HS 10: Enlightenment/enlightened despotism
Classical Liberalism 1. Was Classical Liberalism important in the future? What was it's significance? If so, what trend do you see in regards to liberalism in the advance of the modern world? 2. Was Liberalism freely given to the citizens? Think about the important events that occurred so that the people could gain their rights, regarding Liberalism.
1. Constituted the political outgrowth of the Enlightenment a. Belief in liberty of the individual and equality before the law (but NOT democracy) b. "Natural rights" philosophy played a profound role in the American and French Revolutions of the late-18th century. c. Impact of Locke and Montesquieu was clearly evident in the American Constitution and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man d. Rousseau's idea of the "general will" influenced the French Revolution after 1791. 2. Belief in laissez faire capitalism (Adam Smith) a. Government should not interfere in the economy. b. Capitalism was the opposite of mercantilism. 3. Belief in progress (through reason and education), human dignity and human happiness 4. Religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, just punishments for crimes, and equal treatment before the law J. Impact of the Enlightenment on society 1. Emergence of a secular world view of the universe (for the first time in Western history) 2. Enlightened despotism in Prussia, Russia, Austria and France (Napoleon) (see section below) 3. American and French Revolutions (as a result of classical liberalism) 4. Educational reform in various countries 5. Growth of laissez faire capitalism in the 19th century during the early industrial revolution in England and in 19th-century America 6. New public venues and print media emerged.
The Enlightenment (reached maturation by 1750) How did the fundamental notion of the Enlightenment influence the secular view during the Englightenment?
A secular world view emerged for the first time in human history. 1. The fundamental notion was that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life. 2. A new belief saw the autonomy of man's intellect apart from God. 3. The most basic assumption: faith in human reason rather than faith in revelation
Enlightened Despotism 1. Do you think Enlightened Despotism would gain the favor of the people if its policies was used during rule? What about the ruler?
A. Influence of the Enlightenment 1. The philosophes inspired and supported the reforms of the Enlightened Despots. 2. They believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people. 3. Yet they believed, like Thomas Hobbes earlier, that people were not capable of ruling themselves. B. Reforms of the enlightened despots were modest. They provided: religious toleration 2. streamlined legal codes 3. increased access to education 4. reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty
Frederick the Great (II) of Prussia (1770-1786) 1. What policies from the Enlightenment did Frederick adopt? How did it fare with his people? 2. Why do you think Frederich was on of the greatest rulers in Germany? What important events that happened in his time that contributed to this?
Background a. One of the greatest rulers in German history b. Son of Fredrick William I who gave him a strong military education c. Profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment • He considered French learning to be superior. • He patronized Voltaire and invited him to live in his court in Berlin. • Musician and poet 2. Wars of Frederick the Great a. The first 23 years of Frederick's reign were dominated by warfare • Balance of power diplomacy and war prevented Frederick from dominating central and eastern Europe. b. War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) • Cause: Frederick invaded and annexed Silesia, part of the Austrian Habsburg empire o Frederick violated Austria's Pragmatic Sanction (1713) whereby the Great Powers recognized that Charles VII's daughter, Maria Theresa, would inherit the entire Habsburg empire • Prussia efficiently defeated Austria. • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle: o Prussia gained Silesia (and doubled Prussia's population in the process). o Prussia was now recognized as the most powerful of all the German states and as one of Europe's "Great Powers." d. Seven Years' War (1756-1763) • Cause: Maria Teresa sought to regain Silesia from Prussia and gained Russia and France as allies. o Goal of Austria, Russia and France was to conquer Prussia and divide its territories among the winners. • "Diplomatic Revolution of 1756" o France and Austria, traditional enemies, now allied against Prussia. o Britain, a traditional ally of Russia, supported Prussia with money (but with few troops); saw Prussia as a better check on French power than Austria (even with Russia as its ally) 2.1.III ABloodiest war in Europe since the Thirty Years' War of the 17th century o It became a world war that also included England and France's struggle for North America. o Prussia was outnumbered by its enemies 15 to 1. o Prussia suffered 180,000 dead and severe disruptions to its society. o Berlin was twice captured and partially destroyed by Russian troops. o Prussia was on the verge of a catastrophic defeat. • Russian Czar Peter III (an admirer of Frederick) pulled Russia out of the war in 1763. o This saved Prussia from almost certain defeat. o Peter was assassinated and replaced by Catherine II as a result. • Treaty of Paris (1763) o Most important peace treaty of the 18th century and most important since the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). o Prussia permanently retained Silesia. o France lost all its colonies in North America to Great Britain. o Britain gained more territory in India at the expense of France. 3. Enlightened Reforms of Frederick the Great a. Frederick claimed that he saw himself as the "first servant of the state". • The destruction of war encouraged Frederick to help improve society. • Yet, Frederick remained an absolute ruler. • His reforms were mostly intended to increase the power of the state. • The peasantry did not really benefit from his reforms. b. He allowed religious freedom (although less so for Jews). • Jews finally gained religious freedom in 1794, eight years after Frederick's death. c. He promoted education in schools and universities. • In reality, gains in primary education were very modest. d. He codified and streamlined laws. • Numerous existing laws from throughout the provinces in the realm were simplified to create a clear unified national code of law. • The judicial system became efficient in deciding cases quickly and impartially. • Abuses by judicial magistrates were curtailed. e. He freed the serfs on crown lands in 1763. • Frederick's motive: peasants were needed for the army. • Serfdom remained in full-force on noble estates although Frederick ordered an end to physical punishment of serfs by their lords. f. He improved the state bureaucracy by requiring examinations for civil servants. g. Reduced censorship h. He abolished capital punishment (but not in the army). i. He encouraged immigration j. He encouraged industrial and agricultural growth. 3. The social structure in Prussia remained heavily stratified. a. Serfdom on noble lands was maintained. b. The "Junkers" (Prussian nobility) were the backbone of Prussia's military and the state. • The state did not recognize marriages between nobles and commoners. • Nobles were not allowed to sell their lands to non-nobles. c. The middle-class found it extremely difficult to move up socially. • Civilian bureaucrats were not permitted to enter the nobility. • However, in the judicial system, 2/3 of judges were non-nobles.
Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796) 1. What policies did Catherine adopt that classifies her as "one of the greatest rulers in European history? 2. What social class may have favored her? What class benefited the most from her rule?
Background a. She was one of the greatest rulers in European history. • As a reformer, she was perhaps the least "enlightened" of the enlightened despots. b. She was a German princess who became Queen after her husband, Peter III, was assassinated during the Seven Years' War. • She took part in the assassination plot. • Peter the Great had abolished the succession of hereditary czars. c. She was a lover of French culture (she refused to speak German or Russian) and considered herself a child of the Enlightenment. • Diderot lived in her court for a time. 2. Pugachev Rebellion (1773) a. Eugene Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, led a huge serf uprising. • He demanded end to serfdom, taxes and army service. • Landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia. • Pugachev was eventually captured and executed. b. Catherine needed the support of the nobility and gave them absolute control of their serfs. • Serfdom spread to new areas (e.g. Ukraine). • In 1785, Catherine freed nobles forever from taxes and state service. 2.1.I E • She confiscated lands of the Russian Orthodox Church and gave them to her favorite officials. • Nobles reached their height of position while serfs were worse off than ever before. 3. She imported Western culture into Russia. a. Architects, artists, musicians and writers were invited to Russia. b. Culturally, Russia gained the respect of western European countries. 4. Educational reforms a. She supported the first private printing presses. • The number of books published annually in Russia increased to about 400 during her reign compared to a few dozen prior to her reign. b. A school for noble girls was founded. 5. The practice of torture was restricted. 6. A limited degree of religious toleration was allowed. a. Catherine stopped the government policy of persecuting Old Believers (an ultra-conservative and dissident sect of the Orthodox Church). b. Jews were granted civil equality. • Jews had suffered much persecution in Russia: o Jews could not be nobles, join guilds or hold political offices. o They were not allowed to participate in agricultural work or certain trades. o They were resented by Russian and Ukrainian peasants for usury. 7. She allowed strengthened local governments led by elective councils of nobles. • Yet, the crown was not obligated to accept recommendations from councils. 8. Shortcomings of Catherine's reforms a. Only the state and the nobility benefited; the rest of the Russian population benefited little, if at all. • Nobles gained more legal and financial security from the state. • Nobles were freed from taxes or state service. b. Serfdom became even more severe. • Nobles had complete control over their serfs and could mete out arbitrary punishments (even death). • Only nobles could own land. 9. Territorial growth under Catherine the Great was significant. a. She annexed Polish territory under the 3 partitions with Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793 and 1795. • Poland's government of nobles was ineffective as the liberum veto required unanimous agreement for the government to act. b. She gained Ottoman land in the Crimea that was controlled by the Tartars. c. She began conquest of the Caucasus region. d. Expansion provided Catherine with new lands with which HistorySage.com AP Euro Lecture Notes Page 14 Period 2.4: The Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism to give the nobility (to earn their loyalty).
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794) Progress of the Human Mind 1. Why did his Utopian ideas undermine the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas?
His utopian ideas also undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas. b. He identified 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted the 10th stage would bring perfection.
Theistic opposition to rationalism 1. Do you think that if someone never encountered a religious experience, they would question their spiritual beliefs?
German pietism, especially Count von Zinzendorf, (1700-60), leader of the Moravian Brethren, emphasized the need for spiritual conversion and religious experience. b. 18th-century Methodism taught emphasized a need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate reality of the conversion. • Led in England by John Wesley (1703-91). c. Roman Catholic Jansenism in France argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God. 8. By 1800 most governments had extended toleration to Christian minorities, and in some states, civil equality to Jews.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 1. Why might Immanuel Kant be a key figure in the Enlightenment? In what new ideas today and on from the enlightenment be influenced by his ideas?
Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment b. He separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. c. He argued science could describe nature, but it could not provide a guide for morality. d. "Categorical imperative" was an intuitive instinct, placed by God in the human conscience. • Yet, both ethical sense and aesthetic appreciation in human beings were beyond the knowledge of science. • Reason is a function of the mind and has no content in and of itself.
David Hume (1711-1776) 1. Why might desire rather than reason governing human behavior lead to corruption? 2. How does his ideas relate to Romanticism?
He argued against faith in both natural law and religion • He claimed desire, rather than reason, governed human behavior. b. As a skeptic, Hume claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory experiences; thus, human reason could not go beyond what was experienced through the senses. c. He thus undermined Enlightenment's emphasis on reason.
Baron Paul d'Holbach (1723-89) System of Nature 1. Do you think determinism would lead to impulsive decision making? If so, what would be a result of that?
He argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces (determinism). b. His staunch atheism, determinism, and attacks on Christianity undermined the Enlightenment.
Marquis di Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764) What did Beccaria seek to change in the way the government persecuted criminals?
He sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law. • Punishment for a crime should be based rationally on the damage done to society; it should not be linked to the religious concept of sin. b. He opposed death penalty except for serious threats against the state. c. He opposed torture to extract confessions. d. His views influenced the Enlightened Despots: • Frederick the Great of Prussia banned torture. • Catherine the Great restricted the use of torture. • Joseph II of Austria banned torture and the death penalty (but not other harsh punishments).
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) What principle of government did Montesquieu want to incoporate into government?
He was a French noble who hated the absolutism of Louis XIV. b. Spirit of the Laws (1748): He called for the separation of powers in government into three branches (monarchy, nobility, and the rest of the population). • His primary goal was to prevent tyranny and promote liberty. • The principle of checks and balances would ensure that no single branch of gov't became too powerful as the other two branches could check excess power. • He favored the British system of a monarch, Parliament and independent courts. • He supported the 13 parlements in France (judicial tribunals of nobles) as a check against the tyrannical absolute rule by the monarch. c. Montesquieu's ideas had a significant impact on the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution in the 1780s.
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) What was Spinoza's most important view (of God and nature)?
He was a philosopher during the Scientific Revolution whose worldview equated God and nature.
Voltaire (1694-1778) What were Voltaire's religious views, and views about religion? What form of government did Voltaire advocate for?
He was perhaps the most influential of all Enlightenment philosophers. • He wrote his criticisms with a sharp sarcasm that ridiculed those with whom he disagreed. b. He challenged traditional Catholic theology. • Strong deist views • He believed prayer and miracles did not fit with natural law. • He believed that human reason was the key to progress in society, not religious faith. c. His social criticism inspired a call for change, setting the stage for the French Revolution later in the century. • He hated bigotry and injustice and called for religious toleration. • His most famous quote against religious intolerance was "crush the infamous thing" ("Ecracsez l'infame"). • Although Voltaire was raised a Christian, he came to distrust organized religion as corrupt in its leadership and for having moved away from the central message of Jesus. d. He advocated "enlightened despotism" (a more benevolent form of absolutism) believing that people were incapable of governing themselves. • These views were similar to Hobbes' 17th-century views. • His views influenced several "Enlightened Despots" including Frederick the Great of Prussia (who invited Voltaire to live in his court in Berlin), Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Napoleon of France. • Believed in equality before the law but not in the equality of classes.
Some philosophes favored increased rights and education for women 1. In what ways did the enlightenment change views on women socially? 2. Why do these ideas challenge traditional beliefs in terms of women?
Marquis de Condorcet was the only writer to go so far as to support female suffrage. b. Montesquieu in his Persian Letters (1721) supported increased rights for women but did not believe their family roles should change. 4. In England, Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) promoted political and educational equality for women. a. She argued women should receive similar educational opportunities as men as they are essential to the nation for they educate their children and they can be companions to their husbands, rather than ornaments. b. In Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), she issued a scathing attack on Rousseau's views regarding education. 5. Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793): Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) a. She demanded that French women be given the same rights as French men during the early years of the French Revolution. b. She also wrote in another work that gender equality should be present in marriage. c. For her criticism of the French Revolutionary government, she was beheaded in 1793.
Economic Theory in the Enlightenment What was the dominating theory and practice during the Enlightenment that replaced mercantilism?
Mercantilist theory and practice were challenged by new economic ideas espousing free trade and a free market. 2. Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) a. He led the physiocrats in France who opposed mercantilist policies. b. They sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting laissez faire in agriculture. c. They believed the French government and nobility had too much control over land which stifled agricultural production.
The Philosophes How did philosophes want to achieve progress?
Notable 18th-century French philosophers were committed to fundamental reform in society. a. They were extremely successful in popularizing the Enlightenment, though they were not professional philosophers (like Descartes and Locke). • By 1775, much of western Europe's educated elite had embraced the Enlightenment. b. They believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence. c. They were radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves.
Later Enlightenment (late 18th century) 1. Why might philosophers become more skeptic in terms of religion? 2. Why might religion contradict enlightenment ideas?
Philosophers became more skeptical (and in the case of Hume and d'Holbach, even atheistic) and continued to demand religious toleration.
The principles of the Scientific Revolution were applied to human society and institutions. Education was seen as a key for progress, what kind of education was most valued during this time? How were these natural laws applied to human society?
Progress in society was possible if natural laws and how they applied to society could be understood. 2. Education was seen as a key towards helping society to progress.
Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790) 1. Why did Joseph II's reforms lessen the amount of effective control on his empire? 2. Do you think the heavy influence of the enlightenment contributed towards his poor foundation in terms of political stability
a. He ruled with his mother, Maria Theresa, as co-regent until her death in 1780. b. He was perhaps the greatest of the "Enlightened Despots" in terms of reforms but in many ways he was among the least effective in setting a foundation for political stability. • He was deeply influenced by the Enlightenment and its emphasis on reforms. • He was a firm believer in absolutism and he could be ruthless in achieving his goals. c. Major reforms • Abolished serfdom and feudal dues in 1781 o Ironically, opposed by many peasants since the law stated that obligations to lords would have to be paid in cash, rather than labor (serfs had little cash available) o Nobles resisted their reduced power over the peasantry o This edict was rescinded after his death by his brother, Leopold II, who needed support of the nobles. • Freedom of religion and civic rights to Protestants and Jews • Reduced the influence of the Catholic Church o Suppressed monasteries • Allowed freedom of the press to a significant degree • Reformed the judicial system and sought to make it equal for all citizens • Abolished torture and ended the death penalty • Expanded state schools • Established hospitals, insane asylums, poorhouses and orphanages o The state provided food and medicine to the poor. • Made parks and gardens available to the public • Made German the official language of the empire in an effort to assimilate minorities d. The Empire declined under Joseph's reign • Austria was defeated several times in wars with the Ottoman Empire. 2.1.I.C • The Austrian Netherlands were in revolt. • Russia was threatening Austria's interests in eastern Europe and the Balkans. • Leopold II was forced to reverse many of Joseph's radical reforms in order to maintain effective control of the empire.
Rousseau's views on women 1. What would be the view of Rousseau's view on women in todays world? 2. Does this relate to the way women have been seen before the enlightenment? If so, does that mean Rousseau thinks that women should always be looked upon as "less powerful" than men?
Rousseau argued that because men and women had different temperament and character, women should not be educated in the same manner as men. b. He believed that men and women had very different destinies due to their biology. c. He stated that men need women to satisfy their desires but women needed men for both their desires and their necessities; therefore, men are more valuable. d. Many articles in the Encyclopedia emphasized the relative weakness of women or that their lives were frivolous and unconcerned with important issues; their traditional roles as wives and mothers continued to be emphasized.
Maria Theresa of Austria (1740-1780) 1. How did Maria centralize control of the Habsburg Empire in Austria? What did she do to try to achieve absolute power? 2. What conditions did she improve to help the people? What social classes do you think favored her and disliked her?
She assumed the Habsburg Empire from her father, Charles VII. • Pragmatic Sanction of 1713: Issued by Leopold I and agreed to by the Great Powers that the Habsburg Empire would remain intact under his daughter's rule • Officially, she was Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. • She sought to improve the condition of her people through absolute rule. • She was conservative and cautious (unlike her son, Joseph II who was a bold reformer but brought the empire to near rebellion). b. The War of Austrian Succession (see above) • As a female, Maria Theresa could not assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor. o This issue cast doubts among the Great Powers regarding her legitimacy as ruler of the Habsburg Empire. • Although Maria Theresa lost Silesia to Prussia, she saved her leadership of the empire. o The Hungarian nobility helped the queen to defeat the Bohemian revolt and preserve the empire. c. She centralized control of the Habsburg Empire. • She limited the power of the nobles. o Reduced power of the lords over their serfs o Some serfs were partially freed. o Feudal dues by peasants were reduced or eliminated. o Nobles were taxed. • Maria Theresa did more to help the condition of serfs than any ruler in European history up to that time (only her son, Joseph II, did more). o This was in response to the terrible famine and disease of the 1770s. • Increased the empire's standing army from 30,000 to over 100,000. • Improved the tax system. • Reduced conflicts between various provinces in the empire. • Reduced the practice of torture in legal proceedings. d. She brought the Catholic Church in Austria under state control. • Sought to reduce pope's influence in Austria o Suppressed the Jesuits • Taxed the Catholic Church in Austria • She believed that the Church and the nobility were the foundations of the state. e. She promoted economic development. • Hoped that giving serfs some freedoms would make 2.1.III A HistorySage.com AP Euro Lecture Notes Page 15 Period 2.4: The Enlightenment and Enlightened Despotism them more productive • Abolished guilds • Abolished internal customs duties • Encouraged immigration • Improved transportation: roads, ports • Supported private enterprise f. Maria Theresa is NOT considered, however, an enlightened despot. • She was not a fan of the Enlightenment. • She did not go as far as others in allowing religious toleration (which her son did, along with Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great). o She did provide some toleration for Protestants.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) How was Rousseau's idea of general will different from what it seemed to be (a democracy)?
Social Contract (1762) • He believed that too much of an emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice. • The general will, a consensus of the majority, should control a nation. This strongly implied democracy. o Downside: minority viewpoints were not recognized. • Though these ideas seem to support democracy, the ambiguous nature of "general will" was later manipulated by dictators to rationalize extreme nationalism and tyranny (e.g. Robespierre). b. Though considered part of the Enlightenment, Rousseau is more accurately seen as a founder of the Romantic movement. • After the French Revolution, the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason gave way to a glorification of emotion. Rousseau believed that man in a simpler state of nature was good—a "noble savage"—and was corrupted by the materialism of civilization. d. Emile (1762) • Supported progressive education; learning by doing; self-expression was encouraged. • However, he argued against equality for women in society and in educational opportunity. • Ironically, he left his 5 illegitimate children in an orphanage instead of educating them.
Adam Smith (1727-90): Wealth of Nations (1776) Why did Smith believe that a free market economy would improve the quality and cost of consumer goods?
The book is considered the "Bible" of capitalism. b. It refined and expanded the laissez-faire philosophy of the physiocrats. c. Smith believed the economy is governed by the natural laws of supply and demand. • In a free market economy, competition will encourage producers to manufacture most efficiently in order to sell higher quality, lower cost goods than competitors. • Gov't regulation only interferes with this natural selfgoverning style. • The "invisible hand of the marketplace"—the laws of supply and demand—will dictate the price at which society benefits the most.
Deism: the religious arm of the Enlightenment How did Deism, a new Enlightenment religion, support the values of the Enlightenment if it argued that there was a powerfule Creator?
The existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form. b. God was a deistic Creator—a cosmic clockmaker— who created the universe and then stepped back and left it running like a clock. c. The universe was governed by "natural law", not by a personal God. • Some called it the "ghost in the machine." • The supernatural was not involved in human life. d. Deism grew out of Newton's theories regarding natural law.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784): The Encyclopedia (completed in 1765) What was the purpose for Diderot making the Encyclopedia?
The multi-volume tome was perhaps the greatest and most representative work of the philosophes. b. It was a compendium of political and social critiques from various Enlightenment philosophers and authors. c. It helped to popularize the views of the philosophes. d. It emphasized science and reason while criticizing religion, intolerance, injustice and tyranny. • It sought to teach people to think critically and objectively. e. The Encyclopedia was banned in France; the pope placed it on the Index of Prohibited Books.
John Locke (1632-1704) - greatest of the Enlightenment thinkers How did Locke's ideas conflict with the ideas of other Enlightenment thinkers and philosophers who had dominated popular opinion before the Englightenment? What did Locke believe about human knowledge?
Two Treatises of Civil Government, 1690 a. It was a philosophical defense for the "Glorious Revolution" in England. b. Humans in a state of nature: Locke believed humans are basically good but lack protection. • This contrasts with Hobbes' view of humans in a state of nature as "nasty and brutish." c. Governments provide rule of law but only through the consent of the governed. d. The purpose of government is to protect the "natural rights" of the people: life, liberty and property. • Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of natural rights e. Right to rebellion: People have a right to abolish a government that doesn't protect natural rights. 2. Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690 a. One of the great works of the Enlightenment. b. It stressed the importance of the environment on human development. c. tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively. d. Locke saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions. • He rejected Descartes' view that all people are born with certain basic ideas and ways of thinking. e. For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development. f. This undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful.
Women in the Enlightenment What was the role of women in the Enlightenment salons?
Women played a major role in the salon movement. a. Many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss the major issues of the day. b. This represented a major example of how new venues in civic society disseminated information to society, a break away from the traditional venues of the Church or government. • Enlightenment culture was also spread through other venues such as coffeehouses, academies, lending libraries, and Masonic lodges. • In England, coffee houses that attracted a high-class clientele that discussed Enlightenment views were largely male-dominated. • However, debating societies in England welcomed women to participate. c. Certain French women organized salons and took part in the discussions such as Madame de Geoffrin, Madame de Staël, and Louise de Warens. • They were largely organizers and facilitators however, and were not always treated as equals in the discussions. d. Madame de Geoffrin played a major role in patronizing Diderot's Encyclopedia. e. Madame de Staël later brought German romantic ideas into France in the early 1800s.
Rousseau Late Enlightenment 1. Why might his beliefs make people question the ideas on morality?
attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying rather than liberating the individual. a. He influenced the early Romantic movement. b. He believed in a more loving and personal god than did many of his philosophe contemporaries.
religious toleration What made religious toleration acceptable to advocate for during the Enlightenment? Why did Pierre Bayle believe that any religion could be correct?
popularized by many scholars who made the Enlightenment accessible to the public. 1. Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757) a. Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad audience b. Stressed the idea of progress c. Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religion 2. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): Critical and Historical Dictionary, 1697 a. He advocated for the complete toleration of ideas. • A person should be free to worship any religion, or none at all. • Religion and morality were not necessarily linked. b. He was a skeptic who believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt. • Similar to Montaigne's 16th-century views c. His major criticism concerned Christian authorities attempting to impose religious orthodoxy.