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Plato

Athienian Philosopher during the classical period of ancient greece. Founded an academy north of Athens, which was considered the first university in the western world. He was a student of Socrates, and the teacher of Aristotle. His entire body of work is believed to have survived for over 2,400 years. Phaedo (On the soul) is one of his most famous works, it talks about the immortality of the soul. Later, humanists in the Renaissance would study his work, leading to a revival in his philosophical way.

The Sans

Culottes- seized the local government of Paris, and they were generally the middle class peasants such as shopkeepers and artisans. They broke into the prisons of Paris and there they massacred the imprisoned nobilities and political enemies of the Convention. This event became known as the September Massacre and was spread throughout Europe through the press and became a turning point of the French Revolution to violence; even Robbespiere knows that the revolutionaries had gone too far.

Act of Supremacy

Henry VIII passed this in 1534 which officially split the Church of England from the Catholic Church. Henry VIII became the Head of State and Church, and he assumed total control of the Anglican Church. The Anglican Church had only 5 of the 7 sacraments of the Catholic Church, and overall, it didn't really change the day-to-day religious practices of the average English citizen. The Act of Supremacy began the English Reformation, and Archbishop Cranmer, who had formerly supported Henry VIII and wrote the "Defense on the Seven Sacraments" with him, was executed because he refused to comply with Henry VIII.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian born man known to most as the ultimate "Renaissance Man." He was a painter, drawer, engineer, inventor and more. His notable art work includes the "Mona Lisa." And " Last Supper". He used Renaissance art style including using linear perspective in the "Last Supper. Also notable for his notebooks full of ideas and inventions as well as his "Ventruvian Man."

Francesco Gucciardini

Italian historian and statesman. Accredited by Renaissance scholars for being the greatest historian of their time, and considered one of the largest political writers of the Renaissance. He wrote both the History of Italy and the History of Florence which demonstrated "modern analytical historiography". He used his knowledge and spread of it as a way to teach lessons, though not always obvious ones. He used his experience and background in the political fields to analyze political situations critically.

Glorious Revolution of 1688

James II was an open Catholic in England, which was a largely Protestant nation. James's push to shift England towards Catholicism made him an incredibly unpopular monarch, and this led to Parliament inviting William of Orange to take over the throne. James II fled England without a struggle, which is why this is also called the Bloodless Revolution of 1688. When William of Orange took the throne, he agreed to sign the writ of habeas corpus and the English of Bill of Rights. The effects of the Glorious Revolution is that it cemented the monarchy of England was subject to Parliament and it ensured the involvement of Parliament in state affairs.

John Locke

Lockle believed in the natural rights of man and he had a strong belief in the goodness of man. In his view, a government should be a social contract between its citizens and the government, and people give up certain control over their lives to their government so that their government can protect their natural rights. He believed that people were born as a blank slate, a tabula rasa, and that the environments they lived in shaped them into the type of person they are. Locke's ideal government would be a democratic republic, in which the people are free to elect their leaders and choose whoever is the best ruler for themselves.

Greco

Roman- the culture that had developed from a Greek and Roman cultures which influenced many ideas. This included architecture, art, and style of the Renaissance. This expanded the new start of the "rebirth" after the Middle Ages and many people were inspired to incorporate this into their daily lives.

Medici Family

a prominent family during the Renaissance era that made most of its fortune through banking. This family was located in Florence, and its massive banking empire allowed Florence to be the economic center of Europe and for the currency of Florence to be the standard across Europe. They also controlled most of the political power of Florence, through careful courting, Cosimo de Medici essentially controlled the republican government of Florence and hence making the government structure of Florence into an oligarchy.

Jan Van Eyck

a Flemish painter who was the founder of the Flemish school of painting. He pioneered modern techniques of oil painting, revolutionized portraiture, and increased realism in Medieval works . His portraits showcased his secular style, where his mastery of facial expressions and knowledge of nature shines through. He used oil paintings to get the fine detail and colors needed in his realistic portraits. One of his most famous portraits is the Arnolfini Portrait. This portrait shows elements such as love, loyalty, marriage, and faith. All of his paintings were very realistic, making him one of the most influential painters in the Northern Renaissance.

Martin Luther

a German monk who became the most famous critic of the Roman Catholic Church and created and developed Lutheranism. After witnessing the selling of indulgences and relics that the HRE did, he wrote his 95 theses where he made statements calling out the church on practices that were never mentioned in the bible. He was called to the Diet of Worms and denied to recant making him excommunicated from the church. His main philosophy was that faith alone will bring you salvation and not the act of good deeds. He spread his ideas and the Bible using the printing press which allowed everyone to know the truth about the Roman Catholic Church.

Civic humanism

a concept originated from Florence, where the studies of humanities is used and applied in being active in one's state. Civic humanists often learned about classical history in order to prevent his own state from making the mistakes of the past, and many civic humanists were employed as advisors to princes and nobles. Civic humanists believed that a man has not truly matured unless they are fully involved in the life of his state.

Christian humanism

a different branch of humanism that was primarily practiced in the Northern Renaissance, where the humanities, such as history or rhetoric, are just as valued as the Italian Renaissance, but secularism is set aside in favor of social reform and commentary. In essence, christian humanism is the study of classical greek and roman works in order to refine and reform society as it is and to point out the areas where the current Catholic church has deviated from the original, supposedly most accurate, version of the Bible, being the Greek version.

Constitutionalism

a government system in which the common citizens and subjects had significant rights against the government. The power of the government was clearly outlined and not unlimited, contrary to that of a monarchy which relied on loose agreements and political power to challenge and check. England is the best example of this, since they have a constitutional monarchy as its official government system, in which a monarch worked in conjunction with Parliament to operate the government. Parliament had considerable leverage against the monarch, and could even dismiss him if necessary as seen by the dismissal of James II during the Glorious Revolution.

Raphael

a leading figure of the High Renaissance. He was commissioned by the Pope to paint, and his most famous painting, The School of Athens, embodies nearly all aspects of Renaissance culture and values. The classical Greco-Roman architecture in the painting demonstrates the obsession of humanists during the Renaissance with ancient Greek and Rome, and the portrayal of Plato and other philosophers as "divine figures", since they are in the center of the painting and the viewer's eye is immediately drawn to them, demonstrates the individualism and the importance of seemingly normal people, and the other various people crowded around the philosophers shows the study of humanities, meaning history, astronomy, and rhetoric, that was greatly emphasized during the Renaissance.

The Palace of Versaille

a massive palace constructed by Louis XIV. This palace cost nearly a third of France's yearly revenue, and it served as the home of the monarchy, the principal building for the government, and the home of a considerable number of nobles and government officials. The court of Versailles became the envy of all of Europe, and monarchs everywhere rushed to copy their palaces after this one. The Palace of Versailles also served a functional purpose in that it helped Louis XIV suppress the power of the nobles. To live in the Palace of Versaille, strict social requirements, such as the regular attendance of social events and a fashion style that was constantly changing and expensive to maintain, helped check the power of the nobles. Nobles were distracted from their political duties, and their former powers were handed to Louis XIV; furthermore, since the nobles were in the center of the French government, they felt as if they had a significant part in the governing of the nation, even though they held little to no real political power.

Geometric Perspective

a new style popular in Renaissance art that was used to give an illusion of depth by using lines and a vanishing point. The most notable example of this style is evident in da Vinci's "The Last Supper". This painting uses this technique by using lines to focus the eyes onto Jesus and the center of the image, and being surrounded by the chaos of the disciples.

Pico Della Mirandola

a notable neoplatonists through his famous work, Oration on the Dignity of Man. This writing was called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance", and said that man was a miracle, and only humans can either ascend or descend between the angels and the animals. Said that when God created humans, he longed for a creature that could comprehend the meaning of his work.

95 Theses

a pamphlet written by Martin Luther after the sale of indulgences by Johann Tetzel, this pamphlet was about the various sources of corruption by the Catholic Church and how Luther hopes to improve the church. The Guttenburg printing press allowed this pamphlet to spread rapidly throughout Europe, despite the best efforts of both the Pope and Charles V

Italian Renaissance

a period of time after the Middle Ages, considered as the rebirth of Europe, reintroducing Greco and Roman cultures. It began in the mid 1400's and spread into the mid 1500's. Known for its key ideas of Humanism, Secularism, and Individualism which spread through Italy and greatly impacted its culture, and later the rest of Europe. The most well known individuals from this time include Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo.

Mysticism

a prominent idea during the Renaissance period that involved the belief that an individual, alone, unaided by the church of sacraments, could coexist with God. Individuals that expressed this idea include Meister Eckhart and Thomas a Kempis, author of the Imitation of Christ, which pursued religious depth rather than rebellion. These people stayed loyal to the Church, but sought to offer, to the few faithful who could understand, a substance that transcended traditional religiosity.

The Peace of Augsburg

a response to the German Peasant Wars. At the time, the majority of the German peasants were Lutheran or just Protestant in general, but due to Charles V and the Catholic Church, everyone in the Holy Roman Empire was required to be Catholic. The Peace of Augsburg changed this in that it allowed the princes and rulers of each province of Germany to dictate the religion of his followers and subjects, allowing partial religious toleration based on sectional rules.

Donatello

a sculptor who revolutionized art during the early Renaissance. He was known for his lifelike and emotional pieces. One of his most famous pieces was his freestanding bronze statue of David. Standing at a little over 5 feet, the statue shows David fully nude except for his hat and boots. Unlike Michaelangelo's marble David, which shows a perfect man, this depiction of David is more representative of the David that is shown in the bible.

Skepticism

a trend during the 16th and 17th century that manifested itself as the Scientific Revolution and eventually the Enlightenment. Skepticism originated during the Reformation, in which the Catholic Church and along with it all of the traditional teachings of the medieval time period was challenged and doubted by the followers of Luther and other Protestants. What made late-16th and 17th century skepticism different from that of the early-16th century was that the early skepticism was primarily focused on religion and simply disproving existing ideas, whereas the contemporary skepticism focused more on science, philosophy, and the natural laws and attempted to more than just disprove old ideas but to improve upon them and discover new principles and laws.

Christine de Pisan

a vernacular writer in medieval France during the Middle Ages. She was wealthy so she could afford an education, unlike many other women during her time. This was how she was taught the language and ability to write. In 1404, she wrote the City of Ladies denouncing many male writers who said that women needed to be controlled by men. Men claimed that women were prone to evil, unable to learn, and easily swayed. "Women are not evil by nature, they could learn as well as men if they were permitted to attend the same schools,'' was what she wrote. She knew that not as many women were as fortunate as her to receive an education, and even if they were, they weren't given the same opportunities as men. The material and courses that were taught to women were limited and restricted. She encouraged women to defend themselves against men who were incapable of understanding them.

Lorenzo Valla

an Italian humanist and philosopher, revealed the Donation of Constantine to be a false document because of its rudimentary latin, his Elegances of the Latin Language worked to purify medieval latin and establish it as the reigning language in the vernacular, critiqued Jerome, the author of the standard Latin Bible of the Middle Ages, for his mistranslation of key passages from the original Greek.

Peter the Great

an absolute monarch of Russia. Peter attempted to "westernize" Russia, since he believed that Russia was behind western Europe in terms of technology, wealth, and society overall. Peter placed a strong emphasis on the importance of warm water ports, which he did eventually acquire through his conquests and acquisition of St. Petersburg, which would transform Russia into a formidable naval and commercial power; furthermore, Peter managed to greatly increase the power of the Russian monarchy through the Streltsy Rebellions, the Table of Ranks, the appointment of the Holy Synod, and his large standing army.

The "Holy Alliance"

an agreement between Russia, Prussia, and Austria in which all three nations agreed to rule together in "a spirit of Christian charity". All three of these nations had an absolute monarchy, and it is crucial that they all aided each other to prevent and suppress another event like the French Revolution. This alliance lasted only 10 years, largely because Britain did not want to participate in an alliance with absolute powers.

Peace of Lodi

an agreement between Venice and Milan after a series of wars between Italian city states in 1954. Ushered in a 40 year period of relative peace as well as an era of balance of power in which Venice, Milan, Naples, Florence, and the Papal States had relatively equal powers. Reasons for the treaty, 1) Venice is threatened with losing its commercial empire by the Ottomans, 2) Francesco Sforza (leader of Milan) was afraid of the cost of war. Francesco Sforza was recognized as ruler of Milan and Venice regained its holdings in northern Italy. A 25 year mutual defence pact was signed to maintain existing boundaries leading to the creation of an Italian League. All members of the Italian League had to defend one another in the event of an attack as well as support a contingent of soldiers to provide military aid. Italian League was not very successful and the era of peace would end when France invaded the peninsula in 1494.

Mercantilism

an economic system used by the majority of European nations such as Portugal, France, Spain, and England to a certain extent. In this system, the amount of wealth in the world is limited, since the supply of gold is limited, and the nation with the most gold is the most powerful nation in the world. Mercantilist nations seek to create colonies that have access to massive amounts of raw materials or otherwise can bring great wealth to the mother nation. Spain chose to send colonies to South America, where there are massive mines of gold; France chose to send colonies as well, but to North America and the modern-day Canada region, where they dominated the fur trade and gained massive amounts of gold.

Renaissance Man

an ideal developed in Italy during the High Renaissance in Italy to describe a person of versatile gifts and talents. The idea of the ideal man comes from the roots of humanism, meaning that the abilities of man are limitless and should embrace all knowledge and develop their capabilities to the fullest potential. Talents include the arts, knowledge, and social accomplishments. An example would be Leonardo Da Vinci, who was a scientist, painter, sculptor, musician, and writer.

Individualism

another core idea brought into the Renaissance and takes humanism a step further and is the belief that individual humans are capable of great accomplishments. It was born in the Renaissance because people sought to receive personal credit for their achievements as opposed to God. The practice of being independent and self-reliant, a prominent value in the Renaissance.

Newton

arguably the most famous scientist from the Scientific Revolution. He discovered the natural laws of motion of the planets, and also the law of universal gravitation. His work in uncovering the natural laws of the universe also led to Deism and the Enlightenment.

The Guillotine

became the preferred machine of execution, and it was also a symbol for equality since all men, from peasant to king, would be killed by this device. It earned the nickname of the "national razor", and it was preferred because it conformed the ideas of the Enlightenment to some extent by causing minimal suffering.

New Monarchs

began developing in Western Europe in the Late Middle Ages when royal families began to consolidate their power. were characterized by the following traits: reducing the power of the nobility through taxation and the use of enlistment armies, reducing the power of the clergy, creating a bureaucracy to govern, and finding new sources of money outside of the nobles. An example is Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain.

Florence

birthplace of the Italian Renaissance and home to many important individuals such as Machiavelli, Donatello, and Brunelleschi. Produced many new ways of thinking during the Italian Renaissance. One of the five-major Italian city-states. Republic that was heavily influenced by the Medici family. Home to crucial artworks of this time including Michelangelo's David as well as Donatello's David.

The Committee of Public Safety

emerged after the Convention as the primary component of the government. It was led by only 12 people and it symbolized a change in Robespierre. This new committee practiced the censorship of the press, the dechristianization of France, and an extreme use of violence.

Michelangelo

he was a Renaissance artist and inventor who was best known for creating the famous sculpture David, along with painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and created Pietta, a statue of Mary and Jesus. He was hired by Pope Julius to paint the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City which reflected divine beauty. His statue of David is best known for emphasizing the beauty of humans and exaggerates every physical aspect of humans as well. He is known for representing the ideals of the Renaissance in his works as he liked to show off the human form, and boosted individuality as a slight part from religious matters in daily life.

Voltaire

he was a french author that personified the Age of Reason or Enlightenment. Voltaire preached against bigotry and for human rights and sciences, and his central belief was Deism. His famous phrase "Ecrasez l'infame", meaning "Crush the famous"was his rallying cry to lash out against all that is unjust in the world, or in his case specifically, organized religion and the Catholic Church. One of his most famous works was Candide.

Brunelleschi

he was a humanistic architect, goldsmith, engineer, mathematician, sculptor, and artist who specialized and developed the principles of linear perspective. This method created a new way to depict space in art and influenced the rise of science during this era. He is best known for the Florence Cathedral dome which he built and used a construction method that did not require scaffolding. This was an important feat of engineering that gained him a lot of attention and influenced others around him.

Abbe Sieyes

he was a member of the First Estate and he joined the National Assembly. He also wrote a pamphlet called "What Is the Third Estate" and he essentially said that the Third Estate had the most power if they utilized it properly and that it was the most important estate. Towards the end of the French Revolution, he invites Napoleon to France to be his consul, but then Napoleon fires him.

Boccaccio

he was an italian writer and poet, and also a correspondent of Petrarch. In 1360,he began work on De mulieribus claris, which is a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women. His collection of female biographies inspired characters in Christine de Pizan's The Book of the City of Ladies. Most famous for the Decameron, it is the most perfect example of Italian classical prose, and its influence on Renaissance literature throughout Europe was enormous.

Botticelli

he was commissioned by Lorenzo the Magnificent and was a part of the court of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was interested in Greek & Roman mythology. One of his most famous paintings, Primavera, was set in the garden of Venus, a garden of eternal spring, the figures in the painting are well defined and possess other worldly qualities. Other famous work-Birth of Venus.

Parecelsus

he was one of the first physicians of the Scientific Revolution to attack the works of Galen and Aristotle. He was arrogant and claimed himself to be the "monarchy of physicians", but his outspokenness is still commendable and incredibly important for the development of modern science. His view in anatomy is still largely inaccurate; he believed a macrocosm-microcosm view, in which the human organs mirrored that of the planets, and each organ represented a different planet with a different function.

Montesquie

he was one of the most famous philosophers of the Enlightenment. He took the natural laws of Deism and applied them to government, and took considerable inspiration from the works of Locke. In his belief, the purpose of government was to preserve liberty, and the best way to do so was to divide power. He wrote On the Spirit of the Laws in 1748, and his vision of a government is idealized in the American government. He also wrote The Persian Letters in 1721 in which he ridiculed French society.

Diet of Worms

here, Luther was tried before Charles V, and he was found guilty and excommunicated by the Pope. It is important to note that the judgement of this trial was essentially predetermined, and the only reason Luther was brought to the Imperial Diet was due to a promise made by Charles the V to not excommunicate anyone without fair trial. Meaning anyone who contacts Luther or helps him in anyways will be executed as well as Luther. At this time period, there was no real incentive for the Catholic Church to compromise and accept Lutheranism

Machiavelli

important Italian Humanist from Florence who is considered the Father of Political Pragmatism. Was a believer in the importance of civic virtue, and that it is all about reaching the end goal by any means possible. Wrote the widely regarded Prince, which is known as the rulers handguide and is still used in government to this day.

Mannerism

in contrast to the idealized nature of High Renaissance art,painters augmented the natural world with elongated figures in asymmetrical compositions that projected tension and instability. Artists include Parmigianino and El Greco. Time period is the late Renaissance period, after the Sack of Rome. Parmigianino's Madonna with the Long Neck is, perhaps, the most iconic painting in this style- The Madonna's neck is elongated to give her a swanlike elegance, while the Christ-child, also elongated.

Estates of France

in the Renaissance, society was divided into these 3 sections. These social classes became more prominent during the Renaissance. The first estate was the clergy, who believed that people needed to be guided to spiritual ends. The second estate was the nobility, who were given privileges for providing security and justice. There were certain expectations held for the nobles, as written in Castiglione's Book of the Courtier. The third estate was made up of peasants and average townspeople, who represented 85-90% of Europe's population. This estate consisted of patricians, propertyless workers, and peasants.

High Renaissance

it was the period of time between 1480 and 1520 where the Italian Renaissance peaked in terms of art production and the spreading of ideology. It's distinguishing characteristic was that Rome was becoming the cultural center of the entire Renaissance. Along with this geographic shift, there was an idea shift, in trying to create an idealism out of nature. It left a legacy of artistic masterpieces and a new model for art to follow forever afterwards.

Humanism

literary and idealistic movement which began in Italy during the Renaissance. Glorification of ancient Greco-Roman texts, style, and scripts. Petrarch is credited with starting this movement after finding interest in original texts and idolizing many works done by ancient philosophers during the times of Ancient Rome including Scorates and Plato.

Shakespeare

one of the first playwrights to bring values in the Renaissance to theatre, although he was born later on in the Renaissance. He's known for Hamlet, Macbeth, and Romeo and Juliet. He was famous for combining tragedy and comedy. He showcased humanism and individualism by writing his characters with real human emotions, regardless of their social position. He also referred back to Greco-Roman classical texts when writing.

Westernization

one of the key objectives of the reign of Peter the Great. Peter wanted to shape Russian society to be more like western European society, which, at the time, was wealthier, more advanced, and significantly more powerful. Westernization detailed a massive transformation of Russian culture and societal norms, including elevated status for women, a tax on the traditional long beards of Russians, and enhanced education for the children of the wealthy. Overall, westernization made no real significant impact on Russian culture since it was a movement that was only really felt in the highest levels of Rusian society, and the masses of Russia felt no impact from it. Although, women of upper class Russian society did benefit from it, since women of western Europe often mingled with and talked with other upper class women and men. Peter the Great held weekly balls, in which women and men were both welcome to join. Westernization could also be interpreted as the physical expansion of Russia's borders westward, with them eventually reaching St. Petersburg, which Peter the Great named after himself and made the new capital of Russia, that was a warm water port that brought fruition to Peter's vision of Russia being a naval and commercial power.

Henry VIII

originally given the title defender of the faith by the Pope, but when the Pope declined to grant him an annulment for his divorce, Henry split the English church away from the Pope. He was a key new monarch since he regulated trade within England and also established internal commerce through monopolies, charters and licenses, and the revenue of which was used to fund his own standing army, independent of the nobles, and to keep the nobles in the check. Another notable point about Henry VII was that he was a Tudor monarch, and since they were originally invited to the throne by Parliament, they were respective of Parliament's power and laid the foundations of the constitutional monarchy system of England

Heliocentrism

originally proposed by Copernicus in his On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543 which detailed a solar system in which the sun was the center and the planets orbited around it in a circular fashion. This idea challenged the biblical astronomy of the Catholic Church, which had a geocentric view that was inspired by Biblical stories in which God stopped the Sun in the sky.

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

originally started by Ignatius of Loyola, it was founded on the principles of absolute obedience to God and to the Pope and took upon a military structure with a general that made all decisions that were absolute and in accordance with the pope. This became the most important new organization's of the Counter Reformation, and a special vow of absolute obedience to the pope made them incredibly effective in carrying out papal policy. The combatted the Reformation with education, borrowing freely from the humanist education of the Renaissance; soon, they became the most famous educators in Europe. Another activity of the Jesuits was to be missionaries and spread Christianity to places where it is not known, such as India, where Francis Xavier converted thousands, or Japan.

Cosimo de Medici

patriarch of the prominent banking family living in Florence during the Italian Renaissance. Used his influence to rise to power from a lack of national monarchy, one of the many things that lacked in the Italian city-states during the 15th century, and allied with other powerful families in Florence to then help Lorenzo into power. Was so influential that he even became somewhat of a ruler in Florence without title.

Erasmus

possibly the key figure of the Northern Renaissance, a famous author known for planted the seed that Martin Luther would later use in the Reformation. This was evident in his most famous work, the Praise of Folly, which criticized the problems and abuses of the Catholic Church.

Francesco Sforza

ruled the Italian city state, Milan, wanted to establish a centralized territorial state, created a new tax system that created lots of revenue, lead Milan to lots trade and even threatened Venice and its trade routes.

Glorious Revolution

sometimes called the Bloodless Revolution of 1688. James II was the king of England prior to this revolution, and he was a devout Catholic in a largely Protestant nation. James' Catholicism ostracized him from a considerable portion of the English population, and eventually, he became so unpopular that he was banished from the throne by Parliament. Parliament invited William of Orange to take over the throne, and James II, not wishing to initiate a war, fled to France. William of Orange took over the throne, but with the condition that he signed the writ of habeas corpus and the English Bill of Rights, both of which guaranteed the rights of English commoners and severely limited the power of the monarchy. This effectively cemented the system of a constitutional monarchy in England, and a divine right monarch or an absolute monarch would no longer be possible in the English political landscape, since the king was not subject to God but subject to Parliament as well.

Charles V

the Holy Roman Emperor from 1519, giving him vast control over almost all of the entire western Europe. Known for being the ruler over the Holy Roman Empire through the Reformation period where the Catholic Church was tested and reformed.

The Streltsy Rebellion

the Stretsly is another nobility class of Russia and they were the elite riflemen of the Russian military. They had a considerable amount of wealth overall and they were also sizable in numbers. During the reign of Peter, they rebelled due to Peter's increasingly absolutist policies that took away power from themselves, and Peter crushed them ruthlessly. After Peter's responses, the Streltsies were largely disbanded and unorganized, and would never be a significant political force in Russia from then on.

Secularism

the final core idea of the Italian Renaissance period. It is the principal of separating religious matters from the state. However, this doesn't mean that Renaissance thinkers were against religion. Renaissance intellectuals refused to blindly follow the Catholic Church and they sought out the truth and called for reasoning. Many pieces of secular art had religious inspiration but religion wasn't the point. For example, Michaelangelo's David. Yes, it's based off of David and Goliath from the Bible, but the real focus is on David, his elegance, and his triumph.

Ignatius Loyola

the founder of the Jesuits. He was a Spanish nobleman, who was originally a soldier but his career was cut short due to injury. He believed that the supreme goal of a Christian is to serve actively under Jesus's Baner in the Catholic Church. He wrote "The Spiritual Exercises", in which he laid down a training manual in order to strengthen one's relationship with God and how a man could manifest himself as God's instrument. In the final section of the work, "Rules for Thinking with the Church", he essentially states that people should believe blindly in the Church, and going as far as stating that if the church states that white is black, then white is black.

Council of Trent

this was a key component of the Counter Reformation. Initially, the Council of Trent was started by Pope Paul III, and he was open to reforming the Catholic Church; however, as the council progressed, the Pope became less liberal. Overall, the council reaffirmed Catholic teachings, although it did promise to reform the abuses that Martin Luther listed.

Albert von Wallenstein

the general employed by Holy Roman Emperor Ferdanand during the Danish Phase of the Thirty Years War. Wallenstein proved to be incredibly effective, and he crushed the Protestant forces in the Danish Phase. Wallenstein's military success allowed Emperor Ferdinand II to issue the Edict of Restitution in 1629, and it attempted to reverse all that had been done during the Calvinist Reformation; however, Ferdinand's sudden use of force frightened the independent German princes, these princes feared for their own sovereignty. Ferdinand appealed to them by dismissing Wallenstein as the general.

Peter Brugel the Elder

the most famous member of a large Netherlandish family. He was part of the Northern Renaissance. Most of his works focused on the lives of Flemish commoners, and he glorified the lives of these commoners by making art based on them, effectively giving worth to their mundane routines and showing his value of humanism. The Renaissance overall emphasized secularism and the importance of mankind, while the artistic aspect of the Northern Renaissance attempted to capture the world in absolute detail. Bruegel was a master at this, and his paintings of a usually boring scene of simple farmers or a Flemish landscape is enriched by his incredibly elaborate paintings and attention to detail.

Philosophes

the philosophes were generally French philosophers that pioneered the ideas of the Enlightenment. They were not an organized group in the traditional sense, and instead all based their beliefs on the natural law philosophy, or Deism, that was based upon Newton's findings. Examples of them are Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu

Nepotism

the practice of bestowing power and high up roles of authority to family and friends. Often an unfair or heavily biased decision, as most people would be unqualified to be in their position. However, this was a common practice for monarchs of this time in Europe, often giving loyal friends or family land or positions to keep them loyal, often taking this land from the unliked Clergy or Nobility.

Neoplatonism

the practice of reviving the ancient works of Plato from Greco Roman time. Pico della Mirandola is known for outlining the ideas of Neoplatonism in his Oration on the Dignity of Man. In this, there is a hierarchy of all living creatures, with angels being highest on the list and plants at the bottom. Humans are in the center, meaning they are given the choice to either rise to the level of angels or descend into the same level as plants.

Louis XIV

the quintessential absolute monarch. He exemplified a divine right monarchy, going as far as referencing himself as the Sun King, since he gave light to all of his subjects. Early on, Cardinal Mazarin ruled as his regent, but after the Mazarin died, he took upon the throne and with the influence of the Fronde he became an absolute monarch. As an absolute monarch, he constructed the Palace of Versaille, appointed nobles of the robe, waged constant war, and forced religious uniformity. All of these factors combined allowed Louis the most control over his territory than any other monarch of the time, and he used his power to attempt to expand the territories of France. His military attempts were largely a failure, and they cost the French treasury a fortune that, despite the best efforts of Minister of Finances Jean Baptiste Colbert, left France in crushing debt after Louis XIV's reign.

The Fronde

these were a series of uprisings by French nobles that lasted between 1648 and 1653. These nobles believed that since Louis XIV was a young monarch, they would be able to take advantage of him easily. Cardinal Mazarin, the then regent of Louis XIV, managed to suppress the rebellion, but the violence and the chaos caused by the Fronde changed Louis XIV and formed his belief in an absolute monarch and the necessity of a divine right monarchy. Louis' attitudes towards nobles and his suppression of uprisings can clearly be seen during his reign through his construction of the Palace of Versailles and the utilization of a secret police to spy on potentially rebellious nobles.

Peace of Westphalia

this was the official end to the Thirty Years War. Although fighting between Spain and France continued for another 11 years; this extra 11 years ensured that Spain would never be a prominent military power in Europe ever again.

Sacraments

these were tasks that one had to do in order to be saved. In the Catholic Church, there were 7 sacraments: baptism, eucharist, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing of the sick, marriage, and holy orders. These sacraments were often very difficult for normal laypeople to do, and hence this meant they could not be as connected to God as wealthier people. The Reformation of Luther abandoned the seven sacraments and instead replaced it with just 2. In the English Reformation, since Henry VIII did not have any strong personal religious thoughts, only 2 sacraments were abandoned.

God, Gold, and Glory

these were the three primary motivations for the Spanish conquistadors in the New World. Gold was the most important motivation, God usually came second, and glory was the least important factor. The promise of easy gold and wealth in the New World was a primary reason many sons of wealthy European families who would not receive any inheritance came to the New World. To search for a source of wealth that could build their fortunes. God was an important factor as well, although, ironically, the justification for God was used in the cruel and inhumane encomienda system.

Congress of Vienna

they met in 1814-1815, and it initial purpose was to undo the French Revolution and restore the balance of power that was disrupted by Louis XIV. The members of the Congress of Vienna were all part of the Quadruple Alliance, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain, and they were the alliance that finally defeated Napoleon. The Austrian Foreign Minister, Metternich, was the key figure of the discussions, and he was known as the "Coachman of Europe"; he championed conservatism in order to reestablish stability.

Hanseatic League

this area started from north German towns in the twelfth century and eventually consisted of many towns in Northwestern and Central Europe. The region dominated trade in the Baltc and North Sea. It was created to protect merchants, and it was more economic rather than political. Some of the items traded through here were grain, timber, tar, furs, and honey.

English Civil War

this is defined as 5 distinct periods. The first was the reign of James I, and James was a largely unremarkable English monarchy. He attempted to increase the centralization of power in the English monarchy and proclaimed himself the King of Great Britain, which theoretically gave him control over Scotland, England, and all the other islands across the British Isles. After James I, Charles I took over the throne, and he alienated the majority of English society. At the time of his reign, the majority of England was Protestant, but Charles was a Catholic and he was married to the daughter of Louis XIII, which was French and a Catholic; furthermore, he was forced to call Parliament in order to fund his wars, but when Parliament met, they acted against his will and he dismissed them. Parliament eventually overthrew Charles, and thus began the Interregnum Period with Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell was seen as too radical and was overthrown with the Stuart Restoration, and from then on, a monarchy in England was no longer questioned it was just the extent of the power of the monarchy that was challenged.

Ecclastial Ordinances

this ordinance, written by Jean Calvin, outlined the foundations of Calvinism, and was put to practice in Geneva, Switzerland. Geneva eventually became a model Calvinist town and became the center of the Calvinist Reformation. Calvinism differs from Lutheranism primarily in its belief in the absolute sovereignty of God, no free-will of man, and predestination. Calvinism eventually became the dominant Protestant religion of Europe, and was added to the Peace of Augsburg as well.

The Concordat of 1801

this proclaimed Catholicism as the "Majority Religion" of France, and it was used by Napoleon to essentially allow religious toleration in France. Napoleonic France was a massive nation featuring many different cultures with many different religions, and it was highly important for Napoleon to maintain stability through religious toleration throughout the highly diverse regions. Napoleon himself recognized that the smooth functioning of the nation of the whole was far more important than religious uniformity for personal reasons.

Holy Roman Empire

this was a central European union consisting of various territories that were independent states, but all ruled under one power. It survived the Thirty Years War and was important in the growth of the Habsburg empire and the Protestant Reformation until it was ended when Francis II suffered a military defeat against Napoleon and the French and with the Peace of Westphalia it began to dissolve.

Scientific Revolution

this was a change in the method of process of thinking and scientists and a new approach to science in general. The Renaissance and the Reformation were both essential to the cultivation to this; the Renaissance led to the rival of a the ancient works such as that of Ptolemy or Aristotle. The Reformation led to a wave of skepticism towards these newly revived traditional works and overall the traditional teachings of the Catholic Church. The Scientific Revolution is the culmination of these two events, leading to a new wave of scientists that doubted the ancient works since they were not proven by observation and relied on logic alone. These new scientists use empiricism, which is the practice of using observation or experiments to prove ideas. However, they did not all follow the same path, with two distinctive paths of logic. The first being inductive reasoning, which began with observed phenomenon and then scientists attempted to extract logic and principles from these observed events. The others are the deductive reasoners, which began with a principle, and then attempted to either approve or disapprove of these rationales using experiments.

Rationalism

this was a change in the method of thinking that emphasized human reason and if principles made sense on a rational level. This placed reason first, and then using observation, attempted to prove or disprove principles that are initially founded on reason.

Counter Reformation

this was a general response to the Protestant Reformation by the Catholic Church. Pope Paul III made significant advancements in the Counter Reformation, and he initially tried to reform the Church, as shown by his summoning of the Council of Trent and appointing a reform commission to study the condition of the church. However, 1541 marked a turning point for the Counter Reformation, with radical Catholics unwilling to compromise with the Protestants, Pope Paul III established the Holy Office, also known as the Roman Inquisition, in 1542. When Cardinal Caraffa, a die hard Catholic, was appointed as Pope Paul IV, he increased the power of the Inquisition and also created the Index of Forbidden Books, which was a list of books that Catholics were not allowed to read. He is known as the "first true pope of the Catholic Counter-Reformation".

The Enlightenment

this was a movement in the 16th and 17th century where philosophes, founded by the skepticism bred by the Reformation, invigorated by the ancient works of the Renaissance, and educated by the information rediscovered during the Scientific Revolution, approached human society and reason from a different perspective based on natural law, reason, and observation.

The new anatomy

this was a part of the Scientific Revolution, and it was largely based on the work of Vesalius. The new anatomy refuted the old anatomy of Galan, which described a human body with two individual and independent systems of blood with the liver being the central point of both of these systems, and all other inaccurate ideas based on assumptions. The new anatomy was based on careful observation and empiricism, and it was far more accurate to the true anatomy of humans.

Schmalkaldic League

this was a union of 8 German princes and 11 imperial cities, all Lutheran that was fearful of Charles V's power. These states vowed to protect each other in the event of an attack for religious reasons, and Germany was effectively divided into two armed camps. During the Schmalkaldic Wars, this League was initially crushed by the imperial army of Charles V, but when French King Henry II, a Catholic, started assisting the League, they forced Charles V to make peace with them, with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 ending all religious wars in Germany.

The Age of Exploration

this was an age in which technologies in exploration such as better ships greatly increased the level of interconnection within both the European continent and throughout the entire world. The learning and further understanding of societies outside of Europe, that are also sophisticated, changed the views of some European intellectuals in that practices that had been seemingly based on reason was actually based on custom. This eventually led to cultural revivalism and shows how empiricism and rationalism of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment applied more to than just science and philosophy but also to society and culture.

Index of Prohibited Books

this was created by the Catholic Church in the Council of Trent in 1559. This list of works are generally books or scientific research that contradicted the traditional teachings of the Catholic Church or outright opposed it. All works of Martin Luther, Copernicus, and Zurich were on this index. In essence, this index was a method in which the Catholic Church could better control its subjects and prevent them from reading "false lies"

The United States

this was formerly colonies of Britain, and they successfully gained their independence in the Revolutionary War. The United States drafted their own Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, both of which drew a significant amount of influence from the ideas of liberty, equality, and rationalism from the Enlightenment.

Education

this was incredibly important to Enlightenment philosophes, Rousseau and Diderot being the two main advocates for it. Rousseau introduced a new model on education which allowed children to explore and develop their natural talents. Diderot created the encyclopedia. Their belief was that if people had easy access to information they would have a desire to pursue an education and learn about abuses.

Edict of Fontainebleau

this was passed by Louis XIV in 1685, and it revoked the Edict of Nantes and no longer granted religious toleration to the French Hugeonots. As a result, nearly all of the French Huguenots left the nation, although a few converted to Catholicism. Louis' reasoning for this was that he felt the existence of two religions in his nation undermined his authority, he could control the Catholics since he effectively controlled the Catholic Church of France. His motto "One King, One Law, One Faith" demonstrates his desire for religious and total uniformity in France in order to maximize his authority.

Napoleonic Code

this was passed by Napoleon and it was a standardized and codified set of laws that was easily accessible and understandable for everyone. It was revolutionary because prior to this law could not be read and learned by the common man. The Napoleonic Codes are similar to the Code of Louis under Louis

The Diet of Speyer

this was passed in 1526 and it revoked the former Edict of Worms. This greatly aided the spread of Protestantism since it was no longer technically illegal.

Conservatism

this was pioneered by Metternich, and its purpose was to create order within states and between states. The Congress of Vienna seeked to institute conservatism and ensure the French Revolution could never occur again. In order to maintain stability within states, they valued the aristocracy in ensuring stability, did not champion liberal reform, did not believe in popular government, and did not support nationalism. For stability between states, conservatives created the "Concert of Europe", meaning the Great Powers should work together to maintain balance and ensure the borders remained stable. The Concert System was an informal organization and is the first time collective security was used.

Scientific Method

this was pioneered by the English scientist/philosopher, Sir Francis Bacon. He was one of the primary visionaries of the inductive method, and the belief was that humans had the capability to uncover all of the natural laws of the universe and is chosen by God, which is a mix of the humanism of the Renaissance and the natural law philosophy of the Enlightenment/Scientific Revolution; however, he argued, humans have been approaching it wrong, and he outlined a very specific and detailed method in which observations or experiments should be carried out in order to verify that the observations and data are valid. The scientific method was then used by many prominent scientists such as Galileo, Boyle, and Newton.

Enlightened absolutism

this was practiced by certain monarchs such as Peter II of Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Frederick the Great of Prussia. The goal of these monarchs was to use their near absolute power to spread Enlightenment ideals and create a society based on Enlightenment ideals.

On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543)

this was written by Vesalius in 1543, and it detailed a completely new anatomical system. Prior to this work, human anatomy was based on the works of Galen, which was incredibly inaccurate. Vesalius's work exemplified the empirical and observational method of the Scientific Revolution, as he himself actually dissected human bodies in order to learn the position and organs of all the functions; furthermore, the advancements made in the Renaissance on illustration of the human body and printing allowed Vesalius to introduce incredibly detailed diagrams of the human anatomical structure that was completely unprecedented.

War of Three Henries

this was the French Wars of Religion, and it began when the Ultra Catholics, who had banded together in an organization they named the "Holy League", attempted to seat Duke Henry of Guise, a Catholic, on the throne, which is currently occupied by King Henry III, who succeeded his brother King Charles IX. Henry of Guise, under the pay of King Philip II of Spain, seized Paris and forced Henry III to appoint him as chief minister, Henry III, not willing to cede power to the Guise, had Henry of Guise assassinated, and with him, along with the help of Henry of Navarre, crushed the Holy League and retook the city of Paris. Henry III was later assassinated by a monk who could not stand the fact that a Catholic was cooperating with a Protestant, Henry III accepted Henry of Navarre as a Calvinist since he was a politique, and Henry of Navarre ascended to the throne. Henry of Navarre, himself a Protestant, was now king of a Catholic majority nation, and he converted to Catholicism in order to establish stability in France. Religious conflict continued, although on a far smaller scale, and it wasn't until the Edict of Nantes in 1598 that France was largely peaceful religiously. The Edict of Nantes restated that Catholicism was the formal religion of France, but it allowed Hugeonots to worship in selected places and also to establish fortified cities for their own protection. The Edict of Nantes, along with the conversion of Henry of Navarre, was done out of political necessity, showing how Henry of Navarre was a politique.

Deism

this was the belief that the universe was a perfectly designed world by God that required no intervention from humans. It can be described with the analogy that the universe is akin to an intricate clock that God himself designed, and that this clock would require no maintenance. This would dismantle organized religion since it would violate the natural law and course of the universe.

Seven Years War

this was the first real world war, and it was Britain and Prussia against France, Russia, and Austria. The battle was going in favor of the Russian, Austrian, and French alliance, but Russia eventually withdrew its troops. When Peter III came to power, he withdrew Russian troops because he was a great admirer of Frederick the Great of Prussia. Russia's withdrawal guaranteed a stalemate, and it led to a desire for peace that was achieved with the Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763. All territories were returned, and Austria ceded Silesia to Prussia

England

this was the goal of many of the Enlightened despots and the goal for their reform. England had the Bloodless Revolution of 1648, and for many, this was seen as a great success and a peaceful transfer of power. England was also highly industrialized at the time and one of the wealthiest nations in Europe, and many believed it was thanks to their constitutional monarchy and Enlightenment-conforming government system.

Political Pragmatism

this was the idea of abandoning morals and values in politics and doing what needed to get done. This meant that you did whatever was necessary to get a certain outcome. An example of someone who advocated this idea was Machiavelli. In his book, The Prince, he talks about effective leadership and doing what is good for the state, whatever the cost.

Thirty Year's War

this was the last of the religious wars in Europe, and it began as a small local religious war, usually identified as the Bohemian and Danish phase, and slowly escalated to a continent-wide political struggle, as identified by the Swedish and French phase.The conflict then moved to Denmark, where Protestant King of Denmark Christian IV intervened on behalf of his fellow Protestants; however, Christian IV was swiftly crushed by Ferdinand II, who had recently employed Albrecht von Wallenstein as his new military leader and who proved to be incredibly effective. The third phase, the Swedish Phase, began when Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden entered the war in order to aid his fellow Luthereans. Adolphus is known as the father of modern warfare, and his effective and innovative use of mobile artillery allowed the Protestants to take back most of Germany, although Adolphus was killed at the Battle of Lutzen. At the same time, Sweden was actually aided by Catholic France. France had a desire to become the major Catholic power in Europe, and by aiding the Protestants, they could weaken the HRE. The third phase could be summarized with the following acronym: SSFF, Swedish swords, French funds. The fourth phase of the war began immediately after Adolphus was killed, as France no longer took a backstage role and actively engaged the Hapsburgs of the HRE and Spain. When France defeated the Spanish at the battle of Rocroi, this marked the official end of the Spanish as a great power of Europe.

German Peasant Wars

this was the major obstacle to Luther's Protestant Reformation. Luther relied heavily on the German princes to protect himself and organize and fund his new Protestant churches. The German Peasants War was led by Thomas Muntzer, an ex follower of Luther that was highly radical. Luther condemned this uprising in his Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, where he condemned all that participated in the uprising as conspiring with the devil, although he also partially blamed the German princes for being too harsh on the peasants and not successfully keeping the peace

Absolutism

this was the monarchical system that dominated Europe during the 17th and 16th century. In this system, a monarchy dominated the political scene of a nation, wielding absolute power that cannot be challenged by another governing body such as a general assembly, Parliament or the Estates General. Usually, absolutism is accompanied with the divine right of kings theory, meaning that kings had power directly given by God, and God had intentionally placed whoever was on the throne to be there. Absolute monarchs commonly maintained large standing armies, worked to suppress nobles so that they could not undermine their own authority, forced religious uniformity, utilized bureaucracy in order to ensure the loyalty of other government branches that handled the mundane day to day tasks, mercantilist economic systems in order to fund their wars and various projects, and sometimes had a secret police and spies in order to find conspiracies or any potential uprisings and suppress them before they even had a chance to manifest.

Boyars

this was the nobility of Russia. The boyars are the traditional aristocracy of Russia and they held significant influence over Russian society and political structure; however, they were not loyal to the king and often acted in their accords for their own self best-interest. Peter the Great transformed the boyars into a service nobility, meaning they primarily served the king and the best interest of the nation as a whole. Peter used the Table of Ranks, which was created in 1722, and in this system, all of the formers boyars lost their titles and had to advance up the ranks and gain titles through their merit, making the Russian nobility system and government system a meritocracy.

Hobbes and Locke

two philosophers that discussed the role of the government. Locke witnessed the Glorious Revolution and from that he saw the merits and effectiveness of a constitutional monarchy or a straight constitution. He believed that men were born good, tabula rasa, meaning a clean slate, and the evils of the world corrupted men. Locke believed that the purpose of a government was to protect the natural born rights of men, and that the government and the people had a social contract in which the government protected the people and the people served the government by voting and such. Locke wrote The Two Treatises of Government, in which he outlined his ideas. Hobbe, on the other hand, witnessed the English Civil War and potential dangers of anarchism and democracy. He believed that humans were fundamentally corrupt, and that a strong central leader, which he called a Leviathan, was required to control the masses. Before government, Hobbes argues, society was a "war of every man against every man", meaning total chaos, and an absolute monarch with divine rights is required to control the masses and to protect them from themselves.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man

was a document that declared the rights of the peasant, and this guaranteed the equal rights of all men. Nowhere throughout this document was the monarchy mentioned, and a constitutionalism was the preferred government system. It also called for a greater freedom of the press, and the L'Ami du peuple came from this. This was a radical newspaper that condemned the extravagance of the nobles and spread the ideas of the French Revolution.

Marat

was a journalist and he was the voice of the radical of Jacobins. His journalist was characterized by its call for violence and the use of incredible violence against all who opposed the Jacobins, including the Girondins. He was assassinated by a woman named Corday who believed he was too radical.

The Enlightenment

was a movement that preached skepticism and inspired peasants to doubt authorities. The Enlightenment believed that all of human knowledge could be mapped and the natural laws of the universe could be discovered. The philosophes were originally all upperclassmen, but their ideas of freedom of liberty eventually trickled down the peasants and threatened the power of the aristocracy.

The Reign of Terror

was a period where martial law was imposed, and anyone suspected of treasonous activities were executed. This caused a complete social change where everyone lived in constant terror. Robbespiere began this because he believed it was necessary. This evolved into the Great Terror after Danton was executed, and this ended with the execution of Robbespiere himself.

The New National Guard

was formed by the peasants, and they stormed the Bastille to gather gunpowder for the rioters. They created a new flag that is still used today, and they carried this flag to Bastille and storms it. They were successful in storming the Bastille, and Dallona, the captain of the guards of the Bastille, surrendered. The storming of the Bastille became the symbol of the Revolution, and the Bastille was also torn down by hand as a metaphor for the abolishment of despotism.

The Seven Years' War

was fought by Louis XV, and it was a total defeat for France. England became the dominant power, and France suffered incredible debt and the peasants suffered the most. After the war, peasants often starved due to a stagnant economy and a lack of food, and although the population was growing, the economy was not.

Louis XVI

was not prepared to be king when he took the throne. France was in a crisis, and he was far too young to properly reign; he even wrote "Lord help us, for we reign far too young". He took the throne in 1774, during the same time of the Enlightenment. He also committed 2000 livres to the Americans during the American Revolutionary War, and this was the beginning of the financial collapse of France; furthermore, he could not initially produce an heir and this cast doubt over his reign.

Robbespiere

was the man that inspired the French Revolution, his ideas were the rallying cry and was the foundation for much of the liberal and radical ideas of the French Revolution. He led the beginning of the Revolution before being executed, and he stayed true to his ideals (known as the Incorruptible). Originally, he was a prominent law student, and he first met Louis XVI as a teenager reading a Latin script to him.

Maria Antoniette

was the wife of Louis XVI, she came the Austrian Hapsburgs and was supposed to symbolize the union of the Bourbons and the Hapsburgs. She was not interested in politics, and she also did not produce an heir for Louis XVI. She was occupied with incredibly extravagant dresses and hats, and she was named "Miss Deficit" because she kept on spending money on luxuries goods even when France was in economic chaos.

The Tennis Court Oath

was when a new National Assembly led by Robbespiere was formed, and this parliamentary body represented the general will of the peasants and the Third Estate. It was originally started because the Third Estate was silent in the Estates General. When the Estates General was called this time, Louis XVI requested a list of notables, which was a list from each estate that was compiled of the complaints and the most prominent of each estate.

The Girondins

were the moderates of the French National Assembly. They and the Jacobins controlled the Convention and the national government of France. The Girondins were led by the Dantons, and were later renamed the Dantonese. The represented the moderates of the National Assembly.

Northern Renaissance

while the Italian Renaissance practiced individualism and separation from religion, the Northern had a bigger importance on religion and revolved around it. Northern artists did not consider perspective or proportion in their pieces, but rather their own observations of the world around them and tremendous detail. They also centered many of their pieces on religious figures, common people or scenery. They also had less of a focus on the individual and more of an emphasis on great social and religious reform. The Renaissance of the North and its effects on art depict what was more important and what ideals were of greater value: religion and detail.

Naturalism

works of art that portray life exactly as it is and show true-to-life style which involves the representation or depiction of our world. Everyday objects and individuals were considered art. Many artists during the Renaissance period incorporated this in their work. An example would be the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci.