IB HOTA - Aztecs and Inca Review Pt. II (long responses)

Discuss the polytheistic beliefs Aztec and Inca empires and their role in building and maintaining the empire.

Aztecs - Three gods: Teotihuacan was the birth place of gods: Quetzalcoatl, and the googly eyed Tlaloc - Religion was their way to legitimize power - Fundamental idea of Aztec religion was that the gods sacrificed themselves in order to benefit human kind. - Was dictated by religious ceremonies. - Huitzilopochtli: god of sun, sacrifice and war. - They were obliged by means of rituals and administration. - The regularity of the seasons, productivity of the land and fertility of the crops. Incas - Moon Queen: Mama Q - Inti was sun god/children - Viracocha - Illapa: controls the weather (thunder god) - Worshipped anything natural and spiritual - The Cult of the Sun was the core of Inca religion. - The Inca religion included beliefs and ritual practices of the Inca-by-blood, (descendants of the mythical all-creating ancestor), Manco Capac. - All festivals were dedicated to Inti - Sapa Inka a terrestrial carnation to Inti. - Inka rulers were believed to have descended from the Sun god (divine right). - Gold was the sweat of the sun. Silver was the tears of the moon. - Each of the gods were worshipped in the coricancha.

Discuss the role and nature of the tribute in building and maintaining Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - according to Michael E. Smith, the Aztec people paid taxes, but they did not pay tribute - some historians also believed that since these taxes/tributes were annual or continual, they were considered to be tax on city-states; not a given tribute - examples of Aztec taxes were imperial taxes: taxes from tributary provinces and the Triple Alliance gift-tribute system by strategic provinces. city state taxes consist of land/market tax, rent on royal estates, military/public work corvée and labor by youth - taxes were regular routinized collections, and tribute was a onetime sum payment, typically made under duress - tributes thus served a role in providing the Aztecs a sense of wealth and power over their tributary provinces and maintained the state Incas - Tribute was a part of the Inca taxation system imposed on the population within the empire Could be done in the form of a fixed nature of contribution (cloth from weavers) or not (crops from farmers who could also be hired to do mit'a, like building tambos and terraces) - Mit'a was compulsory tax labor (some historians call it tribute) for the Inca subjects based on supply and demand; no fixed contributions

Evaluate the role of local and state authorities in maintaining political organization of the Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - the empire itself was ruled hegemonically, meaning indirect - the ruler ruled the state through imperial dominance by the means of implied power, rather than the military force - the tlatoani was at the top of the political structure as he had the most power and influence over the Mexicas - the king's actions were still limited by the royal council - the institution of government gave both the commoner and nobles somewhat of a say and opportunity in civic affairs - the process of altepetl governance was viewed as a system of negotiations between the tlatoani, nobles, and commoners Incas - those who were able to speak the native language, Quechua, were given privileges first which created their noble class - mainly indirect and territorial in the far north and south of empire, direct mostly in the center depending on the region - form of Government: absolute monarchy, as rule passed from father to son Totalitarian yet king ruled with a council consisting of panaca (panaqa), royal kins

Evaluate the importance of agriculture in maintaining the empire.

Aztecs -agricultural production was important as it was what the Aztecs had to rely on for their food source - because of an increase in population, the Aztecs switched from extensive to intensive farming to sustain themselves. though it required more labor, the output was higher resulting in a surplus of food - chinampas were used to produce large amounts of agricultural production along with terracing and irrigation systems - maize was considered to be a staple diet - the Aztecs believed that the gods were in control of their success in terms of food supply, land fertility and so on. to maintain the land and please the gods, the Aztecs took part in human sacrifice Incas - Vertical archipelago - Imperial agrarian system: intensification of farming; surplus exported to other regions. - Each ecological zone offered its own particular subsistence. - While the products of each zone were not quite sufficient to provide adequate subsistence, together they formed a complementary aggregation of resource's that served all economic needs. - JOHN MURRA: was a system of socio-economic organization that regulated the provision of services at various levels and served to interlock the production and distribution of goods. - Hydro Agricultural civilization: large storehouses of provisions, large hydraulic and road works, organized transportation and trade between regions. - All accompanied by relying on a hierarchical administrative and religious organization. - Intensification/diversification. - Slash-and-burn agriculture: Amazonian slopes (manioc, maize, cocoa) Burning produced fertile soil. - Slash and burn, terracing, waru waru

Evaluate the connection between political and religious powers of Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - Aztecs emperors were important political and religious leaders - they were obliged, by means of rituals and administration, the regularity of the seasons, the productivity of the land, and the fertility of crops - huey tlatoani served as a representative of gods - priests were trained in the same schools (calmecac) as the political elites - priests accompanied the army on campaigns, and they officiated rituals at many public functions that had political purposes Incas Sapa Inka: terrestrial incarnation of Inti - Sapa Incas were important political and religious leaders - They were obliged by means of rituals and administration, the regularity of the seasons, the productivity of the land, and the fertility of crops. Highest Priest: Willaq Umu: a brother of Sapa Inca - Very little distinction between political and religious authorities - Priests officiated rituals at many public functions that had political purposes. Temples - Temples of the Sun dedicated to the Sun God Inti established throughout the empire. - The solar cult, which became an official religion of the Inca empire, was imposed onto the conquered lands---- therefore, it served a political purpose: legitimation and justification of their domination. Inca life dictated by religious ceremonies; solar calendar determined political and social realm. -

Discuss social structure of Aztec and Inca empires and its role in maintaining the empire.

Aztecs - Classes were hereditary and rigid. Was difficult to go up or down a class. - You were born into your occupation. - Must serve the king (war) or had to be highly valued. - Sumptuary laws. - Land was an indicator of social status and wealth which was dealt out by a leader. - Mutual/established obligations of social classes. - Communal lands. - Depending on the kids' parents' rank, that was there schooling was. - Religious leaders held a high social status. - Sapa Inca was seen as a 'god' in which his status was legitimized by those beneath him. Incas - Inkas/Non-inkas were both obligated to work. - Rules passed from fathers to son due to the monarchy. - Rigid system, divison between those ruling and the ruled. - Upward mobility was virtually impossible. - Sapa inca Apu T'okrikoq Hunu 10,000 Piska waranga 5,000 Waranga 1,000 Pachaka 100 Piska chunka 50 Chunka 10 taxpayers Higher up, more power.

Discuss the economic structure of an empire and its role in maintaining the Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - Foundations were laid out between 1375 and 1475; later years were consolidating the year's economy. - The market in Tlateloco became the major market during the reign of Acamapichti. - Citizens had to attend markets regularly. - Had no currency. - Social class determined economic status. - Paid taxes but not tribute. - Markets supported a rich and commercial society where the greater population bought and sold the staples of everyday life. Incas - When the Inca general arrived in Chinca, the inhabitants brought him many gifts to recognize his as lord. In turn the general offered the local lords great amounts clothing produced in Cusco and other objects of value. This shows how reciprocity could be implanted without need for military confrontation, and how the local chiefs voluntarily accept the Incas. - This demonstrates reciprocity as not only did the general receive gifts and what he asked for, but it provided use for the inhabitants. Reciprocity is a system of socioeconomic organization that regulated the provision of services at various levels and served to interlock the production and distribution of goods. In other words, it was a system of exchange that provided mutual benefit. - Tribute was a part of the Inca taxation system imposed on the population within the empire Could be done in the form of a fixed nature of contribution (cloth from weavers) or not (crops from farmers who could also be hired to do mit'a, like building tambos and terraces). - Reciprocity on local (ayllu) level and state-people level (mit'a in return for provision of Inca Road, colcas, tambos, terracing, etc.) with both; Inca and non-Inca communities Andean reciprocity can be called 'a system of exchange' as it provided links among the diverse kinds of economic organization that existed within the Inca territory.

Discuss the importance of written/unwritten language and its role in maintaining Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - Nahuatl was the universal language/system that people who spoke different languages could understand. - Aztecs script was inspired by the one in Teotihuacan in the Mixtec. - Codices were burned by the Spaniards. For their pagan religious content and by Aztec kings in an effort to rewrite their history (codices dealt with divination, ceremonies, ritual calendar and speculations about the gods and the universe). - Pictography which was most common. - Aztec professional scribes were a hereditary position and they were called tlacuilos. Incas - Quipos (to knot) was their historical debate as their language. - Different colors, styles, thread counts, knot styles. - Were used for counting and senses taking. - Those who knew how to understand were quipocamas, - Quipocamas were regarded in a higher social regard. - Enabled the decimal system for taxation and served as a key tool in relocations (p.o.). - Used quipos for conscription to the army and mit'a (social/pol organization). - Sustained economic structures (taxation, distributive model).

Discuss the role of political organization in maintaining Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - The main role of warfare among the Aztecs was to conquer other city-states and force them to pay tribute and/or taxes. - Was not used to expand the size of territory of a state since the losing state typically maintained their tlatoani/government and lands. - The losing king just had to acknowledge dominance from the winning king and had to submit to tax payments and then as long as those continued to flow, successors would avoid meddling with internal affairs of those subject states. - A secondary role was to capture enemy soldiers for sacrifice. Which was a fundamental part of the Aztec Empire. Incas - The Inkas while still continuing to provide gifts, would gain a more dominant position and be able to command and insist on more "favors" from local chiefs (change and continuity) - The Inka divided the empire into suyus, wamani, and sayas - An apu 'governed' each suyu - Both empires had a huey tlatoani - As the Inca Empire began to arise, those who were able to speak Quechua (1st language) were given privileges status which further led to this noble class dominating the empire. The Incas imposed their religion and work onto conquered people, extracted tribute and even moved loyal populations (mitmaqs) where they found to be more efficient.

Discuss importance of landholding in Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - Was a key component in Aztec life as it was highly valued. - Identifier of social class. - The more land owned, the higher you were in the pyramid of social class. - Commoners had to work for their land. - Eminent domain: the authority of land to be taken for the public. - Public land: temples, schools etc. - Private land: palaces and ... - Only nobles and high warriors could have two story houses. - Land could be received as a reward. - Higher class individuals could have workers on their land as a privildge. - Land was passed on by their leader and was hereditary. - Commoners could not own land on an individual basis. However, they had access to land through their calpolli. This land was given to individual families, and generally stayed with the family. Although the calpolli was responsible for dividing and reassigning the land, individual plots of land were often inherited by subsequent generations of the same family. Incas - Mit'maq (relocations) - Sapa Inka owned all the land and could take away any land at any time known as eminent domain. - Community land for commoners that were cultivated together. - Religious land dedicated to the Inti with temples and huacas. - Land was apportioned based on family size. - Ayullu: calpolli, extended kin ship (commoners) - Panaca: calpolli but for higher class (such as nobles)

Discuss artistic achievements of Aztec and Inca empires and their role in maintaining the empire.

Aztecs - obsidian - finest achievement of Mesoamerican manufacturing technology - sculptures - most accomplished sculptors in the Aztec empire carved impressive images of the gods, often of large size, for display in temples and public spaces in Tenochtitlan's Sacred Precinct. served to communicate the concept of Aztec religion and were part of complex rituals - some art was considered to be valuable and luxurious while others were for ceremonial or utilitarian purposes - these artistic achievements further contributed to their religious aspects and social rank, specifically with sumptuary laws as commoners were only able to wear certain things when compared to the tlatoani and nobles Incas - Cloth/textiles - Had complex geometric shapes, checkerboard design - Tocaqus: repeated patterns - Clothing identified one's status as well as their ethnic background. - Garments stayed unchanged. - Army were recognized by ethnic attire. - The religious function of the clothing which was a special cloth used in rituals. These symbolized sacred. - Cloth was given to nobles during religious festivals (like Inti Raymi). - Clothing organized communities like farmers, herders etc. - Only blood Incas could wear certain clothing it was between the ruled and the ruling. - Clothing was given to lords as gifts (reciprocity). - Sapa Inka burned clothes after every wear. - Weaving was considered as mit'a from the conquered.

Discuss the role of systems of exchange in building foundations and maintaining the Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - reciprocity is basically what the commoners could do and vice versa - as mentioned before in the role of local and state authorities, judges helped protect the rights of commoners, who received benefits in the form of key services provided by the king (e.g. access to schools/economic infrastructure, legal councils, access to temples, food in time of drought, etc. - they also settled disputes and granted estates which led to more opportunities - political socialization served as a way for the state to emphasize what they can do for their citizens and what consequences were placed upon those who beg to disagree - to individuals who "served well" they were awarded titles, granted rights to land, and received state given gifts Incas - Andean reciprocity can be called 'a system of exchange' as it provided links among the diverse kinds of economic organization that existed within the Inca territory. - Carrot and Stick: Incas ---> Conquered Communities Carrot -Gift giving to the dominated rulers. -Providing road networks (Qhapac Nan), terracing, tambos, colcas. -Lords retained their staus by associating with the Incan state. -Allowed to keep their religion, as long as they worshipped Inti Stick -Mit'a/ tribute -Privileged children studied in Cusco....

Evaluate the importance of the connection between man and nature in maintaining Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - the Aztec way of living was overall based on nature from social/political structure and organization - many religious festivals coincided with agricultural phenomena and/or cycles - to the Aztecs, the interaction between humanity and nature was of profound significance and confirmed through a calendar of cyclic festivals - examples of nature used through ritual and sacrifice consisted of humans performing human sacrifice to nourish the sun and gods. the gods then "rewarded" the people with the presence of good crops - as stated by Willard C. Booth, "for the Aztec, every act: prayer, rite, deed, was an exercise of example whereby man could influence nature, insure crops (...)" Incas - Nature structured Inca life, from social and political structure and organization (commoners cultivating potatoes and maize and other crops via intensive farming; ruling classes controlling economy ---- including crop procurement; many religious festivals coinciding with agricultural phenomena and/or cycle). - To the Incas, the interaction of humankind with nature was of profound significance. And was affirmed through a cyclic of religious festivals. - Calendar of cyclic festivals. - Ruling class controlled the economy. - Religious festivals with agricultural cycles. - Humans perform sacrifices (mostly animals like llamas and food_ - Many nourishes gods by performing sacrifice, and gods 'reward' people with good crops (reciprocity) - The preservation of nature through ritual and sacrifice. The preservation of nature is being carried out via state sponsored religion (political power).

Evaluate scientific achievements of Aztec and Inca empires and their role in maintaining the empire.

Aztecs - the Aztecs had ritual and annual calendars that guided their life. with both of them combined, a cycle of 18,980 days (52 years) was formed; tying in with their theology and rituals such as the New Fire Ceremony - their scientific foundations in astronomy guided their ways of agriculture, following the Solstices and Equinoxes which marked the changing of seasons Incas - Inka scientific achievements included but were not limited to roads, quipus, masonry, farming techniques and astronomy. - Qhapac Ñan is a strong example relating to all that occurred in this Inca empire. As long as 18,000 milles, Qhapac Ñan connected all four suyu of the empire as well as different ecological zones all for the unifying and spiritual purpose. - Collcas and tambos as well as many fortresses enabled Inca expansion as every community was connected to the Inca road so the Qhapac Ñan served as a political tool for expansion and maintenance of power. - Taxation (through decimal system) and movement of the army was possible because of the vast network of pathways leading through various landscapes. - Astronomy received special attention since it was relevant to farming (seasons and calendars). - Inka astronomers (priests) studied Sun and Stars, the moon and the Planet Venus. The Inka empire also worked on a 12 month calendar but did not understand the eclipse. - A window at Intimachay (part of Machu Picchu complex) was actually a perfect and specific guide to the seasons. - Alongside, parts of Machu Picchu were used at astronomic observatory. During summer solstice, the beams of the rising sun would enter Intimachay through the northern wall and light up a tunnel wall.

Discuss the role of warfare in maintaining and expanding Aztec and Inca empires.

Aztecs - the main goal of warfare among the Aztecs was to conquer other city-states in order to force them to pay tribute and taxes - warfare was not used to expand the size of territory of a state - another goal was to capture enemy soldiers for human sacrifice - military service was required of all males and success in warfare served as an important role of male identity - public status was determined by the number of enemy captives he had taken in battle - the military alliance (Triple Alliance) served as a turning point for the Mexica as It allowed them to expand territory, becoming an empire and have tributary people the Triple Alliance remained and fulfilled their military needs that were required to maintain their power Incas - men served in army on rotating basis - mostly non-Incas who fought in their own ethnic units - highest officers were always Incas - Incas used diplomacy (negotiations, organizing intermarriages for alliances, gift giving) and military coercion (including forced relocations) to consolidate their ruler over conquered territories - once there were more conquerors, a change went from plunder to annexation