HOI Final Exam
The characters of Ariel and Caliban seem especially important to Shakespeare's aims in his play. Why? What doe these two characters reveal/teach about human nature and authority?
Ariel represents all of the higher elements - he is poetic, forgiving, fairly docile, and obedient, while Caliban represents base elements - he is ignorant, disobedient, corrupt, and it appears that he cannot be educated. It seems that the person with higher elements obeys better. As far as human nature, both men would like to be freed, but both stay under the rule of Prospero. Ariel seems to feel more indebted since Prospero saved him from the evil witch whereas Caliban feels as though he was cheated out of the land that was rightfully his mother's.
How does Bacon's text seem both to support religion and critique religion's role in society?
Bacon seems to be religious at times. He did not want to end religion, he just saw the need for a separation between Science and religion. He believed you could only use senses to judge the natural world, not the heavens. In his work, he put himself in the position of the creator (6 days = 6 parts)
Descartes' project gets at the heart of the "quest for certainty" in early modernity. How would you summarize his "method" and how does his method tie in more with mathematics than lab science?
Descartes's project gets at the heart of the "quest for certainty" in early modernity. How would you summarize his "method" and how does his method tie in more with mathematics than with lab science? Method: accept nothing as true which [I] did not clearly recognize to be so. Divide up each of the difficulties which I examined into as many parts as possible and as seemed requisite in order that it might be resolved in the best manner possible. The third was to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects that were the most simple and easy to understand in order to rise little by little to knowledge of the most complex. Last was in all cases to make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that I should be certain of having omitted nothing. Long chains of reasoning, simple and easy as they are, of which geometricians make use in order to arrive at the most difficult demonstrations, has caused me to imagine that all those things which fall under the cognizance of man might very likely be mutually related in the same fashion; and that, provided only that we abstain from receiving anything as true which is not so and always retain the order which is necessary in order to deduce the one conclusion from the other, there can be nothing so remote that we cannot reach it. This ties more in with mathematics which are more about proofs and deduction whereas lab science is more about experimentation and induction. Descartes' method focuses around deduction, starts with true principles and builds on them, because you never get 100% certainty with induction; not possible to rule out confounds
What are some of the features of scientific method that Bacon proposes in The Great Instauration?
He rejected demonstration by syllogism (All dogs are animals, all animals have four legs. All dogs have four legs) because he noted that if one proposition in the syllogism was incorrect, the whole thing was wrong. Induction upholds the sense. Plan to proceed gradually from one axiom to another, so that the most general are not reached till the last; but then, when you do come to them, you find them to be not empty notions, but well defined, and such as nature would really recognize as her first principles, and such as lie at the heart and marrow of things. He did not agree with the current state of induction, but rather one that would analyze experience and take it to pieces, and by a due process of exclusion and rejection lead to an inevitable conclusion He believed in inductive reasoning, starts with observation and leads to a conclusion - hypothesis first, test it, have other people try to replicate it. He believed in empirical data was necessary, peer review. He believed experiments were greater than senses themselves even if they were aided by instruments. Senses can only be trusted when judging experiments
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of observations. In itself, it is not a valid method of proof. Just because a person observes a number of situations in which a pattern exists doesn't mean that that pattern is true for all situations. Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form of proof. It is the process by which a person makes conclusions based on previously known facts.
How would you describe the meaning of "Enlightenment" for Kant, and what does Kant see as being some of the major obstacles to humanity's "enlightenment"?
Kant saw Enlightenment most importantly as being freedom of thought. He believed that while people must have roles they need to accomplish, in their private life, they should think freely. One of his major obstacles was blind obedience which could be related to the religious views of the time. For instance, he believed that while a pastor has the occupation of spreading the word of the Bible, in his personal life, he should be able to investigate Biblical claims in his own life and refute them if he sees fit.
Voltaire is a master of satire and storytelling; what are some elements of the early modern world toward which he directs his critique
Lust, religion, politics, greed
Luther's On the Freedom of a Christian begins with the claim that a Christian is a "free lord of all things" and a dutiful servant in all things." What does he mean by this and how does it express Protestant ideals.
Luther spoke of a new freedom that liberates you from having to follow earthly authority. This new freedom was grounded in an example of Jesus himself who willingly became a servant to all. Luther believed that you did not need works to get into heaven but rather got to heaven on the basis of faith alone; however, he believed that this faith would lead people to want to do good works. This expressed the protestant ideal of salvation based on faith alone. The internal man has freedom over all things as long as he believes in God because he does not have to be righteous, do good works or follow the laws. He is a "servant in all things" following the ideals of Jesus because he wants to be.
To "render ourselves masters and possessors of nature" is, according to Descartes, the expected outcome of employing this new method. Discuss this claim as it relates to Descartes and at least one other thinker.
Machiavelli - master fortune, river analogy Different from pre-modern where the goal was to merely accept nature. Nature was the ideal. Now, at worst, nature is the enemy. We need to conquer it and fortune as well.
Why does Machiavelli think his advice to princes is better than the advice earlier thinkers have offered?
Machiavelli thinks his advice is better than other earlier thinkers because he gives his advice based on authority by using examples from many other rulers. Historical data analysis rather than just talking about ideal rulers. Much more about what works and what has proven to work in the past
What are 1 or 2 ways in which Teresa's work is both continuous with pre-modern Christianity and distinctively "early modern?" What distinguishes her from another early modern Christian, like Luther?
Teresa's work is continuous with pre-modern Christianity because like Pierre Hadot's "Philosophy as a Way of Life," she thought that this path to the seventh had to be a way of life. She put a large emphasis on experience, which is one thing that made her early modern. Early modern because she focuses on the individual path to salvation independent of the church. Salvation is an individual journey. Salvation open to men and women equally - radical. She advocates progress by pushing yourself through the different rooms. Teresa was much more conservative than Luther because she did not want to make waves and was not suggesting a broad reformation. Rather, she was focused on individual spiritual advancement.
Luther uses the categories of the "Internal Man" and the "External Man" to structure his treatise on the Freedom of a Christian. How does this distinction support his teaching?
The internal man must be pious because no external thing can make him free or pious; it is no help for the soul if the body puts on holy garments, nor if the body is in holy places. While we are on earth, we must engage in good works and must not believe that these good works get us into heaven. This distinction supports his teaching because the internal man is the free lord of all things and the external man is the dutiful servant in all things because of the internal man's faith
Teresa structures her work through the "castle" metaphor. How does this metaphor help her organize her teachings on growth in the Christian spiritual life?
This metaphor works because you have to go through rooms as in the stages of spiritual growth and the message of a king relates to God being the king. Castle is the soul. In order to enter into salvation you must enter the castle. People outside castle are in a dark place. "Castle walls" separated from God. Once they have entered, they have achieved salvation and growing a relationship with God. The further they go, the closer they get to God. To enter the castle means you have to enter yourself and reflect on yourself to see where you need God and where you are faithless so that God can come and restore that part of you. Uses reptiles and snakes as temptations and things that trip you up. Gate of entry is prayer and reflection. You must look at yourself and realize that you need God. In the middle of the castle is a crystal clear fountain, when it's close to God it is pure and clear and close to him. But when you sin it's like putting a cloth over that crystal. It's still shining but you can't see the light
When Machiavelli talks about virtue (virtù), what differentiates his understanding of virtue/virtù or from that of earlier thinkers like the ancient Greeks or early Christians?
Virtue for Greeks and Christians would have referred to more typical forms of virtue in terms of moral excellency, such as being honest and following the laws of God. Machiavelli, on the other hand, believed that virtù means ability or strength. He believed that if what you're doing helped you to achieve stress, you were virtuous
Prospero is a complex figure who seems both base and noble, wise and foolish, ambitious and humble. What might Shakespeare be doing with this character?
Wasn't effective as a politician; may not be fit to rule. While Prospero lost power and was sent to the island, he's not returning hoping to return to power in the same way. There seems to be a strain between politics and poetry that may suggest that one can't be a philosopher and be good at politics. Maybe they would be better off being an advisor. Also Prospero's character could have been used to prove the power of forgiveness since Ariel taught him to forgive
Discuss some of the ways education is vital to Wollstonecraft's argument and proposal for women's right. What is one part of her proposal that seems especially relevant for today? Especially problematic for today?
Wollstonecraft sharply critiqued lust and the fact that lust and marriage were the only ways that women could have any power in society. She believed that until women were educated, they would need to rely on their looks. She believed that with education, marriages would be strengthened because they would be based on friendship and would be able to have meaningful discussions once their looks went away. She also made the argument that women are the ones educating the children, both girls and boys, so they themselves should be educated. Women will never fulfill the particular duties of their sex til they become enlightened citizens. One part of her proposal that seems especially relevant for today is that women are educated alongside men (in most cases) so that they can complement one another. One area that could be problematic would be the timeline (children begin to specialize their trade at age 9).
Rembrandt's "Anatomy Lesson..." and Wright's "A Philosopher...at the Orrery" each depict advances in scientific knowledge. What are some of the differences between these two paintings and what teachings might be implied in these differences?
Women are present in "A Philosopher...at the Orrery" showing that views on women may have been changing. Children were also present showing that the hands of science may be placed in the hands of the new generation. In "the Orrery" people were able to investigate themselves and interact more directly with the exhibit showing the push for never accepting things until you yourself find them to be true.