ILROB 1220 Part 1 Textbook

Chapter 2

Diversity in Organizations

Chapter 4

Emotions and Moods

Flextime

Employees must work specific number of hours per week but may vary their hours of work within limits

Equity Theory

Employees who perceive *inequity* will make one of six choices: 1) *Change inputs* - exert less effort if underpaid/more if overpaid 2) *Change outcomes* - individuals paid on piece-rate basis can increase pay by producing higher quantity of units of lower quality 3) *Distort perceptions of self* 4) *Distort perceptions of others* 5) *Choose a different referent* 6) *Leave the field (quit the job)*

Chapter 7

Motivation Concepts

Case for EI

•*intuitive appeal* - people who can detect emotions in others, control own emotions, and handle social interactions well have advantage in business world •*EI predicts criteria that matter& - high level of EI means person will perform well on job •*EI is biologically based* - genetically influenced; measures a real underlying biological factor

Developing OB model

•*model* - abstraction of reality; simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon

Working in networked organizations

•Allow people to communicate and work together despite distance •Managers must develop new skills

Chapter 1

What is Organizational Behavior?

Informational justice

degree to which employees are provided explanations for decisions and kept informed ("My supervisor explained that the decision wasn't his to make")

Attitudes

evaluative statements (either favorable or unfavorable) about objects, people, or events

Big data

extensive use of statistical compilation and analysis -applied to areas of business, making effective decisions, managing HR -manager uses data to define objectives, develop theories of causality, test theories to determine which employee activities relevant to objectives -hunches/human tendencies come in way -sound decision making and less natural biases *persistent statistics* - relatively constant outcomes over time *predictive statistics* - showing steady causality b/w inputs and outcomes

Discrimination

•Noting difference between things •Influenced many stereotypes about groups of people •Harmful to organizations and employees •Overt forms have faded •Increase in covert forms (incivility, exclusion) •Reduced productivity, organization helping, citizenship behavior, negative conflicts, increased turnover •Loss of qualified job candidates

The GLOBE framework

*1993 Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness research program* - ongoing cross-cultural investigation of leadership and national culture •825 organizations in 62 countries •identified dimensions on which national cultures differ 1) power distance 2) individualism/collectivism 3) uncertainty avoidance 4) gender differentiation 5) future orientation *added dimensions to Hofstede* 6) humane orientation - degree to which society rewards individuals for being altruistic, generous, kind to others 7) performance orientation - degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence

The basic emotions

*6 essentially universal emotions* -anger -fear -sadness -happiness -disgust -surprise *continuum (closer 2 emotions are; more likely people will confuse them)* -happiness -surprise -fear -sadness -anger -disgust

Disability

*Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 1990* -Employers required to make reasonable accommodations to workplaces will be accessible to individuals with physical or mental disabilities *US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)* -federal agency responsible for enforcing employment discrimination laws -Classifies person as disabled who has any physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities -No generalization about how each condition is related to employment *Controversial* - provision that requires employers to make reasonable accommodations for people with psychiatric disabilities *Impact of disabilities on employment outcomes* -superior personal qualities like dependability and potency -higher performance evaluations -tend to encounter lower performance expectations -less likely to be hired -Negative employment situations -Mental disabilities impair performance more than physical disabilities

Main components of attitudes

*Cognitive component* - description of or belief in the way things are *Affective component* - critical; emotional or feeling segment of attitude *Behavioral component* - intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something

Behavior and attitudes

*Cognitive dissonance* - any incompatibility an individual might perceive between 2 or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes •Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable - individuals attempt to reduce it •Alter attitudes, alter behaviors, develop rationalization for discrepancy *Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:* -Importance of elements creating it -Degree of influence we believe or have over them -Rewards of dissonance •Individuals more motivated to reduce dissonance when attitudes are important/believe dissonance is due to something they can control

Personality

*Defining personality* -The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others -Describe in terms of measurable traits a person exhibits *Measuring personality* •Self report surveys - individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors •If people know scores are used for hiring decisions - rate about half a SD more conscientious and emotionally stable •Accuracy and honesty issues with self report surveys *Personality determinants* •Heredity - factors determined at conception; 50%; parents don't add to personality development •Personality is more changeable in adolescence; more stable among adults •Personality traits - when someone exhibits characteristics in a large number of situations

Types of discrimination

*Discriminatory policies or practices* - Actions taken by representatives of org that deny equal opportunity to perform or unequal rewards for performance *Sexual harassment* - Unwanted sexual advances and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that create a hostile or offensive work environment *Intimidation* - overt threats or bullying directed at members of specific groups of employees *Mockery and insults* - jokes or negative stereotypes; sometimes result of jokes taken too far *Exclusion* - exclusion of certain people from job opportunities, social events, discussion, or informal mentoring; can occur unintentionally *Incivility* - disrespectful treatment, including behaving in an aggressive manner, interrupting the person, or ignoring varying opinions

Function of emotions and moods

*Do emotions make us irrational?* •Emotions are critical to rational thinking - provide context for how we understand the world around us *Do emotions make us ethical?* •Moral judgments based on feelings rather than cognition *Moral boundaries* - logical and reasonable; not emotional •Careful when objectively analyzing ethical decisions

Using intrinsic rewards to motivate employees

*Employee recognition programs* -Rewards intrinsic in form of employee recognition programs and extrinsic in form of compensation systems -Spontaneous and private thank you to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encourages and the procedures from attaining recognition are clearly identified -Inexpensive because praise is free

Impact of satisfied and dissatisfied employees on the workplace

*Exit response* -direct behavior toward leaving organization, including looking for a new position as well as resigning -study individual terminations and collective turnover (total loss to organization of employee knowledge, skills, abilities, other characteristics) *Voice response* -actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors, undertaking forms of union activity *Loyalty response* -passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve -speaking up for organization in face of external criticism -trusting organization and management to do right thing *Neglect response* -passively allows conditions to worsen ---chronic absenteeism/lateness, reduced effort, increased error rate

Using benefits to motivate employees

*Flexible benefits* - developing a benefits package -Individualize rewards by allowing individuals to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his current needs and situation -One-benefit-plan-fits-all

Establishing pay structure

*Internal equity* - worth of job to organization *External equity*- competitiveness of an organization's pay relative to pay in its industry -Best system pays what the job is worth while also paying competitively relative to labor market

Major job attitudes

*Job satisfaction*- positive feelings about a job, resulting from evaluation of its characteristics *Job involvement* - measures degree to which people identify psychologically with their jobs and consider their perceived performance levels important to self-worth *Psychological empowerment* - employees' beliefs in degree to which they influence their work environments, their competencies, the meaningfulness of their jobs, and their perceived autonomy *Organizational commitment* - employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member; positive relationship with job productivity *Perceived organizational support (POS) *- degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being *Employee engagement* - individual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for, the work she does

Job satisfaction

*Measurement* "All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?" OR "Summation of job facets" - identifies key elements in job such as nature of work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities, relationship with coworkers -respondents rate on standardized scale -researchers add ratings for overall score *Causes* -Pay correlates with overall happiness until individual reaches standard level of comfortable living -Nature of work, structural characteristics of job, demographics, personality -*Core self-evaluations (CSEs)* - believe in inner worth and basic competence; + more satisfied with jobs

Core-self evaluations (CSE)

*Positive* -effective -capable -in control of environment -see more challenges in jobs and attain complex jobs -ambitious -committed -persist longer -better customer service -more popular -perform well *Negative* -dislike themselves -question capabilities -view themselves as powerless over environment

Race and ethnicity

*race*- biological heritage people use to identify themselves *ethnicity* - additional set of cultural characteristics that often overlaps with race •individuals tend to slightly favor colleagues of their own race in performance, evaluations, promotion decision, pay raises (not found consistently when highly structured methods of decision making reduce opportunity for discrimination) •members of racial and ethnic minorities report higher levels of discrimination in workplace •African Americans fare worse than Whites in employment decisions •Some industries have remained less racially diverse than others (advertising and media organizations in their management ranks) •Some people find interacting w/ other racial groups uncomfortable unless there are clear behavioral scripts to guide behavior *Solutions* -creating diverse work groups focused on mutual goals -developing positive diversity climate

Sources of emotions and moods

*Potential influences on moods and emotions* *Personality* - Built-in tendencies to experience certain moods/emotions more frequently than others - *Affect intensity* - people experience same emotions with different intensities; affectively intense people experience + and - emotions more deeply *time of day* -levels of positive affect greatest in evening and lowest in morning -levels of negative affect highest in overnight hours, lowest later in morning than positive affect *day of week* -highest positive affect on weekends -lowest positive affect on Mondays *weather* -little effect on mood -illusory correlation - associate 2 events that have no connection *stress* - stress events at work negatively affect mood; effects build over time *social activities* - increase positive moods and little effect on negative moods; type *sleep* - poor sleep impairs job satisfaction leading to fatigue, irritability, and less alertness *exercise* - enhances positive mood *age* - negative emotions occur less as people get older *sex* - women more emotionally expressive than men, experience emotions more intensely, hold onto emotions longer, and display more frequent expressions of + and - emotions, except anger

Person-job fit theory (John Holland)

*Six personality types* 1) *Realistic* - prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, coordination • shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical • mechanic, drill press operator, assembly-line worker, farmer 2) *Investigative* - prefers activities involving thinking, organizing, understanding • analytical, original, curious, independent • biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter 3) *Social* - prefers activities that involve helping and developing others • sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding • social worker, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologist 4) *Conventional* - prefers rule regulated, orderly, unambiguous activities • conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible • accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk 5) *Enterprising* - prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power • self confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering • lawyer, real estate agent, public relations specialist, small business manager 6) *Artistic* - prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression • imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, impractical • painter, musician, writer, interior decorator -Satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement -People in jobs congruent with their personality should be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than people in incongruent jobs

Physical abilities

*Strength factors* *Dynamic strength* - ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time *Trunk strength* - ability to exert muscular strength using trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles *Static strength* - ability to exert force against external objects *Explosive strength* - ability to expend maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts *Flexibility factors* *Extent flexibility* - ability to move trunk and back muscles as far as possible *Dynamic flexibility* - ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements *Other factors* *Body coordination*- ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body *Balance* - ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance *Stamina* - ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time

Levels of diversity

*Surface-level diversity* - demographics -lead employees to perceive one another through stereotypes and assumptions *Deep-level diversity* - as people get to know each other they become less concerned about demographic differences if they see themselves sharing more important characteristics (personality, values, etc.)

Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)

*Theory X* - managers believe employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it (lower-order needs dominate) *Theory Y* - managers assume employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek responsibility (higher-order needs motivate) •Believed Theory Y assumptions more valid - proposed motivating through participative decision making, challenging work, good group relations

Job characteristics model

*jobs described by 5 core dimensions* 1) *Skill variety* - degree to which job requires different activities using specialized skills and talents 2) *Task identity* - degree to which job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work 3) *Task significance* - degree to which a job affects the lives or work of other people 4) *Autonomy *- degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work and determining the procedures for carrying it out 5) *Feedback* - degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear info about your own performance •Summarizes what intrinsic job characteristics might be altered to make the work more interesting and intrinsically motivating for employees •Core job dimensions --> critical psychological states --> personal and work outcomes Skill variety, task identity, task significance --> experienced meaningfulness of work --> high internal work motivation Autonomy --> experienced responsibility for outcomes of work --> high quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work Feedback --> knowledge of the actual results of the work activities --> low absenteeism and turnover

The basic moods

*positive effect* - mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, enthusiasm, and elation at the high end, and boredom, depression, and fatigue at the low end *negative effect* - mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end, and contentedness, calmness, and serenity at the low end

Experiencing moods and emotions

*positivity offset* - at zero input (when nothing is going on), most individuals experience a mildly positive mood •negative emotions are likely to become negative moods •individual's experience of emotions appears to be culturally shaped - some cultures value certain emotions - individuals change their perspective on experiencing those emotions

Relationship between job satisfaction and outcomes

*strong* -Job satisfaction and job performance -Job satisfaction and OCB -Job satisfaction and turnover -Job satisfaction and workplace deviance *weak* -Job satisfaction and absenteeism to effectively control undesirable consequences of job dissatisfaction, employers should attack source of problem - the dissatisfaction - rather than try to control it *Managers don't get it* - gaps between what managers think employees feel and what they really feel - use of surveys

Complementing intuition with systematic study

*systematic study* -looking at relationships -attempting to attribute causes and effects -basing conclusions on scientific evidence (data gathered under controlled conditions, measured, interpreted in rigorous manner) *evidence based management (EBM)* -complements systematic study by basing managerial decisions on best available scientific evidence

Rewarding individual employees through variable pay programs

-Bases a portion of an employee's pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance *Piece-rate pay* - compensating production workers with a fixed sum for each unit of production *Merit-based pay* - pays for individual performance based on performance appraisal ratings *Bonuses* - significant component of total compensation for many jobs *Skill based pay* - centers pay levels on how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do

Moods

-Cause is often general and unclear -Last longer than emotions (hours or days) -More general (two dimensions - positive effect and negative effect - that are composed of multiple specific emotions) -Generally not indicated by distinct expressions Cognitive in nature

Emotions

-Caused by specific events -brief in duration (second or minutes) -Specific and numerous in nature (many specific emotions such as anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, surprise) -Usually accompanied by distinct facial expressions -Action oriented in nature

Sexual orientation and gender identity

-Federal law does not prohibit discrimination against employees based on sexual orientation, though 21 states and more than 160 municipalities do -Cusp of change -Federal gov't has prohibited discrimination against government employees based on sexual orientation -Many policies and procedures implemented in organizations worldwide -Fortune 500 companies -Among Fortune 1000, some noteworthy companies do not have domestic partner benefits or nondiscrimination clauses for gay employees

Religion

-Federal laws -Islam -Faith can be an employment issue wherever religious beliefs profits or encourage certain behaviors *Behavioral expectations* - informal, systemic, expressing beliefs at work place

Cultural identity

-Link with the culture of family ancestry or youth that lasts a lifetime, no matter where the individual may live in the world *Global integration and changing labor markets* - understand and respect cultural identifies of employees -Changing national labor markets -create as much of an individualized approach to practices and norms as possible

Relational job design

-Make jobs more pro-socially motivating to people -Connect employees with beneficiaries of work by relating stories from customers who have found company's products or services to be helpful -Connect employees directly with beneficiaries

Job rotation

-Periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with similar skill requirements at the same organizational level (cross-training) -Reduces boredom -increases motivation -helps employees understand how work contributes to organization -Increased training costs, reduces productivity, time

Improving customer service

-Show how employee attitudes and behavior influence customer satisfaction -Guidance in helping mangers create customer-friendly cultures

Management by objectives (MBO)

-Systematic way to utilize goal setting -1970s -emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable -because lower-unit managers jointly participate in setting their own goals, MBO works from bottom up as well as from top down -hierarchy that links objectives from one level to those at next *MBO programs* -Goal specificity -Participation in decision making -Explicit time period -Performance feedback •advocates *participation*, whereas goal-setting theory demonstrates that managers' assigned goals are usually just as effective

Tenure

-Time spent in a job, organization, or field *Seniority* - time on a particular job; positively related to productivity *Tenure* - work experience; good predictor for employee productivity -Seniority negatively related to absenteeism -Potent variable in explaining turnover -Tenure at an employee's previous job is a powerful predictor of that employee's future turnover -Positively related to job satisfaction

Few absolutes in OB

-because we are not alike, ability to make generalizations is limited *contingency variables* - x leads to y, but only under conditions specified in z

Organizational justice

-fairness in work place -concerned with how employees feel authorities and decision makers treat them •Linked to higher levels of task performance and citizenship behaviors •Fair treatment enhances commitment to organization and makes employees feel it cares about their well being •Employees who feel fairly treated trust their supervisors more, reducing uncertainty and fear of being exploited •Fair treatment elicits positive emotions which prompts citizenship behaviors

Importance of interpersonal skills

-generate superior financial performance -help organizations attract/retain high performing employees -quality of workplace relationships, employee job satisfaction, stress, turnover

Psychology - individual level

-measure, explain, and sometimes change behavior of humans and other animals -learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs/motivational forces, job satisfaction, decision-making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement, employee-selection techniques, work design, job stress

Sociology

-people in relation to their social environment or culture -formal and complex organizations -organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, organizational technology, communications, power, conflict

Organizational behavior (OB)

-people skills -field of study that investigates impact individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness -understand and predict human behavior *determinants of behavior in organizations* 1) individuals 2) groups 3) structure -employment related situations

Social psychology

-peoples' influence on one another -how to implement change and reduce barriers to its acceptance -measuring, understanding, changing attitudes -identifying communication patterns: building trust; group behavior, power, conflict

Implications of personality on managers

-screen job candidates for high conscientiousness -use MBTI in training and development to help employees understand themselves, each other, open up communication, reduce conflicts -evaluate employees' jobs, work groups, organizations to determine optimal personality fit -consider employees' situational factors when evaluating observable personality traits; lower situation strength to better personality characteristics -take into consideration different cultures to determine work behavior and create positive organizational climate

McClelland's Theory of Needs

1.*Need for achievement (nAch)* - drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards 2.*Need for power (nPow)* - need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise 3.*Need for affiliation (nAff)*- desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships •When jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated •High need to achieve does not necessarily make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations •Managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation

Effective diversity programs

1.Teach managers about legal framework/equal employment opportunity and encourage fair treatment of all people 2.Teach managers how diverse workforce will be better able to serve diverse market 3.Foster personal development practices that bring out skills/abilities of workers, acknowledging how differences in perspective can be a valuable way to improve performance for everyone •fair treatment *Diversity experiences more likely to lead to positive adaptation for all parties if:* -Diversity experience undermines stereotypical attitudes -Perceiver is motivated and able to consider a new perspective -Perceiver engages in stereotype suppression and generative thought in response to diversity experience -positive experience of stereotype undermining is repeated frequently •Leaders should examine workforce to determine whether target groups have been underutilized •Improve recruiting practices, make selection systems more transparent, provide training for employees who have not had adequate exposure to certain material in past •Communicate policies and practices to employees •Communications should focus on qualifications and job performance

Intellectual abilities

Abilities needed to perform mental activities - thinking, reasoning, problem solving *7 dimensions* 1.*number aptitude* - ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic 2.*verbal comprehension* - ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other 3.*perceptual speed* - ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately 4.*inductive reasoning* - ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem 5.*deductive reasoning* - ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument 6.*spatial visualization*- ability to imagine how an object would look it its position in space were change 7.*memory* - ability to retain and recall past experiences •Intelligence dimensions are positively related •*General mental ability (GMA)* - general factor of intelligence; generalize across cultures

Job sharing

Allows two or more individuals to split a traditional forty-hour-a-week-job

Chapter 3

Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Job enrichment

Expands jobs by increasing degree to which worker controls planning, execution, and evaluation of work *Combining tasks* - put fractionalized tasks back together to form new and larger module of work *Forming natural work units* - makes employee's task an identifiable and meaningful whole *Establishing client relationships* - increases direct relationship between workers and clients *Expanding jobs vertically* - gives employees responsibilities and control formerly reserved for management *Opening feedback channels* - lets employees know how well they are doing and whether performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining constant -Mutual assistance programs -Reduces absenteeism and turnover costs and increases satisfaction

Ability

Individual's current capacity to perform the various tasks in a job

Chapter 5

Personality and Values

The Dark Triad

Socially undesirable traits everyone has in varying degrees that are relevant to OB 1.*Machiavellianism* -Pragmatic, maintains emotional distances, believes ends justify means -Manipulate more, win more, persuaded less, persuade others -Act aggressively, engage in counterproductive work behaviors -Does not significantly predict overall job performance -Lose in long term because not well liked 2.*Narcissism* •A person who has a grandiose self of self-importance, requires excessive admiration, has sense of entitlement, arrogant •More charismatic •Leaders and managers •More adaptable, better business decisions when complex •Likely to be perceived as ineffective and unethical •CEOs or celebrities 3.*Psychopathy* •Lack of concern for others, lack of guilty or remorse when actions cause harms •Measures attempt to asses person's motivation to comply with social norms -Willingness to use deceit to obtain desired ends and effectiveness of efforts -Impulsivity -Disregard - lack of emphatic concern -Little correlation between performance -Antisocial personality -Use of hard influence tactics and bullying work behavior -ADA concerns

Affect

broad range of feelings that people experience

Diversity management

makes everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others

Interpersonal justice

perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect ("When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary")

Distributive justice

perceived fairness of outcome ("I got the pay I received")

Procedural justice

perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome ("I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did")

Telecommuting

working at home at least 2 days a week on a computer linked to the employer's office

Terminal versus Instrumental Values

• *Terminal values* - desirable end states; goals a person would like to achieve during lifetime (prosperity, economic success, freedom, etc.) • *Instrumental values* - preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values (autonomy, self reliance, personal discipline, etc.)

The Importance and Organization of Values

• Augment decision making • Cloud objectivity and rationality

Values

• Basic convictions that "a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existent" • Judgmental element • *Content attribute* - mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important • *Intensity attribute* - specifies how important it is • *Value system* - rank values in terms of intensity • Values are stable and enduring, established in early years, links to personality

Creative positive work environment

•*Positive organizational scholarship* - studies how organizations develop human strengths, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential •Engagement, hope, optimism, resilience in face of strain •"reflected best self"

Emotional labor

•*emotional labor* - employee's expression of organizationally desire emotions during interpersonal transactions at work •*felt emotions* - actual emotions •*displayed emotions* - those that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job •*surface acting* - hiding inner feelings and emotional expressions in response to display rules; displayed emotions •*deep acting - trying to modify true inner feelings based on display rules; felt emotions *emotional dissonance* - disparity when employees have to project one emotion while feeling another *mindfulness* - learning to objectively evaluate emotional situation in the moment; beneficial to employee well-being

Improving ethical behavior

•*ethical dilemmas and ethical choices* - identify right and wrong conduct •create environment to do work productively with minimal ambiguity about right versus wrong behaviors

Approach-avoidance

•Cast personality traits as motivations •Represent degree to which we react to stimuli •*Approach motivation* - attraction to positive stimuli •*Avoidance motivation* - aversion to negative stimuli •Organizes traits and may help explain how they predict work behavior •How core self evaluations affect job satisfaction •Addresses multiple motives when we act (competitive pressures invoke approach motivation and avoidance motivation) •Way individual performs depends on which of the motivations dominates *Unresolved issues* -Does it only categorize positive and negative traits? -What traits fit into framework? -Might be missing other insights into behavior by aggregating

Case against EI

•EI researchers do not agree on definitions •EI can't be measured - personality; general intelligence •EI is nothing but personality with a different label

Sex

•Few important differences b/w men and women affect job performance •Stereotypes •Managers still influenced by gender bias when selecting candidates for certain positions •Females less likely to be assigned challenging positions by men •Women succeeding in male domains perceived as less likable, hostile, less desirable as supervisors; can be countered by effective interpersonal skills •Women believe sex based discrimination is more prevalent than do male employees •Women earn less money than men for the same positions ("glass escalator") •*"maternal wall bias"* - not considered for new positions after having children •men and women face discrimination for family caregiving roles •*sexual harassment* - higher levels of psychological stress, lower levels of org commitment and job satisfaction, higher intentions to leave

Enhancing employee well-being at work

•Flexibility in work schedules •Reduce work-life conflicts

Responding to economic pressures

•Good times - reward, satisfy, retain employees •Bad times - stress, decision making, coping

Proactive personality

•Identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, persevere until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who passively react to situations •Higher levels of job performance and career success •Affected by context •Knowing when to step back and reconsider alternatives in face of failure •Individual and team performance

Moderating variables

•Importance of attitude •Correspondence to behavior •Accessibility •Presence of social pressures •Whether person has direct experience with attitude

Goal-Setting Theory

•Impressive effects of goal specificity, challenge, and feedback on performance •Intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation •Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed •Specific goals produce higher level of output •If factors such as acceptance of goals are held constant, the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance Why? -Challenging goals get our attention and help us focus -Difficult goals energize us because we have to work harder to attain them -discover strategies that help us perform the job/task more effectively •People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals b/c helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do next -Self-generated feedback is most powerful Three factors influence goals-performance relationship: 1) *Goal commitment* 2) *Task characteristics* 3) *National culture* •Assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it; individual believes 1) He can achieve the goal 2) Wants to achieve it -Most likely to occur when goals are made public, self-set, and based at least partially on individual ability •Managers should make goals aligned with company objectives •People differ in way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors during goal pursuit *Promotion focus* - strive for advancement and accomplishment; approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals *Prevention focus* - strive to fulfill duties/obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals

Responding to globalization

•Increased foreign assignments - understand new culture and workforce and demonstrate cultural sensitivity •Working with people from different cultures - culture, geography, religion •Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor - balance interests of organizations with respect to communities •Adapting to different cultural and regulatory norms

Job Engagement

•Investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance •Degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work *determined by:* -job characteristics -access to sufficient resources to work effectively -match between individual's values and those of organization -leadership behaviors inspiring workers to a greater sense of mission *Critiques of engagement theory* -construct partially redundant with job attitudes like satisfaction or stress -dark side to engagement -loss of perspective

Diversity

•Managers must recognize and capitalize on differences to get most from their employees •Miscommunication, misunderstanding, conflict

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicators (MBTI)

•Most widely used personality-assessment instrument in world •100-question personality test asking how people usually feel or act in situations *classifications* -extraverted (E) vs. introverted (I) - outgoing, sociable, assertive vs. quiet, shy -sensing (S) vs. intuitive (N) - practical, routine, order, focus vs. unconscious processes, look at "big picture" -thinking (T) vs. feeling (F) - reason, logic vs. personal values, emotions -judging (K) vs. perceiving (P) - control, order, structure v. flexible, spontaneous •introverts - 50% of E/I responses *problems* -no in-between -reliability of measure -difficulty of interpretation -unrelated to job performance

Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

•Motivation-hygiene theory •The factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction •Managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation •*Hygiene factors* - quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others, job security - adequate •To motivate must emphasize factors associated with work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it (promotions, personal growth, recognition, etc. = intrinsically rewarding)

OB applications of emotions and moods

•Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new info *Selection* -Consider EI for jobs demanding high degree of social interaction -Select members predisposed to positive moods for teamwork *Decision Making* -Positive emotions/moods result in sound decisions, enhance problem solving skills -Depressed people slower at processing info and weigh all possible options rather than most likely ones *Creativity* -All activating moods, whether + or -, lead to more creativity -Managers should try to increase energy in workplace *Motivation* -Positive moods cause people to be more creative leading to positive feedback from those observing their work -Manager may enhance employee motivation and performance by encouraging good moods *Leadership* •Leaders in good mood - group members more positive; cooperate better •Leaders sad - increased analytic performance of followers through emotional contagion *Negotiation* -best negotiators remain emotionally detached *Customer Service* •Workers' emotional states influence customer service, influencing levels of repeat business and customer satisfaction •Emotional contagion - catching of emotions from others *Job Attitudes* •Relationship between moods and job attitudes is reciprocal - how workday goes colors moods; moods affect how we see our job *Deviant Workplace Behaviors* -Traced to negative emotions *Safety and Injury at Work* -Improve health and safety by ensuring workers aren't engaged in potentially dangerous activities when in a bad mood -Anxious, distractible

Age

•Relationship b/w age and job performance likely to be issue of increasing importance during next decade •Workforce is aging •Outlaw of mandatory retirement *Older people* -get less -less likely to quit job -lower absenteeism -research finds age and performance unrelated -more likely to engage in organization helping behavior; incentives (higher wages, longer vacations, pension benefits) •Job satisfaction increases up to middle age and begins to drop off •Age discrimination negatively affects org culture and overall company performance, lower levels of employee commitment to company, lower levels of org performance •Workforce of age-diverse employees is beneficial

Self-Efficacy Theory

•Social cognitive theory/social learning theory •individual's belief that he is capable of performing a task •Higher self-efficacy the more confidence you have in ability to succeed and try harder to master the challenge •Managers will increase employees' motivation by increasing confidence in successfully completing the task *Four ways self efficacy can be increased* 1) *Enactive mastery* - gaining relevant experience with task/job 2) *Vicarious modeling* - becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task 3) *Verbal persuasion* - becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful 4) *Pygmalion effect/Galatea effect* - form of self fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true - Arousal - leads to energized state, so person gets psyched up and performs better

Trait activation theory (TAT)

•Some situations, events, interventions "activate" a trait more than others •*Commission-based compensation plan* - likely activate individuals differences in extraversion because extraversion is more reward-sensitive than openness •*Jobs allowing creativity* - individual differences in openness may better predict creative behavior than individual differences in extraversion •*Negative effect* - Feature of environment activated trait, and combination of two result in lower job performance •*Positive effect* - supportive environment, people behaved pro socially •Nature and nurture

Hofstede's framework

•Survey of more than 116,000 IBM employees in 40 countries about work-related values •Found mangers and employees vary on 5 value dimensions of national culture 1) *Power distance* -degree to which people in a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally -high rating - large inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in culture (class, caste system) -low rating - societies that stress equality/opportunity 2) *individualism vs. collectivism* -individualism - degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups and believe individual rights -collectivism - tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them 3) *masculinity vs. femininity* -masculinity - degree to which culture favors traditional masculine roles (achievement, power, control); high rating = separate roles for men and women -high femininity rating - equal 4) *uncertainty avoidance* -degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations -high score - people have increased level of anxiety about uncertainty and ambiguity and use laws and controls to reduce uncertainty -low score - accepting of ambiguity, less rule oriented, take risks, readily accept change 5) *long-term vs. short-term orientation* -measures society's devotion to traditional values -look to future and value thrift, persistence, tradition 6) *short term orientation* -accept change more readily and don't see commitments as impediments to change *criticism* -original work more than 40 years old; based on single company -few researchers read details of methodology closely; unaware of decisions and judgment calls -found all dimensions to be strong predictors of relevant outcomes -found measuring individual scores resulted in better predictions of most outcomes than assigning all people in country same cultural values -valuable way of thinking about differences among people, but be cautious about generalizations

Attracting, selecting, developing, retaining diverse employees

•Target recruiting messages to specific demographic groups underrepresented in workforce •fairness and objectivity in selecting employees -focus on productive potential of new recruits •Create diversity climate •Diversity training programs and research efforts •Best programs inclusive of all employees in design and implementation

Emotion regulation

•To identify and modify felt emotions •Strategies people employ to change emotions -*Surface acting* - minimal regulation effect -*Deep acting* - minimal regulation effect -Acknowledging rather than suppressing emotional responses to situations, and reevaluating events after they occur -Venting •Best leaders manage emotions as much as they do tasks and activities

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

•Within every human being, there exits a hierarchy of 5 needs •As each need becomes satisfied, the next one becomes dominant 1.*Physiological* - hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, other bodily needs 2.*Safety* - security and protection from physical/emotional harm 3.*Social* - affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship 4.*Esteem* - internal factors such as self respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention 5.*Self-actualization* - drive to become what we are capable of becoming; growth, achieving potential, self-fulfillment

Defining motivation

•the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal 1.*Intensity*- how hard a person tries 2.*Direction* - quality of effort 3.*Persistence* - measures long a person can maintain effort

Demographic characteristics of US workforce

•Women today more likely to be employed full time, have an advanced education, earn wages comparable to men, both in US and abroad •Earnings gap b/w whites and other racial/ethnic groups decreased, differences between whites and Asians have fluctuated •Hispanics, blacks, Asians increasing •Workers over age of 55 large portion of workforce •Organizations need to make diversity management a central component of policies and practices *HR concerns* -Aging of workforce -Loss of skills resulting from retirement of many baby boomers, increased medical costs, and need to enhance cross cultural understanding -Increased global competition for talent -Complexity of meeting legal HR requirements

Managing workforce diversity

•Workforce of women and men, many racial and ethnic groups, individuals with variety of physical or psychological abilities, different ages and sexual orientation

Affective events theory (AET)

•employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction work environment (characteristics of job, job demands, requirements for emotional labor) --> work events (daily hassles, daily uplifts) ; personal dispositions (personality, mood) --> emotional reactions (positive, negative) --> job satisfaction, job performance

Diversity in groups

•establish common way of looking at and accomplishing major tasks -frequent communication •Demographic diversity does not hurt/help team performance •Teams highly intelligent, conscientious, and interested members more effective (diversity bad on these variables) •Groups of individuals with different types of expertise/education more effective •Differences can be leveraged to achieve superior performance •Emphasize similarities among members •Leaders must show common interest of group's success •Leaders who emphasize goals and values in leadership style more effective

The Big Five personality model

•five basic dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality *Big Five factors* *1) Extraversion* -Captures our comfort level with relationships -Extraverts - gregarious, assertive, sociable -Introverts - reserved, timid, quiet Why is it relevant? •Better interpersonal skills •Greater social dominance •More emotionally expressive What does it affect? •Higher performance •Enhanced leadership •Higher job and life satisfaction *2) Agreeableness* -An individual's propensity to defer to others -Highly agreeable people - cooperative, warm, trusting -Not agreeable - cold, disagreeable, antagonistic Why is it relevant? •Better liked •More compliant and conforming What does it affect? •Higher performance •Lower levels of deviant behavior *3) Conscientiousness* -A measure of reliability -Highly conscientious - responsible, organized, dependable, persistent -Low score - easily distracted, disorganized, unreliable Why is it relevant? •Greater effort and persistence •More drive and discipline •Better organized and planning What does it affect? •Higher performance •Enhanced leadership •Greater longevity 4)*Emotional stability* -Converse, neuroticism -Taps a person's ability to withstand stress -Positive - calm, self confident, secure -Negative - nervous, anxious, depressed, insecure Why is it relevant? •Less negative thinking, fewer negative emotions •Less hyper-vigilant What does it affect? •Higher job and life satisfaction •Lower stress levels 5)*Openness to experience* -Addresses range of interests and fascination with novelty -Open people - creative, curious, artistically sensitive -Closed people - conventional, comfort in familiar Why is it relevant? •Increased learning •More creative •More flexible and autonomous What does it affect? •Training performance •Enhanced leadership •More adaptable to change

Self-monitoring

•individual's ability to adjust her behavior to external, situational factors *High self monitors* -adaptability in adjusting behavior to external situational factors -play closer attention to behavior of others -conforming -high performance ratings -leaders -less commitment to organizations -mobile -promotions -occupy central positions *Low self monitors* - display true dispositions and attitudes in every situation

International values: comparison of Hofstede's framework and GLOBE framework

•more emphasis to Hofstede's dimensions b/c have stood test of time and GLOBE confirmed them •both suggest that organizational commitment tends to be lower in individualistic countries

Employee involvement

•participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to organizational success *Participative management* - joint decision making, in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate superiors *Representative management* - redistributes power within an organization, putting labor on a more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders by letting workers be represented by a small group of employees who participate in decision making (work councils, board representatives) Potential to increase intrinsic motivation

Person-organization fit

•people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities •following guidelines at time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduce turnover

Self-determination theory (Marcia)

•people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation •*Cognitive evaluation theory*- extrinsic rewards will reduce intrinsic interest in a task •*Self-concordance* - considers how strongly people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values; more meaningful if pursue goals for intrinsic rewards

Emotional intelligence (EI)

•person's ability to -perceive emotions in the self and others -understand the meaning of these emotions -regulate one's emotions accordingly in a cascading model •people who know their own emotions and are good at reading others' emotions may be more effective in their jobs

Implications for managers

•resist inclination to rely on generalizations •use metrics and situational variables rather than hunches to explain cause-and-effect relationships •work on interpersonal skills to increase leadership potential •improve technical skills and conceptual skills through training and staying current w/ trends like big data

Expectancy theory

•strength of our tendency to act a certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its attractiveness *Effort-performance relationship* -Probability perceived by individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance *Performance-reward relationship* -Degree to which individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome *Rewards-personal goals relationship* -Degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential reward for the individual *Example thought process* 1) If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? 2) If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? 3) If I'm rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?

Situation strength theory

•the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation •Degree to which norms, cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior •*Strong situations*- pressure to exhibit right behavior •*Weak situations* - freer to express personality in behaviors *Four elements* 1) *Clarity* -Degree to which cues about work duties/responsibilities are available and clear High clarity jobs - produce strong situations 2) *Consistency* -Extent to which cues regarding work duties and responsibilities are compatible with one another -High consistency jobs - strong situations because all cues point toward same behavior 3) *Constraints* -Extent to which individuals' freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control -Many constraints - strong situations because individual has limited discretion 4) *Consequences* -Degree to which decisions/actions have important implications for organization or its members, clients, supplies, etc. -Important consequences - strong situations b/c environment heavily structured to guard mistakes *Cons of strong situation organizations* - dull, demotivating, people differ, might suppress creativity, initiative, discretion prized by some cultures; problems in complex, interrelated culturally diverse systems