Human Anatomy Chapter 1
parasagittal
all other sagittal planes, offset from the midline
Regional Anatomy
all structures in a single body region, such as the abdomen or head
Systemic anatomy
all the organs with related functions are studied together. For example, when studying the muscular system, you consider the muscles of the entire body
Muscular System
allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and produces heat
The overview of anatomy
anatomy is the study of body structure. In this book, structures are considered in terms of their function
Nervous System
as the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
chemical level
atoms, the tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form small molecules, such as CO2
anatomical terminology
because most structures in the body have formal greek and latin names, learning the meaning of word roots will help you understand anatomy
Cardiovascular System
blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood
Sonography or ultrasound imaging
body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that reflect(echo) off the body's tissues
The arm
brachium
Branches of Anatomy
branches of anatomy include gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy (histology) and developmental anatomy
Digestive System
breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
Classify the levels of structural organization in the body according to relative and actual size
chemical level-cellular level-tissue level-organ level-organ system-organismal level
Advanced X-Ray Techniques
computed tomography (CT) produces improved X-ray images that are taken in cross section to avoid overlapping images of adjacent organs and computer enhanced for clarity. Angiography produces sharp x-ray images of blood vessels injected with a contrast medium
Appendicular region
consists of the limbs, which are also called appendages or extremities
oblique sections
cuts made along any plane that lies diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical
Pathological anatomy
deals with the structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs caused by disease
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
does not use radiation for generating an image. MRI primarily detects the levels of the element hydrogen in the body, most of which is in water
Functional morphology
explores the functional properties of body structures and assesses the efficiency of their design.
The thigh bone
femur
When is sonography used?
for determining the age and health of a developing fetus. It is also used to visualize the gallbladder and other viscera and the arteries to detect atherosclerosis
Integumentary system
forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands
Endocrine System
glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
organismal level
human organism is a whole living person
Light Microscope (LM)
illuminates body tissue with a beam of light, uses lower-magnification viewing
Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight
important units of length measurements are meters (m( for the organism, centimeters (cm) for the organs, and micrometers (um) for cells.
Regional and Directional Terms
in the adult anatomical position, the body stands erect, facing forward with legs together. The arms are at the sides, with the palms forward. Regional terms are used to designate specific areas of the body. Directional terms allow anatomists to describe the location of body structures with precision Important terms include superior/inferior; anterior/posterior (or ventral/dorsal); medial/lateral; proximal/distal; and superficial/deep
Describe the basic structures that humans share with other vertebrates
inner tube: digestive tube dorsal hollow nerve tube: brain segmented outer tube: heart notochord: - bilateral symmetry:- pharyngeal pouches/pharynx:-
Respiratory System
keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
frontal (coronal) plane
lies vertically and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Axial region
makes up the main axis of the body, consists of the head, neck and trunk
functional MRI(fMRI)
measures blood oxygen
organ level
most organs contain all four tissues
regional terms
names of specific body areas. The fundamental divisions of the body are the axial and appendicular regions.
tissue level
only four tissue types make up all organs of the human body: epithelial tissue, connective tissues, muscle tissue, nervous tissue
organ system
organs that work closely together to accomplish a common purpose make up an organ system. The body's organ systems are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems
Male/Female Reproductive System
overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Name the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdomen, and name the visceral organs associated with these regions
page 13 (figure 1.8)
Use the word root definitions located in the end pages of this text to define each of the terms listed: Pathology, hepatitis, branchial, leukocyte, pneumonia
pathology: study of disease hepatitis: inflammation of the liver brachial: arm leukocyte: white cell pneumonia: condition of air
Lymphatic System/Immunity
picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body
Positron emission tomography (PET)
produces images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body
Skeletal System
protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals
digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
provides an unobstructed view of smaller arteries
transverse (horizontal) plane
runs horizontally from right to left, dividing body into superior and inferior parts. A transverse section is also called a cross section
What are most frequently used body planes?
sagittal, frontal and transverse planes
Most often used paired terms
superior/inferior anterior (ventral)/posterior (dorsal) medial/lateral superficial/deep
The Human Body Plane
the basic structures we share with all other vertebrate animals are the tube-within-a-tube body plan, bilateral symmetry, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord and vertebrae, segmentation, and phryngeal pouches
Body Cavities and Membranes
the body contains two major closed cavities: the dorsal activity, subdivided into the cranial and vetebral cavities; and the ventral body cavity, subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. Within the ventral cavity are the visceral organs (such as the heart, lungs, intestines, and kidneys) and three serous cavities: pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities. These slitlike cavities are linked by thin membranes, the parietal and visceral serosae(figure 1.7). The serosae produce a think layer of lubricating fluid that decreases friction between moving organs
Body Planes and Sections
the body or its organs may be cut along planes to produce different types of sections. Frequently used are sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes
Cellular level
the cells and their functional subunits, called cellular organelles
Microscopy
the examination of small structures with a microscope
the hierarchy of structural organization
the levels of structural organization of the body, from simplest to most complex, are chemical cellular tissue, organ, organ system, and the human organism itself. The organ systems in the body are integumentary (skin), skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
Use Figure 1.8 and the directional terms in Table 1.1 to describe the location of the liver in reference to the heart
the liver lies inferior to the hart and extends laterally in the epigastric and right hypochondriac regions of the abdomen
which tube of the body shows evidence of segmentation, the outer tube or the inner tube?
the outer tube shows evidence of segmentation
what is the outer layer of serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity called?
the parietal pleura is the outer layer of serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity
meidan plane or midsagittal plane
the specific sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline
Physiology
the study of body function
Gross anatomy
the study of body structures that can be examined by the naked eye-the bones, lungs, and muscles
Embryology
the study of how body structures form and develop before birth
Radiographic anatomy
the study of internal body structures by means of X-ray studies and other imaging techniques
Surface anatomy
the study of shapes and markings on the surface of the body tat reveal the underlying organs
Microscopic anatomy, or histology
the study of structures that are so small they can be seen only with a microscope
Anatomy
the study of the structure of the human body. It is also called morphology, the science of form
Light and Electron Microscopy
to illuminate cells and tissues, the light microscope (LM)uses light beams and the transmission electron microscope (TEM or EM) uses electron beams. EM produces sharper images than LM at higher magnification. The preparation of tissues for microscopy involves preservation(fixation), sectioning, and staining. Stains for LM are colored dyes, whereas stains for TEM are heavy-metal salts
Developmental anatomy
traces the structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span and the effects of aging
Sonography
ultrasonography provides sonar images of developing fetuses and internal body structures
Transmission Electron Microscope
uses a beam of electrons, higher magnification
sagittal planes
vertical, linke frontal planes, but divide the body into right and left parts
Name the organ system describe in each of the following: (a) eliminates wastes and regulates water and ion balance (b) fast-acting control system that integrates body activities (c) supplies blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
(a) the urinary system eliminates wastes and regulates water and ion balance (b) the nervous system is a fast-acting control system (c) the respiratory system supplies blood with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
What does CT produces?
CT produces superb images of soft tissue as well as of bone and blood vessels
locate the major body cavities and their subdivision
Dorsal Body Cavity is subdivided into a cranial cavity, which lies in the skull and encases the brain, and a vertebral cavity, which runs through the vertebral column to enclose the spinal cord Ventral Body Cavity contains organs such as the lungs, heart, intestines, kidneys The ventral body cavity has two main divisions (1) superior thoracic cavity (2) inferior abdominopelvic cavity thoracic cavity has three parts (a) two lateral parts, each containing a lung surrounded by a pleural activity (b) a central band of organs called the mediastinum. The mediastinum contains the heart surrounded by a pericardial cavity abdominopelvic cavity is divided into two parts. superior part called abdominal cavity which contains liver, stomach, kidneys and pelvic cavity which contains bladder, and reproductive organs and rectum many organs in the abdominopelvic cavity are surrounded by a peritoneal cavity Serous Cavities the serous membranes are named pleura. The part of a serosa that forms the outer wall of the cavity is called the parietal serosa the parietal serosa is continuous with the inner, visceral serosa which covers the visceral organs. Serous cavities do not contain air, however, but a thin layer of serous fluid
Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
what is the difference between histology and radiography
History is the study of structures that are so small they can be seen only with a microscope. Radiography is the study of internal body structures by means of X-ray studies and other imaging techniques
X-Ray Imaging
In conventional radiographs, X rays are used to produce negative images of internal body structures. Denser structures in the body appear lighter (whiter) on the x-ray film
Name two types of microscopes
Light Microscope (LM) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM or just EM)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRI subjects the body to strong magnetic fields and radio waves, producing high-contrast images of soft body structures
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
PET tracks radioisotopes in the body, locating areas of high energy consumption and high blood flow
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides sharp, three-dimensional images at high magnification
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
To map the visceral organs in the abdominopelvic cavity, clinicians divide the abdomen into nine regions or four quadrants
anatomical position
a person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
Define a tissue. List the four types of tissues in the body, and briefly state the function of each
a tissues is a group of cells of similar structure with a common function. The four types of tissue are epithelial tissue: a covering or lining tissue connective tissue: which functions in support and protection muscle tissues: which produces movement nervous tissue: allows for internal communication by electrical impulses
