India

Mughals

(Mongols). Final wave of Muslim invaders; descendents of Genghis Khan. Ruled relatively unified India from 16th c for several hundred years. Rule weakened by 18th c due to Hindu and Sikh dissatisfaction and expanding Western imperialism.

Indian National Congress (INC)

AKA Congress or the Congress Party, founded in 1885, embodied anti-colonial independence movement before but alongside MUSLIM LEAGUE. Historically ruled by NEHRU dynasty. Nehru pursued social democratic policy: secularism for equal religious opportunity, social reform to eliminate caste discrimination and social democratic economic reform (affirmative action income redistribution and state ownership of key economic sectors). But INDIRA moved away from religious neutrality with Hindu nationalism, and her son Rajiv launched neoliberal economic reforms. Lost dominance in late 1980s and has since vied with Hindu nationalist coalitions (like the BJP) for government control. Recently appealed more to India's peasantry in nod to previous democratic socialism (NEHRU) and populism (INDIRA). Voters expressed dissatisfaction with Congress in the 2014 election, handing the BJP the win.

Center

India's national government and its capital in New Delhi. Devolution has allowed regional political parties and their states to wrest signifcant amounts of its authority. Two controversial constitutional powers lend it power: EMERGENCY RULE and PRESIDENTIAL RULE.

Sonia Gandhi

Italian-born widow of Rajiv Gandhi (INDIRA's son). President of INC at time of its surprise return to office in 2004 and reelection in 2009. Would have been logical choice as PM, but the BJP made her foreign birth a divisive campaign issue, so she stepped aside for SINGH.

Armritsar

Location of Sikhism's holiest shrine: the Golden Temple. INDIRA launched military operation here on the Sikh separatists' firebrand leader and 1000 of his militant followers, killing them all. Months later, her Sikh bodyguards assassinated her in vengeance, sparking thousands of Hindu killings of Sikhs throughout India.

House of the People

Lower and more powerful house of legislature. Despite enormous size, India's population remains relatively underrepresented, as each rep serves nearly 2 million people. Like the British lower house, serves primarily as a chamber of debate between government and opposition with "question hour". Increasingly important political role with the emergence of coalition governments and strengthening of regional parties.

Chief Minister

Makes up elected state government alongside local legislature. Elected by state legislature to serve 5 year term; can be removed from office by vote of no confidence.

emergency rule

Martial law, suspension/limit of constitutional freedoms authorized by constitution during "grave emergency" when India faces either external or internal threats. INDIRA declared it in 1975 to cease riots and improve economic efficiency, as well as to stifle her political opponents.

Indira Gandhi

NEHRU's daughter, took leadership of a more narrow INC 2 years after his death, in 1966. First female PM. Far more authoritarian; created party divide between supporters and detractors. Popularity declining in the 70s, resorted to populist campaign to abolish poverty, but global oil crisis reversed many of its early economic gains, resulting in riots and protests of the dangerous dictatorship of the "Indira raj". To regain control, she declared EMERGENCY RULE and for two years riots ceased and India improved in economic efficiency, but her strict authoritarian measures chilled democracy and prompted widespread silent opposition. After, she held an election and, at first defeated by the Janata party, was reelected by popular support due to her order and efficiency. Faced ever greater demands for devolution of central authority and an independent Sikh state; declared PRESIDENTIAL RULE in 1984. Then launched military operation on AMRITSAR against Sikh separatists, and was killed months later by her Sikh guards in retaliation. Created basis for political opposition, and thus, democracy.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Part of younger generation of well-educated leaders of independence movement schooled in socialism and democracy. Succeeded GANDHI as leader of INC and became independent India's first PM. Died in 1964, and with his death the INC lost a degree of its broad regional, caste, and religious support. Legacy of national inclusion and consensus building, sharply contrasted by the following rule of daughter INDIRA.

Naxalism

Radical Maoist-leftist (guerrilla communist) political movement. Originated in West Bengal in the late 1960s. Has grown in recent decades, especially in the rural areas of poorer Indian states. Recruits are drawn primarily from low castes, outcastes, and tribal natives who have not benefited from India's recent, dramatic economic growth.

Kashmir

Region that demonstrates linguistic/ethno-religious conflict between Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India over territory, as well as the way that ethnic groups wield mechanisms of state authority to assert state interests against the federal government (asymmetric federalism). During partition, it was dominated by Urdu-speaking Muslims whose sentiments leaned toward Pakistan but ruled by a Hindu prince who hoped to remain independent. A series of armed conflicts followed, and the nation remains the most militarized border dispute, amidst ongoing violent protests for greater autonomy, or independence from/unification with Pakistan.

Hinduism

Religion that is fusion of customs, philosophical ideas, and religious beliefs of Indo-Aryans and Dravidians. Governs not just worship but all aspects of life: birth, death, marriage, eating, and livelihood. Traditions: polytheism, reincarnation, political caste hierarchy.

Hindutva

"Hindu-ness" promoted by the BJP as India's primary national identity and ideal, often at the expense of the Muslim population.

raj

"rule". Seen in the case of new, strict British rule after the SEPOY MUTINY, under which there were calls for permanent British dominance of India.

Dalits

"suppressed groups": modern, formal name of India's outcastes- previously called UNTOUCHABLES. Have their own political party and constitute one of India's largest mass movements. The Indian government has established affirmative action programs to reserve for them jobs, scholarships, and even seats in parliament. The CHIEF MINISTER of Uttar Pradesh, Mayawati, is one, and was able to draw from a huge reservoir of support among others who saw her as a harbinger of change to create a virtual personality cult.

Sepoy Mutiny

1857-58 revolt backed by Indian aristocracy and carried out by sepoys (Indian soldiers employed by the British) catalysed by growing economic frustration, political awareness, and national identity, and incited by the sepoys' revelation that their British-issued guns fired bullets greased in pork lard (offensive to Muslims) or beef tallow (to Hindus). Failed due to division by British design and religious animosity b/t the two groups. Failure convinced many Indians that national unity was required to obtain independence, and the British that harsher rule was required; EAST INDIA CO replaced 1858).

Partition

1947 British creation of Pakistan from the two regions of the subcontinent most heavily populated by Muslims (West and East Pakistan). Remaining 80% of colony was independent India. Led to uprooting of more than 12 million refugees- Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus/Sikhs to India. Around 1 million killed in the resulting chaos, including GANDHI.

Green Revolution

1960s and 70s technological enhancement/innovation of crops and cropping methods. Improved production dramatically (esp. in arid northwest). India's rapidly growing population is still dependent on ag economy: "gamble on rains."

Untouchables

At bottom of/outside of varna caste system. Those who performed unclean duties or were aboriginals living outside village life (tribals). Touch or even shadow of outcasts was polluting. GANDHI worked ceaselessly on their behalf. 1950 constitution banned this status and enacts affirmative action to improve their lives.

Sikhism

Branch of Islam introduced to India by Muslim invaders in the 8th century. shares beliefs and practices with Hindu and Muslim faiths. Sowed animosity among India's Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs.

Mahatma Gandhi

British-trained lawyer brought to leadership of CONGRESS and broader independence movement by 1919 massacre of unarmed civilians by British troops. Practiced tactics of revolutionary truth, love, and nonviolent resistance. Devout Hindu lifestyle, led nationalist movement. Believed that western industrial civilization must be rejected in favor of simpler life. Used protests and nationwide boycotts of British commercial imports to garner nat/int'l attention and support.

license raj

Bureaucratic red tape requiring licensing and approval processes to operate a business or import/export products. As India trends more towards market liberalization and away from mercantilism, governments have sought to weaken it. Legacy of extensive British colonial civil service and later of independent India's state bureaucracy.

Ayodhya

City in northern India; location of the Babri Mosque, built by MUGHALS on site alleged to be birthplace of Hindu god Ram. Muslims and Hindus both view it as sacred and thus, controversial. In 1992, it was destroyed by BJP supporters and other Hindu extremists who vowed to rebuild it as a Hindu shrine. This ignited days of Hindu-Muslim rioting and the killing of many Indians across the country.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

Coalition government; INC's strongest opposition. In government since the 2014 general election. Articulates Hindu nationalist vision alternative to the notion of a secular India established by the INC upon independence. Initially drew support from upper-caste Hindu groups, but has since attracted Hindus of all castes under premise of Hindu nationalism. Galvanized by 1992 destruction of the Babri Mosque in AYODHYA. Despite divisive Hindu nationalist rhetoric and anti-muslim fundamentalism, it has governed relatively moderately to retain coalition partners and to promote national economic growth and stable relations with neighbors. Current PM/leader: MODI, who has brought economic growth but faces criticism for not preventing violent anti-Muslim attacks.

Manmohan Singh

Country's first Sikh PM, took place of SONIA GANDHI as leader of INC due to her foreign birth. Congress-led coalition governed 2 full terms (2004-2014) with much influence from Sonia.

Narendra Modi

Current BJP PM since 2014 and former successful and controversial governor of GUJARET. Popular Hindu nationalist, led BJP to first outright parliamentary majority for any party in 30 years. Has formed a government armed with strong mandate to carry out bold reforms.

nabob game

Exploitative strategy used by the EAST INDIA COMPANY of setting up puppet MUGHAL governors, known as nabobs, with British merchant advisors at their side. Greatly facilitated the plundering of Indian wealth and resources.

import substitution industrialization

Foreign policy of mercantilist economic nationalism used alongside restriction of foreign investment and trade for nearly four decades after independence. This and other social democratic policies made India one of the largest agricultural producers in the world by the 1970s. Also established a large middle class and enabled some economic niches and regions to prosper. Eventually gave way to liberalization.

Muslim League

Founded in 1906, embodied anti-colonial movement alongside INC.

East India Company

Granted a monopoly charter by the British Crown in 1600. Imperial strategy of commercial exploitation: cultivating trade, exploiting cheap labor, and controlling entire principalities through NABOB GAME.

Caste

Societal divide based on birth, region, occupation, and social obligations. Two kinds of social division: jati- thousands of separate occupational and regional groups and subgroups that make up Indian society (Gandhi=greengrocer) and varnas- 4 broader castes (priests, warriors/rulers, traders/merchants, and peasants/laborers) and the untouchables. Became increasingly rigid over time with British efforts to enhance social order.

Kerala

State in far south of India that supports leftist parties that work within democratic system.

Council of States

Upper house of India's legislature, represents India's states and territories. Technically has most of the same powers as the HOUSE OF THE PEOPLE, but in practice has been much weaker.

Gujaret

Western Indian state in which lies the city of Godhra, where in 2002, on the 10th anniversary of the Babri Mosque destruction, Muslims set fire to rail cars carrying Hindu activists back from a ceremony at AYODHYA, killing 58 people. Hindu retaliatory violence killed thousands. This instance and resulting communal violence have polarized political support .

outsourcing

When foreign firms move some of their business transactions to another country. Most prominent example in India is call centers. Prompted by large english speaking population, and a growing part of India's economy.

Hindi

most common Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India. It and english are the only two national languages.

presidential rule

state-level equivalent of EMERGENCY RULE, also constitutionally authorized; permits federal government to oust state government and assume national control of that state. INDIRA declared it in 1984 to face calls for devolution and an independent Sikh state. Employed by national gov'ts on 100+ occasions in the face of ethnic unrest or local resistance. Occasionally imposed for political expediency, but nonetheless an important and generally legitimate tool of central government.