History of Psych Final
Define the "schedules of reinforcement" from Ferster and Skinner (1957): fixed interval or fixed ratio reinforcement and variable interval and ratio reinforcement. How do the different behavioral patterns from these schedules justify Skinner's belief in single-subject design and visual inspection over parametric statistics?
Fixed interval: reinforcement after a specified amount of time, this could be a reinforcement every 10 minutes Fixed ratio: reinforcement after a specified number of responses, this could be a reinforcement every 5 responses Variable interval: this is when reinforcement is given at unpredictable times Variable ratio: reinforcement on an average number of responses
Explain Skinner's fourfold system of positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment as Skinner would, without reference to pleasure, aversion, or any other internal state. [Extra points: from what philosopher/scientist did Skinner get the idea that such an explanation was desirable?]
For skinner reinforcement means an increase in rate of behavior and punishment means a decrease in rate of behavior. There can be positive or negative reinforcement and positive or negative punishment. To break it down positive means something is presented and negative means something is taken away in the situations. For a positive reinforcement something is presented after a behavior like a reward that will increase the behavior. For negative reinforcement something unpleasant is taken away to increase the behavior. A positive punishment is when an unfavorable event follows behavior like spanking. A negative punishment is the removal of something favorable afterwards like taking away a video game. His work was based off of Thorndike and the law of effect.
Define and give examples of: wish fulfillment in dreams, symbolic substitution of an unpleasant repressed thought, and the relationship between the manifest content and latent content of the dream.
Freud said all dreams were wish fulfillments. He believed the message of dreams is what we would do if we were not prohibited by propriety and practicality. manifest content is the literal narrative and the latent content is what the hidden meaning of the message is.
What did Watson mean when he stated in "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" that the theoretical goal of behaviorism was the prediction and control of behavior? Why did he not merely say that it was a practical goal?
He says our goal should not be to develop elaborate theories and then to find practical applications it should the other way around. He says only when we know how to control something do we really know anything at all useful about how it works. With that we can make theories.
Discuss the accomplishments of Jean Martin Charcot. What positive accomplishments do we owe to him, and how can his work be criticized?
Jean Martin Charcot is one of the most famous neurologist and neuroanatomist. He was known for first diagnosing many neurological disorders and diseases. Charcot is well known for his work in Hysteria and Hypnotism. He would hypnotize hysterics to study them and relieve symptoms. He also corrected the idea that hysterics only was found in females.
Describe the contributions of Josef Breuer and Wilhelm Fliess to the birth of psychoanalysis. In addition to their personal support, how are their ideas reflected in the science and practice of psychoanalysis?
Josef Breuer worked closely with Freud and wad kind of a mentor for Freud. They worked on Studies on Hysteria together. Josef is well known for his Anna O case that he introduced to Freud. He first diagnosed Anna with hysteria and through her treatment created a foundation for what became psychoanalysis. Josef Breuer invented the "talking cure" which eventually developed into free association. Wilhelm fliess was a nose and throat doctor. He believed the nose was indicative of the condition of sexual organs. Fliess came up with the nasogenital theory and the periodicity. Freud was a huge believer and big fan of fliess. With Fliess Freud established the psychosexual stages. Fliess first created the erotogenic zones before freud had.
Describe the central insights that Pavlov learned when doing his Nobel-winning work on the gastric system that became the principles of classical conditioning. Be sure to integrate the definitions of unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, and extinction into your historical explanation.
Pavlov was doing research on his dogs saliva and after a while he realized the dogs would salivate before the meat powder was even presented. They would salivate either by the sight of the lab workers who brought the meat powder or the noise that went along with serving it. He tested pairing the stimuli of a bell with the meat powder and noticed after they associated food with this noise the dogs would salivate just when they heard the bell even without the presence of meat powder. The meat powder would be the unconditioned stimulus and the saliva would be the unconditioned response. The bell was a neutral stimulus at first but then paired and associated with the meat powder became a conditioned stimulus. Over time though this behavior can decrease or disappear otherwise known as extinction.
Describe E. L. Thorndike's position on cognition in animals. How is this position reflected in his puzzle box experiments with cats? What general principles did Thorndike determine from his animal works that are still useful today?
Position on cognition in animals: Thorndike says we have evidence that humans think but not for animals we can only infer that animals do and thats not enough. Thorndike believes animals use more of a trial and error with behavior rather than cognition and problem solving at the capacity of humans. Puzzle Box experiment: The experiment consisted of placing cats in a box that had various ways the cat could figure out how to escape like pulling loops or strings or pressing levers. When the cats found a way to escape they would continue to use that method when being put in the box and escape faster each time. This supports the idea that the cats used trial and error trying different ways to get out over and over until one worked for them. Principles useful today: From these experiments Thorndike developed the Law of effect. The Law of effect says any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated and any behavior followed by negative consequences is likely to be stopped.
Describe the rules of Psychoanalytic Therapy for patients and analysts as dictated by Freud. What is the "first rule of analysis" for patients, and how should the therapist respond to its use? Describe the importance of transference, insight and countertransference in therapy. What are the pitfalls of psychoanalytic therapy?
Rules: Carefully select the patient because not all patients are suitable for analysis Warn the patient the process will be difficult and that they must share everything without exception in free association of their dreams or life events The analyst should say as little as possible in the early sessions and can not reveal personal information Lack of information and relationship encourages patient to project feelings onto the therapist, also called transference. It becomes a problem when there is countertransference, which means the analyst is transferring their feelings onto the patient. This method of free association and bringing the unconscious to the conscious is giving them insight to their unconscious and that is how they can be cured
Explain why we are never free, according to Skinner's philosophy, and why believing in human dignity is harmful, in his view. How would you argue against him?
Skinner is a die-hard determinist and believed there is no free will. Skinner believes our behavior is to due environmental circumstances and conditioning. The determinist view reduces individual responsibility. Skinner denies the existence of intentions and purpose. He believed free will was an illusion. No behavior is voluntary.
What were Watson's specific criticisms against Structuralism and Functionalism in "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"? How did he believe behaviorism would solve these problems?
Watsons specific issue against structuralism was the idea of introspection. He complained that introspection is not replicable. Watsons also had an issue with functionalist studying consciousness. He felt they spent too much time on unresolvable mind-body issues and they do not gain anything by talking about ongoing perceptual process.
