History: Historical Significance
Christian Humanism
emphasis on studying the writings and beliefs of the early church, supported christian humanist writers. SIGNIFICANCE: creation of the printing press, allowed bibles to be printed quickly for low cost, which spread religion
Oliver Cromwell
english military and political leader, ruled after the beheading of Charles I. SIGNIFICANCE: eroded the power of the king in favor of parliament
Thomas Hobbes
english philosopher who believed that an absolute monarchy was the key to stability in society, believed people were wicked and selfish, "every man for every man," believed the purpose of government was to keep law and order. SIGNIFICANCE: one of the first modern thinkers that inched away from the idea of natural order
Council of Trent
met to formulate the response of the catholic church to the protestant reformation. SIGNIFICANCE: strengthened catholic doctrine, halted protestantism, won back protestant areas that were originally catholic
Peasant's Revolt
(1381) resulting from high taxes, bands of angry peasants went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging and burning them because the peasants wanted an end to serfdom and the control of the Catholic church (wanted their rights), this was condemned by Martin Luther, all the peasants families were killed to prevent another revolt. SIGNIFICANCE: caused the fall of the middle ages
30 Years War
(1618-1648) bourbon vs. habsburg war between the protestant union and the catholics in the holy roman empire, each religion fought to stop the advance of the other, protestants won. SIGNIFICANCE: protestants stifled the advance of the catholic league, and got ahead in their religion
Peace of Augsburg
1555, a document stating that princes have the ability to choose between lutheranism or catholicism for their territory. SIGNIFICANCE: first step to religious freedom
Treaty of Westphalia
1648, broadened on the peace of augsburg, calvinism, lutheranism, and catholicism are all choices, discusses religious freedom, was essentially a peace treaty. SIGNIFICANCE: allowed for freedom of religion, religion not chosen by government, but by oneself
Protestant Reformation
16th century effort to make changes in the Church that led to large numbers separating from it. SIGNIFICANCE: many catholics left the catholic church to join protestant religions
Anabaptists
16th century, people who believed in adult-only baptism, separation of church and state, and shunning non-believers. SIGNIFICANCE: agreed with idea of separation of church and state, and went against traditional ideas of the church
Elizabeth I
2nd longest standing queen, daughter of King Henry VII. SIGNIFICANCE: created tolerance for both catholics and protestants, established england as a world power
Counter Reformation
a catholic reformation, actions by the catholic church to get followers back. SIGNIFICANCE: the catholic church gained back followers and appeared better in the eyes of the people
Agricultural Revolution
a change in the production and distribution of farmed goods. SIGNIFICANCE: Technological advances allowed a surplus of food, which led to a larger population, leading to the urbanization of towns
Florence
a city in central Italy that existed as a republic headed by aristocrats for much of the Renaissance, home of the guilds, became one of the richest cities in Italy. SIGNIFICANCE: had an influence on political hierarchy (it was a republic), home of artisans and artists that allowed for the flourishing of fine arts, recognized secular jobs and enforced the idea of masters of certain trades specializing in their own trade (guilds)
Petition of Right
a document given by parliament during the english civil war stating that the king cant pass taxes without the parliament, and one has the right to know exactly what they're being charged with, also it states that there is no quartering of troops, due process, and Habeas Corpus (a writ requiring a person under arrest to be brought to trial to ensure tthe person's release unless there is reason for them not to be released) SIGNIFICANCE: created a just system of taxation for crime that is still used today, gives the accused person their rights, created an idea of court with a judge and jury
Bill of Exchange
a document used to engage in trade, which allowed merchants to buy and sell goods to others without exchanging large amounts of money or other forms of payment, basically it was an informal letter from one merchant to a banker in another city to make payment on his behalf to another merchant. SIGNIFICANCE: made trade between different cities much easier, spread ideas and products to places that would otherwise not have them, how catholic bankers created interest, exchange of currencies
Martin Luther
a heretic who was excommunicated by Leo X because he refused to recant his heresy, wrote the 95 theses against indulgences. SIGNIFICANCE: his 95 theses and break from the church allowed him to found Lutheranism, a significant religion today
Petrarch
a humanist poet, historian, and scholar during the Renaissance. seen as a forerunner (someone ahead of the times) in the Renaissance. SIGNIFICANCE: went against the church with poetry about love instead of about religion, invented humanism, blended classical ideals with human emotion
Letter of Credit
a letter that permitted one to buy something with the promise to pay the bank back, today this is similar to loans and credit cards. essentially is borrowing money that one doesn't have in order to pay for something which is later paid back. SIGNIFICANCE: one of the most important banking ideas developed by European bankers just before and during the Renaissance, allowed flourishing of trade and merchants
Heavy Plow
a machine that aerated heavy european soil, an aid in the agricultural revolution. SIGNIFICANCE: allowed for more crops to be produced with less manual labor
Renaissance Man
a man who was successful when it ca,me to working, and was overall universal, knew how to dance, fight, sing, write poetry, how to create art, and was well educated with the classics. SIGNIFICANCE: a social norm for men in the Renaissance, and being a Renaissance man is still considered good today
Prince Frederick
a patron/protector of Luther. SIGNIFICANCE: his support of Luther aided in the development of the 95 theses and lutheranism
Monasticism/Monks
a person following a religion very meticulously, draws away from society to focus on devotion to god and religion. don't have families and instead focus all their time and energy on prayer. SIGNIFICANCE: spent their lives practicing religion, not much significance to development of religion
Missionaries
a person sent on a religious mission to spread their religion over a large area. SIGNIFICANCE: helped to spread new ideas, concepts, and religions through europe
Merchants
a person who buys and sells items for profit, traders, had a high place in social hierarchy along with aristocrats. SIGNIFICANCE: increased trade, defined social hierarchy, played a role in the development of banking in Florence
Indulgences
a piece of paper declaring one freed from all their sins, guaranteed admission to heaven, essentially a way to make money for the church. SIGNIFICANCE: significant in the writings of many philosophers (such as Luther, Leo X, and Locke)
Benedictine Rule
a rule for monks that promoted growth in knowledge of god and his holiness SIGNIFICANCE: become a model for most monasteries in italy, allowed ample food, drink, and sleep while still focusing on worship of god
Banking Guild
a secular guild that controlled money and banking in florence, one of the greater and higher ranking guilds along with judges, merchants, wool manufacturers, silk weavers, physicians, and skinners (as opposed to the lesser guilds such as locksmiths, carpenters, and bakers) SIGNIFICANCE: see Major Guilds
Republic
a state in which the supreme power is given to the citizens, with an elected leader as opposed to a monarchy. Florence was a republic for much of the Renaissance. SIGNIFICANCE: gave power to the people (though not to all the people), gateway to more power to society and less to the king
3 Field System
a technique of crop rotation, one field would grow a crop that was to be harvested in the fall, another field would grow a crop to be harvested in the spring, and one empty (aka in fallow) in order for it to gain nutrients, the 2nd aid in the agricultural revolution. SIGNIFICANCE: ensured better crops
Machiavelli, Nicollo
a very important secular thinker during the Renaissance, his writings are regarded as a prime example of Renaissance and Humanist thinking. SIGNIFICANCE: wrote influential documents such as The Prince (which is a how-to for men seeking power and control in politics), had ideas on how to build a republic, one of the most influential thinkers of the Renaissance
The Medicis
a very powerful Italian family that took power in 1512, sponsored artists, source of money, were in powerful guilds (banking, wool) SIGNIFICANCE: sponsored patronage (the idea of a patron [someone who helps others with financial support] supporting artists and scientists), had a large role in modern banking
Hundred Years War
a war between england and france over control of the french throne. both the french ruler and the english king had claim to the throne, but the english was claimed illegitimate since the tie was through a woman, which was illegal in french succession lines. SIGNIFICANCE: fractured the feudal domination of the military, french won (power to the people)
Antiquity
a way of thinking that refers to ideas from the past, in the renaissance antiquity was a very popular idea, humanists and artists both drew ideas from antiquity. SIGNIFICANCE: this thought process led to advancements in philosophy and art, similar to another humanist idea in the renaissance (ad fontes)
Protestantism
all of the christian religions that are not catholic are protestant, the practice of every christian religion (except catholic), a practice that originated with doctrines and political impulses from the protestant reformation. SIGNIFICANCE: allowed for more than one branch of christian religion, many protestant religions are prominent today
Act of Supremacy
an act passed through the parliament in 1534 by King Henry VIII that granted him royal supremacy, meaning that he had complete power over the church instead of a pope. SIGNIFICANCE: though not from a good place (he split from the church because Pope Clement wouldn't let him divorce Catherine of Aragon), he created the idea of royal supremacy which is still standing today
Michelangelo
an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer during the Renaissance, considered the greatest artist of his lifetime. SIGNIFICANCE: painted the Sistine Chapel, a very famous work today
Ponte Vecchio
an arch in Florence with shops built along it, the only bridge in Florence not destroyed by Germans in the 1900s. SIGNIFICANCE: an important landmark and architectural work in Florence
Da Vinci, Leonardo
an artist who painted stories from greek and roman myths, painted the mona lisa and the last supper (2 of the most famous paintings of all time), had a very scientific mind and drew hundreds of plans for inventions, a universal genius and a jack of all trades who focused on observation instead of abstract concepts which played a part in his art. SIGNIFICANCE: revolutionized scientific thinking with innovative ideas and painting with his accuracy in depicting human anatomy exactly as seen
Masaccio
an artist who painted the Holy Trinity (1423), one of the first examples of Renaissance painters, work uses some medieval thinking but shows an early development of modern concepts of perspective. SIGNIFICANCE: was one of the catalysts for focus on perspective and subject in Renaissance art
Giotto
an artist who painted the presentation of the virgin, was an architect and a painter, painted religious subjects with a touch of realism. SIGNIFICANCE: added perspective to painting, and practiced realism in his art
Brunelleschi
an artist/architect who created the renowned Duomo in Florence, one of the most famous architects to emerge from the Renaissance, sponsored by Cosimo Medici (a very important man in the Renaissance) SIGNIFICANCE: invented linear perspective that revolutionized painting and allowed a change from stylized figures in medieval art, also designed structure in the Duomo that had never been seen before
Erasmus
an important Christian humanist who wrote In Praise of Folly, dedicated to the idea of ad fontes (similar to antiquity). SIGNIFICANCE: was significant in the christian humanist movement, translated ancient works into Greek and Latin so ad fontes was more widely spread
Botticelli
an influential artist who painted the "Birth of Venus," VERY religious in his ways and his paintings and often painted religious settings, sponsored by the Medici family. SIGNIFICANCE: began the evolution of realism in paintings
Feudalism
an institution based on land ownership and loyalty, a basic form of trade, lord gave fief (land) to a vassal (person directly beneath the lord) to take care of. a similar idea to paying rent. SIGNIFICANCE: emphasized loyalty that declined once money became more important during the Renaissance, was one of the earliest forms of rent-paying (though using loyalty instead of money)
Printing Press
an invention in the 1450s that made it hard to censor books (the spread of the bible and heretic books). SIGNIFICANCE: reduced the cost of books and allowed for the distribution of information over europe for little cost, allowed the spread of religion (bible) and new ideas (heresy and other unique information)
Bishops
an ordained member of the clergy assigned with a position of oversight. SIGNIFICANCE: had an important part in the church/clergy and performed important tasks
Baroque Art
art that is associated with the counter reformation, characterized by exaggerated motion and clear detail, began in Rome around 1600. SIGNIFICANCE: the art depicted religious themes that were meant to provoke emotional involvement in response to the protestant reformation
Diet of Worms
assembly of the estates of the empire, called by Charles V HRE in 1521, Luther was ordered to recant (declare that he no longer believed in his beliefs) but he refused, Charles V declared Luther an outlaw. SIGNIFICANCE: Luther was declared an outlaw
New Model Army
changes in the army in ranking, rank based on merit rather than nobility, rank was earned. SIGNIFICANCE: changed the hierarchy of armies for years to come, made ranking fair and just
Florins
currency derived from the city "Florence" in the form of gold coins SIGNIFICANCE: was the currency in Italy
Mary I
daughter of Catherine of Aragon, half-sister of Queen Elizabeth, persecuted protestants, queen of england and Ireland till her execution (coined the term and legend "bloody mary") SIGNIFICANCE: re-established roman catholicism during her five year reign, but her act was reversed after her execution by queen elizabeth
Famine
extreme scarcity of food in a large geographical area, caused by soil exhaustion, overpopulation, and epidemic diseases, during the hundred years war significant crop failure reduced the population by 2/3. SIGNIFICANCE: led to depopulation, contributed to the decline of the middle ages
Catherine of Aragon
first wife of Henry VIII, was divorced by him because she couldn't have a male child and so he could marry Anne Boleyn, came from a wealthy family. SIGNIFICANCE: if it weren't for her inability to harbor a male child, Henry wouldn't have divorced her in which case royal supremacy would have never been developed
Ignatius of Loyola
founder of the jesuit order/society of jesus. SIGNIFICANCE: his Spiritual Exercises (an ordered scheme of meditations) is still used in Jesuit training programs
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Models
geocentric stated the earth was the center of the universe, and this concept was believed until Copernicus theorized that the sun was the center. SIGNIFICANCE: revolutionized how we think of the universe, had a role in the scientific revolution
95 Theses
heretic writings against indulgences by Luther, criticized the church for the sacraments and indulgences. SIGNIFICANCE: was the catalyst for the protestant reformation
Charles V (HRE)
holy roman emperor, opposed the protestant reformation. SIGNIFICANCE: people of his empire turned to protestantism to break away from rome, but he attempted to make them stay, which started religious wars
Galileo
italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher, widely known for being an influential astronomer. SIGNIFICANCE: played a large role in the scientific revolution, first man to use a telescope and discover information about the universe, discovered inertia
James I
king before Charles I, believed in the divine right of kings and law of free monarchies. SIGNIFICANCE: writers such as Shakespeare flourished during his reign, wrote many influential works
Henry IV of France
king who was crowned following the end of the french civil war, converted to catholicism to become crowned king. SIGNIFICANCE: was an example of politique (state comes before religion), ended spanish inference in France
Henry VIII
king with many wives who split from the church to marry his mistress, Anne Boleyn. SIGNIFICANCE: his split from the church led to the Act of Supremacy through the parliament, creating royal supremacy, making the king the head of the church. this idea is still used today
Empiricism
knowing by observation and evidence. SIGNIFICANCE: led to a scientific revolution and the idea of science as a practice
Age of Reason
late 17th and 18th century, emphasized reason and individualism over tradition, its idea was to reform society using reason and scientific thought. SIGNIFICANCE: introduced scientific thinking and logic as opposed to tradition and religion, very important time period for the development of modern science
Knights
lesser nobles who fight and are also given land by nobles in exchange for fealty and fighting service, considered vassals to the lord. SIGNIFICANCE: see feudalism and homage and fealty
Peasants/Serfs
peasants were the lowest class in social hierarchy with very few rights. serfs were peasants that were tied to land, they were not owned by a person but by the land itself. SIGNIFICANCE: their lack of rights led to the Peasant's Revolt
Artisans
people who were very skilled at a certain task, worked under direction of guilds or the church, creative thinkers, discoverers, and inventors that developed new ideas. SIGNIFICANCE: the realm of painting, sculpture, and literature became considered a fine art form because of the recognition artisans received from fellow citizens
Anglicanism
protestant church with similar beliefs to the catholic church, believed in a king not a pope. SIGNIFICANCE: shares the history of the roman catholic church with reformed ideas, and new concepts
Copernicus
renaissance mathematician and astronomer, created the idea of the heliocentric model, had ideas that revolved around observation. SIGNIFICANCE: the discovery of the heliocentric model, the model which places the sun in the center of the universe rather than the earth
Minor Guilds
the 14 lesser guilds of people with the same interests (some of which are baking, inn-keeping, iron working, architecture, carpentry), less influential on the the commune and Florence as a whole. SIGNIFICANCE: provided goods and works for Florence, were important in that, but not in a political sense
Anne Boleyn
the 2nd wife of King Henry VIII, he split from the church to marry her, was executed by her husband because she had a stillborn boy after a long period of time of trying to have a boy. SIGNIFICANCE: fueled the Act of Supremacy/Henry's split from the church (she was the reason for all of it)
Major Guilds
the 7 higher guilds of people with the same interests (judges, silk weavers, wool manufacturers, bankers, furriers, physicians), positions were earned through trade and business. SIGNIFICANCE: their political role in the commune, guild hierarchy had influence on social hierarchy of the people, had the power to vote in government
Sacraments
the 7 sacraments of the catholic church, the things that make you the most holy in the eyes of the church, the principles of faith of catholicism, they are as follows: baptism (forgiveness of original sin commit by adam and eve, the blessing of a child), confirmation (being initiated into church), penance (forgiveness of your sins, confession), eucharist (bread and wine served at mass blessed by the priest), last rites (forgiveness on one's death bed), holy orders (being a member of the church), and matrimony (marriage). it was argued by Luther that there were only 3 real sacraments of the church and they are as follows: baptism, eucharist, and penance. SIGNIFICANCE: a set of rules that decided if one was holy or not, still seen in the church today
Byzantine Empire
the Greek speaking continuation of the roman empire during the middle ages, capital was constantinople (istanbul). SIGNIFICANCE: christianized most regions in eastern europe
Social Mobility
the ability to change classes by working hard enough. SIGNIFICANCE: this allowed anyone with potential to graduate to higher classes with proof of their worth, embraced individualism and man's greatness, allowed for ranking by merit as opposed to by family or nobility
Plague/Black Death
the bubonic plague, killed off much of europe, spread vastly and quickly, rats and fleas gave it to humans. SIGNIFICANCE: cured overpopulation and resulted in an agricultural surplus
Holding Company
the concept of having multiple branches of one business spread out so if one business fails, the rest don't go down with it. SIGNIFICANCE: allowed success of businesses and allowed businesses to spread out over regions
Rump Parliament
the english parliament that decided to behead Charles I after the civil war. SIGNIFICANCE: beheaded Charles I, leading to 10 years of Puritan rule, before switching back to Anglican with Charles II
Christendom
the faith and practice of Christianity and the collective body of practicing christians, unity of the catholic church and the power that it had, saw an explosion during the Renaissance. SIGNIFICANCE: see catholicism
Catholicism
the faith and practice of the Catholic Church, began to decline in influence slightly during the Renaissance as demands of society began to be based off of money (thanks to guilds and trade) as opposed to loyalty and allegiance (such as fiefs and vassals in the middle ages) Though the influence was declining, the popularity was growing. SIGNIFICANCE: the popularity of Catholicism grew through the 14th and 15th centuries, until it climaxed in the 16th century and combined with the protestant reformation sparked the catholic reformation
Dark Ages
the first part of the Middle Ages from around 500-1000. SIGNIFICANCE: time between the fall of the roman empire and the renaissance
John Calvin
the heretic (one who practices heresy, a belief contrary to christianity) who founded calvinism, believed in full predestination, his religion was based on his interpretation of the bible, similar to Lutheranism. SIGNIFICANCE: created an entire new religion, went against the church
Scientific Revolution
the idea of science we know today emerged from this time period, the ultimate advance of science, 1550-1700, thinkers such as galileo and locke hypothesized on the universe and human nature, math, science, astronomy, biology, and medicine were all improved upon. SIGNIFICANCE: a huge step forward in our understanding of the universe and our view on human nature
Duomo
the largest church in Florence, created by Brunelleschi. SIGNIFICANCE: revolutionized architecture with new ideas of a self-supporting dome, making Brunelleschi the father of modern architecture
Long Parliament
the parliament that exists from 1640-1648, passed financial bills, since the bishops wars had left Charles I bankrupt. SIGNIFICANCE: passed bills by order of Charles I
Humanism
the philosophy that praised antiquity and ad fontes. embraced literature, education, science, and art during the Renaissance, using rational thought instead of tradition and abstract ideas,humanist thinkers: Petrarch and Cosimo de Medici, had two main ideas: Roman and Greek thinkers should be studied and referred to in their writings, and man as an individual should be celebrated for his greatness. SIGNIFICANCE: was a completely new thought process that praised individuals for talent and greatness, revolutionized the idea that painters and writers didn't have to follow religion, resulted in new fine arts that are present today
Clement VIII
the pope following Leo X, was still against Luther, wouldn't allow Henry VIII to divorce Catherine of Aragon. SIGNIFICANCE: issued the papal bull, caused Henry's split from the church which led to royal supremacy
Leo X
the pope who excommunicated (excluded from participation in the sacraments) Martin Luther and who in 1521 bestowed on Henry VIII the title of Defender of the Faith. SIGNIFICANCE: began the initial fight with Luther
English Civil War
the result of centuries of a struggle between parliament (group of lawmakers) and monarchy (one lawmaker). SIGNIFICANCE: established the idea that an english monarch can't govern without consent from the parliament
Puritanism
the sects of anglicans who wanted to reform the anglican church so it would be aligned with calvin's teachings, civil war began between Charles I (anglican) and parliament (increasingly puritan), Charles I lost and was beheaded, puritans ruled for 10 years under Cromwell and his son before being taken over by the anglican church once again and replaced by Charles II. SIGNIFICANCE: catalyst for the civil war, ruled by in england for a decade
Spanish Armada
the spanish fleet (a group of ships sailing together) that sunk, completely ending spanish power. SIGNIFICANCE: the end of spanish power led to england moving from a 2nd rate power to the world's power
Palazzo del Signori
the town hall of Florence, one of the most significant places in Italy. SIGNIFICANCE: historians celebrate the palazzo for its beauty and architecture, an public work/art in Florence
Miserabili
the unskilled workers who were not talented enough to acquire jobs. SIGNIFICANCE: the peasants in the renaissance
Jesuits
those who believe in the jesuit order. SIGNIFICANCE: see St. Ignatius of Loyola
Homage and Fealty
ties to the idea of fiefs and vassals under the feudal system. a vassal undergoes a ritual known as homage in which the vassal swears fealty (loyalty) and fidelity (faithfulness) to the lord. SIGNIFICANCE: this ritual cements the bond between the vassal and the lord, and plays a large role in feudalism and the development of fiefs and vassals through time
Pope/Papacy
top of the social hierarchy during the high middle ages, ruled over the church. SIGNIFICANCE: the most powerful figure in western europe
Charles I (England)
was a monarch, believed in the divine right of kings (only god could judge an unjust king, the people could not decide political legitimacy), thought he could rule by conscience. SIGNIFICANCE: began a war claiming the divine right of kings was above parliament, he lost, was beheaded, and parliament gained power
John Locke
wrote responses to Hobbes' writings, believed in democracy, people are good, and the purpose of government was to protect individual liberties that they are born with. SIGNIFICANCE: created the idea of the social contract (giving up rights by contract in order to maintain society, such as the right to kill) which is still used in our american constitution
Aristocrats
wealthy people living in florence, a form of nobility, at the top of the social hierarchy, gained positions from success in the market economy, aristocrats were in charge of the republic (a society with an elected president as opposed to a monarchy) SIGNIFICANCE: they defined a distinct social and political class in Florence
Signory
when one leader is ruling, this was the case in Florence when Medicis were in power, even though florence considered itself a republic. SIGNIFICANCE: definition of social hierarchy in Florence