Human Anatomy Final Study Guide

What is a mature fat cell called?

Adipocyte

Accessory Organs

Aid in Digestion, BUT undigested food does not pass through them! -Salivary Glands -Liver -Gallbladder -Pancreas (is an endocrine AND exocrine organ)

What are mitochondria?

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of aerobic cell respiration and energy (ATP) production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers (cristae).

Know the anatomical features of the cell and cell membrane

Anatomy of Cell: -Plasma Membrane -Cytosol -Centrioles -Ribosomes -Endoplasmic Reticulum -Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum -Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum -Golgi Apparatus -Lysosome -Peroxisome -Mitochondria -Nucleus -Nucleolus -Chromatin -Chromosomes Anatomy of Cell Membrane: -Selective Permeability -Phospholipid Bilayer -Transport Proteins -Exocytosis -Endocytosis

What hormone is antagonistic to Aldosterone?

Antagonistic to ANH (Atrial Natriuretic Hormone)

Know the microscopic and macroscopic anatomy of a compact bone.

Compact bone (organized bone) Composed of.. Osteons (Haversian system): Organized tubular units with osteocytes (mature bone cells) within lacunae Lacunae: Tiny chambers around a central canal Matrix: (Contains mineral salts Ca++ and phosphates (PO4 for strength) - Fills spaces between lacunae Canaliculi: Tiny canals within matrix connecting lacunae Bring nutrients into the bone from the .... Central canal (Haversian canal): Contains blood and lymph vessels, and nerves

What gonadotropin stimulates hormone production?

LH (Lutenizing Hormone): Stimulate Gonads to produce hormones

Extra: What is the immunity involving Neutrophils called?

Non-specific (innate) immunity

SA Node

Sinoatrial Node Pacemaker of the heart (cranio-lateral right atrium)

Function of Neutrophils

**-1st Responders (phagocytes) -First most numerous WBC in the blood stream -Multi-lobed nucleus (Polymorphonuclear) -Engulf and digest pathogens = Phagocytosis **-Non-specific (innate) immunity

Directional Terms

- Superior/Inferior -Ventral/Dorsal -Medial/Lateral -Intermediate -Anterior/Posterior -Cranial/Caudal -Proximal/Distal -Superficial/Deep

What is the differences between a tract and a nerve?

-A tract is a collection of nerve fibers (axons) in the central nervous system. Unlike the nerves, tracts are responsible to make the white matter of the central nervous system. -A nerve is a collection of nerve fibers (axons) in the peripheral nervous system. Nerve connects sensory organs and central nervous system while tract connects the distance parts of the central nervous system.

What is a Thrombocyte?

-AKA Platelet -Small colorless disk-shaped cell fragment without a nucleus, found in large numbers in blood and involved in clotting. -Made from Fragments of Megakaryocytes

What are the three (3) cell types found in the alveoli?

-Alveolar Type I Cells: are simple squamous epithelial cells -Rapid diffusion of gases -Alveolar Type II Cells: are cuboidal -Produce surfactant, which decreases the surface tension within the alveolus and prevents the collapse of alveoli -alveolar macrophages for phagocytosis

What type of tissue is Epiglottis?

-Basic tissue type = connective. Specific tissue -The Epiglottis is a flap made of Elastic Cartilage tissue covered with a Mucous Membrane

Transverse spinal cord section Anatomy

-Central Canal -Ventral/Dorsal Horn -Lateral Horn -Ventral Root -Dorsal Root -Dorsal Root Ganglion -Gray Matter -White Matter -Posterior Medial Sulcus

Understand the anatomy of the dorsal body cavity organs (brain and spinal cord) ... Including white matter and gray matter.

-Cerebrum -Frontal Lobe (Judgement, Foresight, and Voluntary Movement) -Parietal Lobe (MOSTLY somato-sensory ...Comprehension of Language) -Occipital Lobe (Primary Visual Area) -Temporal Lobe (MOSTLY hearing Intelectual and Emotional Functions) -Cerebellum -(coordination/equilibrium) -Corpus Callosum (The Band) white matter ... commissural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres -Thalamus -Epithalamus -Thalamus -Hypothalamus -Gyrus (Bump) -Anterior Central Gyrus -Posterior Central Gryus -Sulcus (Fissures) -Brain Stem -Midbrain -Pons -Medulla Oblongata -White Matter: Myelinated -Gray Matter: Unmyelinated -Spinal Cord -Cervical (C1-C8) -Thoracic (T1-T12) -Lumbar (L1-L5) (Sacral (S1-S5), Coccyx(C0))

What is the type of immunity involving T-cells called?

Cell-mediated Adaptive Immunity

Long term stress and where in the adrenal gland (specifically) are they produced?

-Cortiso (Glucocoticoids) -Adrenal Cortex (Outer Layer)

What membrane lines the dorsal body cavity and covers its organs (list from superficial to deep)?

-Dura Mater (Superficial) -Arachnoid (Middle) -Pia Mater (Deep )

Three Layers of the Heart

-Epicardium (parietal and visceral pericardium) -Myocardium -Endocardium

What are the hormones produced by it in response to short-term stress, and where in the adrenal gland (specifically) are they produced?

-Epinephrine/nor-epinephrine (Catacholamines) -Adrenal Medulla (Inner Layer)

What are the four (4) basic tissue types?

-Epithelial -Connective -Muscular -Nervous

Describe the membranes of the female reproductive tract and the layers of the uterine wall.

-Ligaments -Broad Ligament -Round Ligament -Ovarian Ligament -Suspensory Ligament -Endometrium (Inner) -Myometrium (Middle) -Parametrium (Outter)

Describe the parts of the brainstem from cranial to caudal. (Location?)

-Mid Brain: The midbrain which is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation -Pons: Helps relay messages from the cortex and the cerebellum. (REM Sleep, not dream (Dream is from Frontal Lobe)) -Medulla Oblongata: helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation.

Extra: Body Planes

-Midsagittal (Median) Plane -Transverse (Horizontal) Plane -Coronal (Frontal) Plane

What are Macrophages?

-Monocytes are called macrophages in the tissues -Large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites of infection.

List the five (5) Leukocytes

-Neutrophils -Eosinophils -Basophils -Monocytes -Lymphocytes

Neuron Anatomy

-Nucleus -Body -Dendrites -Axon -Myelin Sheath -Node of Ranvier -Axon Terminal -Schwann Cells

Be able to describe the various types of joints.

-Plane Joints: (Gliding) flat articular surfaces that allow for short, non-axial gliding movement -Diarthritic (freely movable), synarthritic (immobile) and amphiarthritic (cartilagenous semi-movable) -Hinge Joints: cylindrical projections fit into trough like surfaces -Pivot Joints: Rounded end of bone protrudes into "sleeve" in order to rotate in its own axis -Condylar Joints: oval articular surface fits into complementary fossa for angular, biaxial motion -Saddle Joints: Both articular surfaces are concave. Allows for biaxial movement -Ball and Socket Joints: Spherical head articulates with cup like socket. Multiaxial and freely moving joints

Cell Organelle

-Plasma Membrane: Outer "skin" of a cell -Cytosol: Intercellular fluid -Centrioles: Move DNA strands in cell division -Ribosomes: Make protein -Endoplasmic Reticulum: Synthesis of proteins, storage of material, transport material through cell, detoxify drugs and toxins -Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Lipids and carbohydrates are synthesized -Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Proteins are synthesized -Golgi Apparatus: Packages, processes, and secretes proteins -Lysosome: Contains digestive enzyme that breaks things down -Peroxisome: Breaks down fatty acids important for detoxification -Mitochondria: Powerhouse of cell. Turns organic compounds (fatty acid, amino acid, glucose) into energy [ATP] -Nucleus: Contains DNA -Nucleolus: Makes the cells ribosomes -Chromatin: DNA bound to protein in a non-dividing cell -Chromosomes: Found in nucleus. Store instructions for protein synthesis

Gonadal Ovarian Anatomy

-Primordial Follicle: An ovarian follicle consisting of the ovum enclosed in a single layer of cells. -Primary Follicle: A primary ovarian follicle is an immature follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by a single layer of tall, supporting granulosa cells. -Secondary Follicle: A secondary ovarian follicle is a maturing ovarian follicle consisting of an oocyte surrounded by two or more layers of tall, supporting granulosa cells. -Vesicular Follicle: Once a month, one of the ovaries releases a mature egg (ovum), known as an oocyte. A follicle is an anatomical structure in which the primary oocyte develops. The nucleus of such an oocyte is called a germinal vesicle -Oocyte: immature egg cell -Corpus Luteum: a hormone-secreting structure (Progesterone) that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been discharged but degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has begun. -Corpus Albicans: degenerated corpus luteum if no fertilization

What are the major anterior pituitary hormones?

-Prolactin -Growth Hormone -ACTH -TSH -LH -FSH

List all Heart Chamber

-Right Atrium (recieving chamber) -Left Atrium (receiving chamber) -Right Ventricle (pumping chamber) -Left Ventricle (pumping chamber)

Body Quadrants

-Right Upper Quadrant -Left Upper Quadrant -Right Lower Quadrant -Left Lower Quadrant

Heart Electrical System

-SA Node -AV Node -Bundle of HIS -Bundle Branches -Purkinge Fibers

Function of Lymphocytes

-agranulocyte -Small -2nd most numerous WBC cell in the blood stream **-Responsible for specific (Adaptive) immunity -Round nucleus -Respond to antigens, which are molecules on the pathogen's membranes that allow recognition by the immune system --Two types: -B-lymphocytes (mature in the RED bone marrow) - Produce antibodies -T-Lymphocytes (Mature in the Thymus)- Directly destroy pathogens -Thymocin is the hormone that helps with maturation of lymphocytes

Know the five (5) neuroglial cells, where they are found, and their functions.

-Schwann Cells (Myelinates and insulate PNS Axons, Allow faster nerve impulse conduction through the axon) -Astrocytes (Star shaped that wraps around presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons. Takes up chemicals and then releases them back to axons, helping synchronize activity of axons, enabling them to send messages in waves. Replaces damaged neurons, assist with neurons development, helps form the blood-brain barrier) -Oligodendrocyte (Myelinates and insulates CNS axons, Allows faster nerve impulse conduction through the axon) -Ependymal (Lines the ventricles of brain and central canal of spinal cord, Produces and helps circulate CSF) -Microglial Cells (Removes wastes as well as viruses, fungi, and other microorganism)

Male Reproductive System

-Scrotum -Testes -Epididymis -Spermatic Cord -Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens) -Ejaculatory Duct -Urethra -Seminal Vesicles: Storage sacs for seminal fluid, which empty into the urethra at the prostate. -Prostate Gland: Gland that secrete fluid into the semen -Bulbourethra Glands: Produces preejaculatory fluid -Penis - (contains urethra and corpus spongyosum/cavernosum)

Plasma Membrane

-Selective Permeability: Allowing some substances to pass through while keeping others out. -Phospholipid Bilayer: Molecules of fat that form the 2 layers that make up the lipid bi-layer of the cell membrane. (Hydrophillic or Hydrophobic) -Transport Proteins (Passive or Active): The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane with/without expenditure of energy -Exocytosis: using energy to push stuff out of the cell The cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles containing them with the plasma membrane. -Endocytosis: using energy to bring substances into the cell. Cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane.

Know the three (3) pair of salivary glands and where they secrete their products.

-Sublingual Gland (Secretes saliva at bottom of tongue) -Parotid Gland (Secretes saliva at top of mouth) -Submandibular Gland (Secretes saliva at sublingual caruncles)

Name all Great Vessel

-Superior Vena Cava (deO2 - vein) -Inferior Vena Cava (deO2 - vein) -Pulmonary Artery (deO2 - artery) -Pulmonary Vein (O2 rich - vein) -Aorta (O2 rich - artery)

Understand the two (2) parts of the autonomic nervous system, their anatomy, effects, their neurotransmitters, and their ganglia.

-Sympathetic Nervous System: (thoracolumbar) -Parasympathetic Nervous System:(cranio-sacral)

List all Heart Valve

-The Two Atrioventricular (AV) Valves -Mitral Valve (bicuspid valve) -Tricuspid valve -The Two Semilunar (SL) Valves -Aortic Semilunar Valve -Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

Histology of Large Intestine (Colon)

-The lumen of the large intestine is lined by simple columnar epithelium and goblet cells, which secrete to lubricate the fecal material __________________________________________ Muscular Wall of Large Intestine: -The longitudinal muscle of the large intestine is incomplete, forming bundles called teniae coli -These bundles bunch up to from many sacs called haustrae -Extending off the external surface of the haustra are fat pads called epiploic appendages

Histology of Stomach

-The lumen of the stomach is lined by simple columnar epithelium and little absorption occurs in the stomach -The stomach lining is indented by numerous depressions called gastric pits -protein digestion begins in the stomach

How about the other Cartilages of the Larynx?

-Thyroid Cartilage -Cricoid Cartilage -Tracheal Ring Cartilage -Arytenoid Cartilages -Corniculate Cartilages -Cuneiform Cartilages ALL are hyaline cartilage unlike the Epiglottis (Epiglottis is composed of Elastic Cartilage)

Gonadal Testicular Anatomy

-Tunica Vaginalis (G): Extra:(The tunica vaginalis is the serous covering of the testis. It is a pouch of serous membrane, derived from the processus vaginalis of the peritoneum, which in the fetus preceded the descent of the testis from the abdomen into the scrotum.) -Tunica Albuginea (F): Tunica albuginea (penis), Extra:(the tough fibrous layer of connective tissue that surrounds the corpora cavernosa of the penis. Tunica albuginea (testicles), a layer of connective tissue covering the testicles. Tunica albuginea (ovaries), the connective tissue covering of the ovaries.) -Testicular Septa (E): Extra:(Each lobule of the testis is contained in one of the intervals between the fibrous septa which extend between the mediastinum testis and the tunica albuginea, and consists of from one to three, or more, minute convoluted tubes, the tubuli seminiferi.) -Seminiferous Tubules (C): Extra:(Seminiferous tubules are located within the testes, and are the specific location of meiosis, and the subsequent creation of male gametes, namely spermatozoa. The epithelium of the tubule consists of a type of sustentacular cells known as Sertoli cells, which are tall, columnar type cells that line the tubule.) SPERM ARE PRODUCED HERE!!! -Straight Tubules (Tubulus -Rectus) (L): Extra:(the continuation of the tubulus seminifer contortus which straightens just before entering the mediastinum to form the rete testis.) -Rete Testes (M): Extra:(The rete testis is an anastomosing network of delicate tubules located in the hilum of the testicle (mediastinum testis) that carries sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the efferent ducts.) -Efferent Ductules (N): Extra:(The efferent ducts connect the rete testis with the initial section of the epididymis. There are two basic designs for efferent ductule structure: a) multiple entries into the epididymis, as seen in most large mammals.)

Female Reproductive System

-Uteris -Cervix (Round valve like to uteris) -Body -Fundus (Top of Uteris) -Endometrium (Inner) -Myometrium (Middle) - smooth muscle -Uterine (Fallopian) Tube -Ligaments -Broad Ligament -Round Ligament -Ovarian Ligament -Suspensory Ligament -Ovarian Cycle -Clitoris -Prepuce of Clitoris -Urethral Orifice -Vaginal Orifice -Hymen -Greater Vestibular (Bartholin's) Glands

Function of Monocytes

-agranulocyte -kidney shaped nucleus -Largest WBC *-Differentiate into macrophages* within the tissues (In other words, monocytes are called macrophages in the tissues) -Macrophages phagocytize pathogens, old cells, and debris and stimulate other WBCs to begin pathogen defense

What is the difference between arteries, veins, and capillaries

-both have the same three layers but ... Arteries: Away from heart, Mainly carry oxygenated blood (NOT in pulmonary circuit or fetal circulation!!), High Pressure, No Valves, Thick Outer Wall (Pumps a lot more blood), Thick inner layer of muscles and elastic fibres, Narrow Central tube - small Lumen (Where the blood flows through) Veins: Toward the Heart, Mostly carries deoxygenated blood (NOT in pulmonary circuit or fetal circulation!!), Lower Pressure, Valves, Thin Outer Walls, Thin Inner Layer, Wide Central Tube - Large Lumen Capillaries: Walls only one cell thick -really thick- for easy diffusion, but other membrane transport processes occur here, too (osmosis, filtration, endo and exocytosis)

What is flexion?

-decreasing the angle at a joint -The action of bending or the condition of being bent, especially the bending of a limb or joint.

What type of muscle makes up the urinary bladder?

-detrusor muscle (made up of smooth muscle - controlled by parasympathetic NS) -Four tunics form the wall of the urinary bladder. -The mucosa is composed of transitional epithelium (Inner Layer) that lines the internal surface of the bladder -Submucosa supports urinary bladder wall. -Muscularis consists of three layers of smooth muscle called detrusor muscle (Middle Layer). An internal urethral sphincter muscle is present at the urethral opening -The adventitia is outer layer of areolar connective tissue (AKA visceral peritoneum)

Function of Basophils

-granulocyte -AKA mast cells -Least common WBC in the blood stream -U-shaped nucleus -Dark blue granules **-Increases in numbers when there is a parasitic infections and allergic reactions -Release histamine during allergic reaction -Histamine - dilates blood vessels and contracts smooth muscle **-Basophils are called mast cells in the tissues

Function of Eosinophils

-granulocyte -Not very common -bi-lobed nucleus -Large, reddish granules **-Increases in numbers when there is a parasitic infections and allergic reactions -Are also phagocytes

Histology of Small Intestine

-simple columnar and pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells -The mucosa and submucosa of the small intestine are thrown into folds called the circular folds or plicae circularis -Microscopic fingerlike projections called villi on the surface of the circular folds -Each contain a lacteal and a capillary bed -Microscopic fingerlike projections called microvilli the surface of the villi.

Adrenal Cortex (Hormones)

1) Cortisol (Glucocoticoids): -Long-term stress hormone 2) Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids): -↑ re-absorption of Na+ in nephron -(↑ blood volume/pressure) Antagonistic to ANH

Pancreas (Hormones)

1) Insulin: ↓ blood glucose by $ of glycogenesis 2) Glucagon: ↑ blood glucose by $ of glycogenolysis (Antagonistic hormones)

Anterior Pituitary (Hormones)

1) Prolactin: -Milk let-down 2) Growth hormone: -↑ metabolism of most body cells 3) ACTH: -$ adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids 4) TSH: -$ Thyroid to release T3/T4 5) LH (gonadotrophin): -$ gonads to produce hormones 6) FSH (gonadotrophin): -$ gonads to produce gametes

Hypothalamus (Hormones)

1) Releasing and Inhibiting hormones: -Cause anterior pituitary to release/inhibit its hormones 2) ADH: -Stored in posterior pituitary - ↑ water re-absorption in nephron -(↑ blood volume/pressure) 3) Oxytocin: -Stored in posterior pituitary - Causes intense uterine contractions (target organ = myometrium of uterus)

Thyroid (Hormones)

1) T3/T4: -↑ metabolism in most body cells 2) Calcitonin: -$ osteoblasts (↓ blood Ca++) - Antagonistic to PTH

Alimentary Canal Organs

1.) Oral Cavity (Mouth) 2.)Esophagus 3.)Stomach 4.)Small Intestine -Duodenum -Jejunum -Ileum 5.)Large Intestine (Colon) -Cecum -Ascending Colon -Transverse Colon -Descending Colon -Sigmoid Colon 6.)Rectum 7.)Anus

What hormone helps increase blood sodium, and which gland secretes it?

2) Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids): -↑ re-absorption of Na+ in nephron -(↑ blood volume/pressure) Antagonistic to ANH Secreted from the Adrenal Glands

How many pair of spinal nerves are there?

31 pairs

Sublingual Gland Duct

5 in picture

Submandibular Gland Duct

6 in picture

Know the pancreatic cells that produce enzymes and those that produce insulin and glucagon.

A (Alpha) cells produces Glucagon B (Beta) cells produces Insulin islets of Langerhans produces enzymes: groups of pancreatic cells secreting insulin and glucagon.

What is a neurotransmitter?

A chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.

What is a tendon?

A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

What is the normal Blood pH Level

A healthy body is slightly alkaline measuring approximately 7.35-7.45

Where is Erythropoietin produced?

A hormone secreted by the kidneys that increases the rate of production of red blood cells in response to falling levels of oxygen in the tissues. (target organ: Red Bone Marrow).

What are the lymphatic ducts and where do they empty?

A lymph duct is a great lymphatic vessel that empties lymph into one of the subclavian veins. There are two lymph ducts in the body—the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right upper limb, right side of thorax and right halves of head and neck.

What is the function of the golgi apparatus?

A major function is the modifying, sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the creation of lysosomes. The sacs or folds of the Golgi apparatus are called cisternae.

What is a ligament?

A short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint.

What are mast cells?

A tissue basophil cell filled with "basophil granules", found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions.

Myocardium (Right Atrium) (Hormones)

Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH): -↓ re-absorption of Na+ in nephron -(↓ blood volume/pressure) Antagonistic to aldosterone

AV Node

Atrioventricular node (caudo-medial right atrium)

What are the two (2) major skeletal classifications in the human body, and what bones are included in each?

Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate. In the human skeleton, it consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts; the skull bones, the ossicles of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column. Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions: Pectoral girdles (4 bones) - Left and right clavicle (2) and scapula (2). Arms and forearms (6 bones) - Left and right humerus (2) (arm), ulna (2) and radius (2) (forearm). (LIMBS SKELETON)

What is plasma?

Blood plasma is the pale straw (yellow) colored liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in whole blood in suspension; this makes plasma the extracellular matrix of blood cells. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume.

What's (and where's) white matter and what's grey matter ... both in the spinal cord and the brain?

Brain: -White Matter: Deep -Gray Matter: Superficial Spinal Cord: -White Matter: Superficial -Gray Matter: Deep

Describe the three (3) glandular structures that add secretions to semen, including their relationship to the urethra and to each other.

Bulbourethral gland: The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a pea, and located near the base of the penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal end of the penile urethra. In response to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline mucus-like fluid. This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during intercourse. Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary bladder. It is about the size of a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder. Numerous short ducts from the substance of the prostate gland empty into the prostatic urethra. The secretions of the prostate are thin, milky colored, and alkaline. They function to enhance the motility of the sperm. Seminal vesicles: The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder. Each gland has a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form an ejaculatory duct, which then empties into the urethra. The fluid from the seminal vesicles is viscous and contains fructose, which provides an energy source for the sperm; prostaglandins, which contribute to the mobility and viability of the sperm; and proteins that cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.

Skin (Hormones)

Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D3): -Helps with Ca++ absorption from intestinal tract -Must be activated in the kidney by PTH

What ion causes release of neurotransmitters from the axon bulb?

Calcium Ion Ca2+

Canaliculi

Canaliculi: Tiny canals within matrix connecting lacunae Bring nutrients into the bone from the central canal

What is the specialized type of muscle found only in the heart?

Cardiac Muscle (myocardium)

Central Canal

Central canal (Haversian canal): Contains blood and lymph vessels, and nerves

What part of the brain is responsible for balance/equilibrium and coordinates muscle activity (location?)?

Cerebellum

What part of the brain is responsible for conscious thought (location?)?

Cerebrum

Know the cranial nerves (NAME, NUMBER, and sensory/motor/mixed)

Cerebrum: CN I: Olfactory - I (afferent), Smell CN II: Optic II (afferent), Vision Midbrain: -CN III: Oculomotor III (efferent - some parasympathetic, somatic), Movement of eyes, pupillae, and ciliary of lenses -CN IV: Trochlear (IV) - Efferent, Somatic, movement of eyes inferiorly and laterally Pons: -CN V: Trigeminal (V) - Mixed, Somatic function, Sensory: (General) anterior scalp, nasal cavity, entire face, oral cavity, teeth, tongue, auricle of ear Somatic Motor: chewing -CN VI: Abducens (VI) - Efferent, Somatic function, Somatic Motor: lateral rectus eye muscle -CN VII: Facial (VII) - Mixed (some parasympathetic), Sensory: taste anterior Somatic Motor: facial expression Parasympathetic Motor: secretion from lacrimal gland of eye, salivary glands Between Pons and Medulla Oblongata -CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear or Auditory (VIII) - Afferent, Sensory: hearing, balance Medulla Oblongata: -CN IX: Glossopharyngeal (IX) - Mixed (some parasympathetic), Somatic Motor Function: Innervates stylopharyngeus (pharynx muscle), Parasympathetic Motor Function: Increases secretion of parotid salivary gland, -CN X: Vagus (X) - Mixed (MAJOR parasympathetic), Somatic Motor Function: Innervates most pharynx muscles and larynx muscles, Parasympathetic Function: Innervates cisceral smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands of heart, lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and most abdominal organs -CN XI: Accessory (XI) - Efferent, Somatic motor function: Cranial Root: travels with CN X fibers to pharynx, Spinal Root: Innervates trapezius and sternocleidomastoid -CN XI: Hypoglossal (XII) - Efferent, Somatic motor function: Innervates intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles

Where does chemical digestion begin?

Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva (salivary amylase).

Describe the Conducting Zone Structures and the Respiratory Zone Structures.

Conducting Zone Structures: The conducting zone of the respiratory system is made up of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles; their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs. Respiratory Zone Structures: The respiratory zone is found deep inside the lungs and is made up of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli.

What type of tissue is blood?

Connective Tissue

Where in the ovary is estrogen produced?

Created within the Ovaries (Within the developing follicles)

Kidney (Hormones)

Erythropoietin: -↑ rate of RBC maturation within the red bone marrow

Which root of a spinal nerve is afferent, and which is efferent?

Dorsal root = Afferent information (Somatic and Visceral) Ventral root = Efferent information (Autonomic and Somatic)

What Hormone stimulates Erythrocytes Maturation Process?

Erythropoietin

What type of cartilage forms the pinna of the ear?

Elastic Cartilage

Where are proteins produced within the cell?

Endoplasmic reticulum with attached ribosomes is called rough ER. It looks bumpy under a microscope. The attached ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside the cell and proteins made for export out of the cell. There are also ribosomes attached to the nuclear envelope. Free ribosomes produce protein for use inside the cell.

Which leukocytes will increase during allergy and/or parasitic infection?

Eosinophils

Where is the pancreas located?

Epigastric Region: Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Duodenum, Spleen, Adrenal Glands Left Upper Quadrant: Stomach, spleen, head of the pancreas, left kidney with adrenal gland

Adrenal Medulla (Hormones)

Epinephrine/nor-epinephrine (Catacholamines): -Short-term stress hormones

Ovaries (Within the Developing Follicles) (Hormones)

Estrogen: -$ of secondary sex characteristics -Controls monthly uterine cycles

What's the difference between an exocrine and an endocrine gland?

Exocrine Glands: -Exocrine glands have ducts -They secrete onto a surface: examples of exocrine glands are: sebaceous and sweat glands (in the skin), salivary glands (oral), Brunner's glands. Endocrine Glands: -Endocrine glands are ductless organs -They secrete their products (hormones) into the bloodstream (or tissue fluid) -The endocrine system and the nervous system both function to communicate signals throughout the body to bring about homeostasis

What gonadotropin stimulates follicular development within the ovary?

FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone): Stimulate Gonads to produce gametes

What type of cartilage forms the Meniscus of the knee?

Fibrocartilage

What type of cartilage forms the intervertebral discs?

Fibrocartilage

Describe the macroscopic urinary system from proximal to distal.

From Kidney to Urethra Collecting Ducts: Minor Calyces > Major Calyces > Renal Pelvis > Ureters > Bladder > Urethra

What part of the cerebral cortex governs voluntary movement and speech (location?)?

Frontal Lobe

Be able to describe Nephron blood supply from proximal to distal.

Full Kidney Blood Supplies Below: Blood enters kidneys by the renal arteries > segmental arteries > interlobar arteries > arcuate arteries > interlobular arteries > afferent arterioles (wide lumen) > glomerulus > efferent arterioles (narrow lumen) > peritubular capillaries (cortical nephrons) and vasa recta (medullary nephrons) > interlobular veins > arcuate veins > interlobar veins > renal vein

Why is the pancreas considered an exocrine gland? (BE specific!) Why is it an endocrine gland? (specifically!)

Functioning as an exocrine gland, the pancreas excretes enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids in food. Functioning as an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon directly into the blood (ductless) to control blood sugar levels throughout the day.

Where is genetic information stored in the cell?

Genetic information is stored within the chemical structure of the molecule DNA within the nucleus..

Placenta (Hormones)

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG): -Maintains the corpus luteum, therefore the uterine endometrium (and pregnancy)

What type of cartilage forms the Epiphyseal plates?

Hyaline Cartilage

What type of cartilage forms the Fetal skeleton?

Hyaline Cartilage

What type of cartilage forms the Tracheal rings?

Hyaline Cartilage

What type of cartilage forms the costal cartilages?

Hyaline Cartilage

What is Extension?

Increasing the angle at a joint

What are the two (2) gonadotrophins and where are they produced?

LH (Lutenizing Hormone): Stimulate Gonads to produce hormones FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone): Stimulate Gonads to produce gametes They are both made from the Anterior Pituitary Gland (hypothalamus controls release)

Lacunae

Lacunae: Tiny chambers around a central canal

What is a lymph node and what is its function?

Lymph nodes are the site of lymph filtration and lymph-borne pathogen encounter.

What types of cells are B and T cells?

Lymphocytes

Describe the differences between the male and female urethra.

Male: Semen also travels through the urethra during sexual intercourse. In males, the urethra is 8 inches long. In males, the path is more curving. This curved path makes catheterization of males more difficult than females. Female: The female urethra is only 2 inches long. In females, the path is more direct. Due to the short length of the urethra in females.No connection between the reproductive and urinary systems

Matrix

Matrix: (Contains mineral salts Ca++ and phosphates (PO4 for strength) - Fills spaces between lacunae

Where does mechanical digestion begin?

Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed.

Pineal (Hormones)

Melatonin: -Controls circadian rhythms/sleep cycle

Where does most chemical digestion occur?

Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum by chemicals secreted by the liver, pancreas and small intestine. The other two sections of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum, absorb food molecules by way of the villi directly into the blood stream.

What is a mature muscle cell called?

Muscle Fiber (Myocyte)

What type of tissue transmits messages (functions in communication)?

Nerve tissue

What is a matured nervous system cell called?

Neurons

Which leukocyte is considered the "first responder"?

Neutrophils

What part of the brain is responsible for Vision (location?)?

Occipital Lobe

Osteons (Haversian system)

Osteons (Haversian system): Organized tubular units with osteocytes (mature bone cells) within lacunae

Be able to describe Nephron anatomy from proximal to distal.

Other Informations Below: -Glomerular Filtration (Renal Corpuscle) -Tubular Secretion (Mostly Distal Convoluted Tubule) -Substances are returned to the bloodstream through: Tubular re-absorption (in the peritubular capillaries -cortical nephrons - and vasa recta - medullary nephrons

**Hormones controlling blood calcium levels!

PTH, Calcitonin, Calcitriol -Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low. Stimulates osteoclasts The parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low. PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, which break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream. PTH increases blood calcium levels by increasing the amount of calcium resorbed by the kidneys before it can be excreted in the urine. PTH increases blood calcium levels by triggering the formation of calcitriol, which increases absorption of dietary calcium through the intestines. Calcitonin, a hormone produced by the thyroid, acts in opposition to PTH by inhibiting osteoclasts, stimulating osteoblasts, and increasing excretion of calcium into the urine by the kidneys.

Parathyroid (Hormones)

Parathyroid hormone (PTH): -↑ Blood Ca++ - Antagonistic to Calcitonin 1) $ osteoclasts 2) Activates calcitriol 3) ↑ Ca++ re-absorption in nephron

What part of the brain is considered the sensory cortex (location?)

Parietal Lobe

What is the membrane that lines the heart of the pericardial cavity?

Parietal Pericardium

What is the membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity?

Parietal Peritoneum

What is the membrane that lines the walls of the thoracic cavity?

Parietal Pleura

Describe a sarcolemma

Plasma membrane of a muscle cell

Corpus Luteum of Ovary (Hormones)

Progesterone: -Maintains uterine endometrium -Controls uterine cycles

Where in the cell are proteins modified and packaged for transport?

Proteins or export are made in ribosomes which are located in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. They are then sent to the golgi apparatus where they are then modified and packaged. Afterward they are transported to the cell membrane and released outside of the cell.

What do Erythrocytes do?

RBCs or erythrocytes carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells and carry carbon dioxide (not much ... only 13% of CO2 is carried as carbaminohemoglobin ... the other 87% is dissolved in the plasma as bicarbonate) away from cells back to lungs to be exhaled

Where are Erythrocytes produced?

Red Bone Marrow (hemocytoblasts)

Where in the testes is sperm produced?

Seminiferous Tubules

What are the three (3) muscle types and what are the major differences in each?

Skeletal: -Voluntary -Function: Move Body Parts -Attached to bone (By Tendons) -Multi-nucleated -Appear striated (Striped) - Due to the actin/myocin filaments -Muscle Cell = Muscle fiber or myocyte Smooth: -No visible striations -Involuntary -Found in the walls of intestine, stomach, blood vessels, and other internal organs -Function: Move food, blood, etc. by peristalsis and control blood pressure Cardiac: -Heart Walls (myocardium) -Involuntary -Single-Nucleus (or Bi-nucleate), branched cells, bound together by intercalated discs -Intercalated discs - Cell (gap) junctions that allow the heart to function as one unit -Striated -Function: Move (Pump) blood

Describe a sarcoplasmic reticulum

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum of a Muscle Cell -contains (stores) Ca++ions -SR encases many myofibrils

What muscle type is found in the walls of hollow organs?

Smooth muscle fibers are located in walls of hollow visceral organs

What is the function of the spleen?

Spleen filters the blood, removes old erythrocytes, sequesters platelets and some minerals, and is the site of blood-borne pathogen encounter.

Posterior Pituitary (Hormones)

Stores ADH and Oxytocin

What are the two (2) hormones produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary?

Stores ADH and Oxytocin that are produced by the hypothalamus

Histology of Esophagus

Stratified Squamous Epithelium -For protection, stretchable

Where does each type of lymphocyte become immune-competent?

T-Cells: Matures in the Thymus B-Cells: Matures in the Red Bone Marrow

What part of the brain is responsible for hearing (location?)?

Temporal Lobe

Where is testosterone produced?

Testosterone is produced by the gonads (by the "Leydig Cells" in testes in men and by the ovaries in women), although small quantities are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. It is an androgen, meaning that it stimulates the development of male characteristics.

Testes (Hormones)

Testosterone: $ of secondary sex characteristics

What is the "stress gland" and where is it located?

The adrenal glands are absolutely vital to your well being. We each have two of them, and they play a hugely important role in producing the hormones that we need, particularly during times of stress. They are located on top of each kidneys.

What brain area is considered the link between the endocrine and nervous systems? (Location?)

The hypothalamus is involved in many functions of the autonomic nervous system, as it receives information from nearly all parts of the nervous system. As such, it is considered the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system.

What is the inguinal canal and why is it important to health professionals?

The inguinal canal is a passage in the anterior abdominal wall that in men conveys the spermatic cord and in women the round ligament of uterus. The inguinal canal is larger and more prominent in men. There is one inguinal canal on each side of the midline. - Inguinal herniation common in males To make sure you don't have a cord tangle or obstruction

What is a mature bone cell called?

The mature bone cell is called an osteocyte.

Where is the olfactory epithelium located?

The olfactory epithelium is a specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that is involved in smell.

What is systole?

The phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries. (contraction of a heart chamber).

What is Diastole?

The phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood. (relaxation of a heart chamber).

What is the function of the thymus?

The thymus is the place where T lymphocytes become immuno-competent.

What is a ruptured ovarian follicle called? What does it secrete and why?

This follicle is now called the corpus luteum. It Secretes Progesterone. Progesterone is a female hormone produced by the ovaries during release of a mature egg from an ovary (ovulation). Progesterone helps prepare the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to receive the egg if it becomes fertilized by a sperm.

Thymus (Hormones)

Thymosins: -Control maturation of T-cells

Region of Abdominal Area

Top (Left to Right) -Right Hypochondriac Region -Epigastric Region -Left Hypocondriac Region Middle -Right Lumbar Region -Umbilical Region -Left Lumbar Region Lower -Right Iliac Region -Hypogastric Region -Left Iliac Region

What is the membrane that covers the organs of the abdominal cavity?

Visceral Peritoneum

What is the membrane that covers the lungs?

Visceral Pleura

What is an osteoblast?

a cell that secretes the matrix for bone formation.

What is an osteoclast?

a large multinucleate bone cell that absorbs bone tissue during growth and healing.

What is the type of immunity involving antibodies called?

antibody-mediated Adaptive Immunity

What is a nephron?

each of the functional units in the kidney, consisting of a glomerulus and its associated tubule, through which the glomerular filtrate passes before emerging as urine.

Bundle Branches

interventricular septum

Bundle of HIS

interventricular septum

What is a mature cartilage cell called?

mature cartilage cells are called chondrocytes.

Where is Aldosterone produced?

produced by the outer section (zona glomerulosa) of the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland.

Describe the histology of the various regions of the respiratory system.

pseudostratified ciliated epithelium with goblet cells

What does the Epiglottis do?

slides down and seals off the glottis when you swallow food to prevent food from entering the trachea and forces it down the esophagus

Describe a sarcomere

the smallest functional, contractive unit of a myofibril. Sarcomeres occur as repeating units, extending from one Z line to the next along the length of the myofibril. Smallest contractile unit (functional unit) of a muscle fibe

Purkinje Fibers

ventricular walls

What is the membrane that covers the Heart?

visceral pericardium