions and ideas; when they occur together, they become associated, and the idea comes to resemble the impression o Stated that simple ideas combine in the mind to form complex ones according to three laws/principles of association: resemblance, contiguity in either time or space, and cause-and-effect relationships · Hartley (1705-1757) o Most physiological among the British associationists o Both mind and body are to be studied, because they are related biologically o Described positive afterimages for both visual and auditory stimuli o Hartley's brand of associationism has a biological basis not found in the theories of his predecessors or those who followed him o His work anticipated physiological psych

What are the tenants of empiricism? Of rationalism?

· Empiricism: view that there is no such thing as innate knowledge, and that instead knowledge is derived from experience · Rationalism: view that there is innate knowledge, not derived from experience

What are the great person and zeitgeist theories of history?

· Great "man" theory of history: Thomas Carlyle- o Examples: Jefferson, Grant, Churchill, Wundt, Freud, Skinner o "The people make the times" · Zeitgeist theory of history: E.G. Boring- "standing on the shoulders of giants"; "spirit of the times" o Examples: Age of Revolution, Rise of Nazi Germany, U.S. Civil Rights Movement, Physiology and Perception o "The times make the people"- e.g., was MLK a leader or in the right place at the right time?

What role did Helmholtz play in the development of psychology?

· Helmholtz figures out the need to take the whole organism into account, not just tissue · Studied- propagation speed of nerve impulses (getting close to reaction time; 1840s, 1850s) · Also studied color perception- ideas bordering on something other than straight physiology

We encounter John Locke again and again in the course. Why is he such an important dude?

· John Locke (1632-1704) o "Tabula Rasa" o Wrote: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) o No innate ideas o Origins of ideas in sensation, reflection o "Mind is a blank slate that experience influences" o Wants to find new ideas, specifically o Qualities of ideas: primary (inseparable from physical world) and secondary (separable from physical world) o Knowledge derives from reflection on ideas o Coined term "association of ideas" o Maybe ideas change as a result of experience · First major British Empiricist · Advocated the experimental, observational methods of science · Believed that the original state of human nature was good and that all people are born equal in their potential, making education critical

What is paradigm? A research program? A research tradition?

· Paradigm/Worldview/Context: believed everyone was operating in paradigm; paradigm determines the way scientists make sense of the world, without it there is nothing about which to construct theories · Replaced Kuhnian paradigm with "Research Programs"- which involved a succession of theories o An acceptable new theory must both accommodate the successes of its predecessor and explain the data that brought the earlier theory into question · Research traditions (replaced research programs): sets of theories with common ontological (nature of being) and methodological base

What is the significance of the machine metaphor in the history of psychology?

· People started seeing the importance of mechanical related things (clock in Prague example) · Precision in predicting physical events · Mechanical depiction of the natural world · This allowed people to start thinking about the body as a machine (having machine-like features) o 1616: Circulation of the blood (Harvey) o 1668: Respiration as oxygen transfer (John Mayow) o 1727: Measuring blood pressure (Stephen Hales)

Why are George Romaines and C. Lloyd Morgan contrasted with one another in discussing the development of psychology?

· Romaines was influenced by Darwin, wrote Animal Intelligence, which included anthropomorphic analysis which was the foundation for comparative psychology (study of behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the adaptive significance and development of behavior). Assigned human characteristics to animals. One of the first to study psychology of animals, but used anecdotal evidence and inferences. · Morgan believed in parsimony, objectivity, and animal & human behavior are on a continuum "don't talk about the mind when you can talk about behavior." Also a comparative psychologist. Rejected Romaines' ideas about the mental life on animals. Began study of animals while isolate and controlling certain variables.

What does social constructionism have to do with the history of psychology?

· Social Constructionism: o Objective knowledge ("fact" does not exist) o History is composed not of facts but of social constructions in the context of stuff that happened o History then is less about facts than about the stories we tell (the stories have social consequences) o Comes from symbolism o Functional approach · Constructionism Taken to the Extreme: "The Holocaust never happened."; name your conspiracy theory

What functions do journals fulfill within a discipline?

· The function of a journal is to advance and disseminate scientific knowledge in a particular area or field of research.

When did scientific societies first develop, and to what purpose?

· The oldest society presented in Andy's slides was the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (1660). · The first American society was the American Philosphical Society (1745). · The purpose of a society was to advance scientific knowledge